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Scientific  American 
Reference  Book 


Compiled   by 
Albert   A.   Hopkins 

and 

A.   Russell    Bond 


Munn    Sf     Company,     Publishers 

Scientific    American    Offices 

New  York 

19O5 


•c 


Copyright,    1904,    by 
MUNN  &   COMPANY 

All  rights  reserved 


PRESS  OF 

ANDREW    H.    KELLOGG   CO. 
NEW   YORK 


PREFACE. 


THE  Editor  of  the  SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  receives  during  the  year 
thousands  of  inquiries  from  readers  and  correspondents  covering 
a  wide  range  of  topics.  The  information  sought  for,  in  many  cases,  can 
not  readily  be  found  in  any  available  reference  or  text-book.  It  has  been 
decided,  therefore,  to  prepare  a  work  which  shall  be  comprehensive 
in  character  and  which  shall  contain  a  mass  of  information  not  readily 
procured  elsewhere.  The  very  wide  range  pif -topics  covered  in  the 
SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  EEFERENCE  BOOK  may  be  inferred  by  examining 
the  index  and  table  of  contents.  This  work  has  been  made  as  non- 
technical as  the  subjects  treated  of  will  admit,  and  is  intended  as  a 
ready  reference  book  for  the  home  and  the  office.  It  is  possible  that 
in  some  of  the  tables  published  in  the  book  certain  inconsistencies 
may  be  observed.  Such  a  condition  of  affairs  is  in  some  cases  in- 
evitable. In  procuring  the  figures,  for  example,  from  different  De- 
partments of  the  Government,  with  reference  to  any  subject,  it  has 
been  found  that  statistics  vary  in  certain  particulars.  These  variations 
are  due  to  the  different  methods  of  tabulation,  or  to  some  different 
system  by  means  of  which  the  figures  have  been  arrived  at.  In  a 
number  of  cases  these  discrepancies  will  be  noted  in  the  book,  but  they 
are  not  to  be  regarded  as  errors. 

The  debt  for  advice  and  help  has  been  a  heavy  one.  The  com- 
pilation of  this  book  would  have  been  impossible  without  the  cordial 
cooperation  of  government  officials,  who  have  been  most  kind.  Our 
thanks  are  especially  due  to  the  Hon.  0.  P.  Austin,  Chief  of  the 
Bureau  of  Statistics,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor;  to  the 
Hon.  S.  N.  D.  North,  Director  of  the  Census ;  Prof.  John  C.  Monaghan, 
Editor  of  the  Consular  Reports;  Hon.  Eugene  Tyler  Chamberlain, 
Commissioner  Bureau  of  Navigation;  Dr.  Marcus  Benjamin,  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution ;  Major  W.  D.  Beach,  IT.  S.  A.,  of  the  General 
Staff;  Rear- Admiral  Charles  O'Neil,  late  Chief  of  Bureau  of 

130380 


Ordnance,,  U.  S.  N". ;  Hon.  S.  I.  Kimball,  General  Superintendent, 
Life  Saving  Service;  the  Director  of  the  Mint,,  Capt.  Seaton 
Schroeder,  U.  S.  N"v  Chief  Intelligence  Officer,  U.  S.  N. ;  many  ex- 
aminers in  the  Patent  Office;  Hon.  Willis  L.  Moore,  Chief  of  the 
Weather  Bureau ;  many  officials  of  the  Agricultural  Department ;  Hon. 
Carroll  D.  Wright,  Commissioner  Bureau  of  Labor ;  Hon.  George  M. 
Bowers,  and  Mr.  A.  B.  Alexander,  of  the  Bureau  of  Fisheries;  Prof. 
Charles  Baskerville,  Ph.D.;  Edward  W.  Byrn,  of  Washington;  Dr. 
George  F.  Kunz,  Hon.  S.  W.  Stratton,  of  the  Bureau  of  Standards, 
and  many  others. 

We  are  also  indebted  to  the  J.  B.  Lippincott  Co.  for  permission 
to  use  diagrams  of  Geometrical  Constructions;  to  Hazell's  Annual, 
Whittaker's  Almanac,  and  the  "  Daily  Mail  Year  Book/'  A  number 
of  our  diagrams  are  from  the  "  Universal-Taschen  Atlas  "  of  Prof  A. 
L.  Hichmann.  Our  matter  on  the  "  Arctic  Regions  "  is  translated 
from  Dr.  Hermann  Haack's  "  Geographen-Kalender."  For  a  number 
of  our  tables  we  must  thank  the  excellent  pocket  books  of  D.  K.  Clark 
and  Philip  R.  Bjorling,  and  we  are  also  indebted  to  the  Year  Book 
issued  by  our  esteemed  English  contemporary  "  Knowledge." 

It  is  hoped  that  this  work  will  save  many  fruitless  searches  through 
works  of  reference,  as  the  aim  of  the  compilers  has  been  to  obtain 
matter  which  is  not  readily  available  elsewhere. 

NEW  YORK,  October  15,  1904. 


CONTENTS. 


PART      I. 


CHAPTER    I. 
THE  PROGRESS  OF  DISCOVERY 1-16 


Division  into  Races. 

Total    Population   and   Area   of   the 

World. 

Languages  of  the  World. 
Progress  of  Discovery. 
The     Distribution     of     Land     and 

Water. 


The  Cultivation  of  Land  in  all  Con- 
tinents. 

The  Polar  Regions. 

The  Antarctic. 

The  Area  and  Population  of  all 
Countries. 

The  Great  Cities  of  the  World. 


CHAPTER   II. 
SHIPPING  AND  YACHTS 17-51 


Summary  of  Shipping. 

Number  and  Tonnage  of  Vessels. 

Large  and  Fast  Ocean  Steamers. 

Motive  Power  and  Material  of  Con- 
struction. 

Foreign  Carrying  Trade  of  the 
United  States. 

The  Panama  Route. 

Dimensions  of  the  Largest  Ocean 
Steamers. 

The  World's  Shipping  in  1903. 

The  Speeds  of  Ocean  Greyhounds. 

Record  of  Passengers  Landed. 

The  First  Steamboats. 

The  Largest  Steamship  Owners. 


Vessels  having  10,000  Tons  Dis- 
placement or  over. 

The  "  Baltic." 

Comparison  of  Locomotives  with  the 
"  Oceanic." 

The  Supplies  of  the  "  Deutsch- 
land." 

Provisioning  a  Liner. 

Steam  Turbines  and  Speed. 

The  Cost  of  Speed. 

U.  S.  Life-saving  Service. 

Disasters  involving  Loss  of  Life. 

Board  of  Life-saving  Appliances. 

The  Lighthouse  Establishment. 

From  Cruiser  to  Racing  Machine. 


CHAPTER    III. 
THE  NAVIES  OF  THE  WORLD 53-90 


Construction    and    Classification    of 

Warships. 

Navies  of  the  World  Compared. 
Relative  Strength  in  Materiel. 
Relative  Order  of  Warship  Strength. 
Sea  Strength  of  the  Principal  Naval 

Powers. 
Number    of    Torpedo    Vessels    and 

Submarines. 

Navies  of  the  World  in  Detail. 
Regulations  of  the  Naval  Academy. 


List  of  Ships  of  the  Navy. 

Submarine  Boats. 

The  Torpedo  Boat. 

Torpedoes. 

The  Interior  of  a  Battleship. 

The  Turret  of  a  Battleship. 

Submarine  Mines. 

Naval  Ammunition. 

Our   Naval   Guns  in   the   Civil 

and  To-day. 
Pay  of  Naval  and  Marine  Corps. 


War 


CHAPTER    IV. 
ARMIES  OF  THE  WORLD.  .  .  .91-116 


The  Army  of  the  United  States. 

Foreign  Armies. 

United  States  Military  Academy. 


Springfield  Magazine  Rifle. 
Sixteen-inch  Gun. 
Foreign  Armies. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER   V. 
RAILROADS  OF  THE  WORLD.  .  .  .117-136 


Railroads  of  the  World. 
Railway  Signals. 
Railroads  of  the  United  States. 
Street  and  Electric  Railroads. 


Railway  Gauges. 

Cape  to  Cairo  Railway. 

Trans-Siberian  Railway. 


CHAPTER    VI. 
POPULATION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  . . 


137-170 


Population  of  Each  State. 

Official  Census  of  the  United  States 

by  Counties. 

How  Population  is  Sheltered. 
Areas  of  States. 
Population  Living  in  Cities. 
Population   of    Cities   of   25,000    or 

over. 
Death  Rates. 


Foreign  Born  Population. 
Population  at  Work. 
Indians. 

Number  of  Pensioners. 
Immigration. 
Labor's  Death  Roll. 
Acnuisition  to  Territory  and  Center 
of  Population. 


CHAPTER   VII. 
EDUCATION,  LIBRARIES,  PRINTING,  AND  PUBLISHING 


171-184 


The  Value  of  an  Education. 
Number  of  Students  in  Schools  and 

Colleges. 
Libraries  of  the  United  States. 


Printing  and  Publishing. 

Raw     and     Finished     Products     in 

Printing. 
Libraries  of  the  World. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

TELEGRAPHS,  TELEPHONES,  SUBMARINE  CABLES,  WIRELESS  TELEGRAPHY. 

AND  SIGNALING  .  .  .185-209 


Land  Lines  of  the  World. 
Mileage  of  Lines  and  Wires. 
Morse  Code. 

Statistics  of  Telephone  Companies. 
Telegraphic  Time  Signals. 
Standard  Time. 
Variation  of  Time. 
Submarine  Telegraphs. 


Wireless  Telegraphy. 
International  Code  of  Signals. 
Distress  Signals. 
Weather  Bureau  Stations. 
Distant  Signals. 
Cyclones. 

Life-saving  Signals. 
Weather  Bureau. 


CHAPTER    IX. 
PATENTS . .  211-255 


Patents  in  Relation  to  Manufac- 
tures. 

Distinguished  Inventors. 

Progress  of  Inventions. 

General  Information  Regarding 
Patents. 


Abstracts  of  Decisions. 

Foreign  Patents. 

Patent  Laws  of  the  United  States. 

History    of    the    American    Patent 

System. 
Copyright  Law  of  the  United  States. 


CHAPTER  X. 

MANUFACTURES    257-309 

Localization  of  Industries.  Comparative   Summary   of   Power. 

Manufacturing  in  the  United  States.  Iron  and  Steel. 

Merchandise  Imported  and  Exported.  Value  of  Agricultural-  Implements. 

United  States  Trade  in  1903.  Summary  of  Progress. 

Motive  Power  Appliances. 


CONTENTS. 


vii 


CHAPTER    XL 

DEPARTMENTS  OF  THE  FEDERAL  GOVERNMENT 311-325 

Department  of  Justice.  Civil   Service  Commission. 

Department  of  State.  National  Academy  of  Sciences. 

Department  of  the  Treasury.  Interstate  Commerce  Commission. 

geSaSme'nf  ol  Agriculture.  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor. 

Post  Office  Department. 
Department  of  Navy. 
Department  of  the  Interior. 
Commissioner  of  Patents. 
Board  on  Geographic  Names. 


International  Bureau  of  American 
Republics. 

American  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Science. 

National  Debts. 


CHAPTER   XII. 
THE  POST  OFFICE 327-336 

The  United  States  Post  Office. 
Number  of  Post  Offices. 
Government   Expenditures. 


Postal   Information. 

The  Postal  Service  of  the  World. 

Suggestions  to  the  Public. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

INTERNATIONAL  INSTITUTIONS  AND  BUREAUS 337-342 

Publication      Customs 


The  Nobel   Prizes. 

The  Pollok  Prize. 

Court  of  Arbitration. 

Postal  Union. 

Bureau  of  Telegraphs. 

Bureau  of  Weights  and  Measures. 

Union  for  the  Protection  of  Indus- 
trial and  Literary  Property. 

Bureau  for  Repression  of  Slave 
Trade. 


Railroad     Transporta- 


Union      for 

Tariffs. 
Bureau     of 

tion. 

Bureau  of  Geodesy. 
Carnegie   "  Hero  "   Commission. 
Rhodes  Scholarships. 
Carnegie  Institution. 


CHAPTER   XIV. 
MINES  AND  MINING  .  .  .343-353 


Summary  of  the  Mineral  Production 
of  the  United  States. 


Mines  and  Quarries. 
Clay  Products. 


PART      II. 


CHAPTER    I. 
GEOMETRICAL  CONSTRUCTIONS  .  ..399-412 


Geometrical  Figures. 
Geometrical  Constructions. 


The  Circle. 

Formulas  for  the  Circle. 


CHAPTER    II. 
MACHINE  ELEMENTS  .  ..413-416 


CHAPTER    III. 
MECHANICAL  MOVEMENTS   .  ..417-441 


Toothed  Gear. 

Friction  Gear. 

Chain  Gear. 

Rope  Gear. 

Clutches. 

Angle  Shaft  Couplings  and  Universal 

Joints. 

Ratchet  Movements. 
Escapements. 


Gearing. 

Cams  and  Cam  Movements. 

Miscellaneous  Movements. 

Drafting  Devices. 

Governors. 

Springs. 

Belting. 

Types  of  Engines. 


viii 


CONTENTS. 


PART      III. 


CHAPTER    I. 

CHEMISTRY   443-452 

Prices  of  French  Radium. 

Points    of    Chemical     Ele- 


Table  of  Elements. 
International  Atomic  Weights. 
Common    Names    of    Chemical 

stances. 

Specific  Gravity. 
Thermometer  Scales. 
Value  of  Rare  Elements. 
Radium  and  Radio-Activity. 


Sub- 


Melting    Points    of 

ments. 
Boiling    Points    of     Chemical 

ments. 

Heat  of  Combustion. 
Si/es  of  Dry  Plates. 


Ele- 


CHAPTER    II. 
ASTRONOMY  .  ..453-464 


Astronomical   Summary. 
Astronomical   Symbols  and  Abbrevi- 
ations. 

Solar  System. 
Greek  Alphabet. 


Names  of  the  Principal  Stars. 
Magnitudes   and   Distances   of  some 

of  the  Stars. 
Star  Map  of  the  Heavens. 
Refractors  of  the  World. 


PART      IV. 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES.  .  .  .465-500 


Linear  Measure. 

Land  Measure,  Linear. 

Land  Measure,  Square. 

Geographical  and  Nautical  Meas- 
ure. 

Cubic  Measure. 

United  States  Dry  Measure. 

United   States  Liquid   Measure. 

Apothecaries'  Liquid  Measure 

Old  Wine  and  Spirit  Measure. 

Avoirdupois  Weight. 

Troy  Weight. 

Diamond  Measure. 

Household   Measures. 

Foreign  Weights  and  Measures. 

Decimal  System  of  Weights  and 
Measures. 

Approximate  Equivalent  of  French 
and  English  Measures. 

Table  of  Metric  Measures. 

French  and  English  Compound 
Equivalents. 

To  Reduce  Parts  to  Weight. 

Mensuration. 

Circular  Measure. 

Angular  Measure. 

Time. 

Table  of  Decimal  Equivalents. 

Bible  Weights  and  Measures. 

Jewish  Money. 

Roman  Money. 

Time  and  Watch  on  Ship. 

Specific  Gravity  of  Stones. 

Specific  Gravity  of  Mineral  Sub- 
stances. 

Specific  Gravity  of  Fuels. 

Specific  Gravity  of  Woods. 

Specific  Gravity  of  Animal  Sub- 
stances. 

Specific  Gravity  of  Vegetable  Sub- 
stances. 

Specific  Gravity  of  Liquids. 

Specific  Gravity  of  Gases. 

Units  of  Log  Measure. 

Cord  Measure. 

Hardness  of  Minerals. 

Heat — Its  Mechanical  Equivalent. 

Steam  Pressure  and  Temperature. 


Table  of  Temperature. 

Expansion  of  Solids. 

Expansion  of  Liquids. 

Strength  of  Materials. 

Friction. 

Water. 

Air. 

Strength  of  Ice. 

Weight  of  Balls. 

Pipes. 

Animal  Power. 

Manual  Power. 

Windmills. 

Force  of  Wind. 

Metals,  Weights  for  Various  Dimen- 
sions. 

Weight  of  Castings. 

Pulling  Strength  of  Men  and  Ani- 
mals. 

Boiler  Tubes. 

To  Obtain  Index  of  a  Lathe. 

Nails. 

Rules  on  Gearing. 

Rules  for  Pulley  Speed. 

Wall   Paper. 

Standard  Gauge  for  Plate. 

Electrical  Engineering. 

The  Ohm. 

C.  G.  S.  Electrical  Standards. 

Electromagnetic  System  of  Electric 
Units. 

Units  of  Force,  Pressure,  Work. 
Power. 

Resistance. 

Res'stance  of  Metals  in  Standard 
Ohms. 

Heat  and  Electrical  Conductivity. 

Resistance  and  Weight  Tables. 

Weight  per  Mile  of  Copper  Wire. 

Wire  Gauges. 

Weight  and  Length  of  Iron  and 
Steel  Wire. 

Electrical   Horse-power. 

Composition  of  Battery  Cells. 

Table  of  Height  and  Weight. 

Table  of  Mortality. 

Compound  Interest. 

Roman  Notation. 


*  *  *  *  *  *  * 
******** 

******* 

[******* 

•  t  ***** 


FLAG  OF  THE  PRESIDENT. 


U.S. FLAG. 


U.S.  UNION  JACK. 


REVENUEFLAG. 


BELGIUM. 


BRAZIL 


CHILE. 


CRETE. 


CUBA 


ECUADOR. 


FRANCE. 


AUSTRIA  -HUNGARY.  ARGENTINA. 


CHINA. 


COLOMBIA 


COSTA  RICA 


DENMARK  GERMANY 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 


ROYAL  NAVAL  RESERVE. 
(WITH  BADGE. 

:  AND  COIOWAL  GO«R»MEIIT  DEPARTMENTS  I 


GREECE. 


GUATEMALA. 


HAITI 


HONDURAS 


ITALY 


JAPAN 


* 


KONGO. 


KOREA 


LIBERIA. 


MOROCCO.  MADAGASCAR,  MUSCAT. 


= 


NETHERLANDS 


fci 


NICARAGUA 


IN  THE  MERCHANT  FUG 
THE  BADGE  IS  NEARER  THE  HOIST. 

PARAGUAY. 


PORTUGAL. 


TURKEY. TRIPOLI,  EGYPT. 


URUGUAY. 


GENEVA  CONVENTION. 


MEXICO. 


NORWAY 


PERSIA. 


p 

II 


PERU. 


ROUMANIA 


RUSSIA 


O 


SALVADOR 


SANTO  DOMINGO. 


S  I  A  M 


SPAIN 


SWEDEN 


VENEZUELA 


CHAPTER    I. 


PROGRESS     OF     DISCOVERY. 


DIVISIONS  INTO  RACES. 

RACE.  Location.  Number. 

Fndo-Germanic  or  Aryan Europe,  Persia,  India,  etc 545,500,000 

Mongolian  or  Turanian Greater  Part  of  Asia 630,000,000 

Semitic  or  Hamitic North  Africa,  Arabia 65,000,000 

Negro  and  Bantu Central  Africa 150,000,000 

Hottentot  and  Bushman South  Africa 150,000 

Malay  and  Polynesian Australia  and  Polynesia 35,000,000 

American  Indian North  and  South  America 15,000,000 


RACES   OF  MANKIND. 


POINTS   OF  THE    COMPASS. 


TOTAL  AREAS  AND  POPULATION  OF  THE  EARTH. 


Square 
Miles. 

(1)  Asia    17,071,999 

(2)  Europe 3,824,956 

(3)  Africa 11,506.785 

(4)  America   15,284,872 

(5)  Australia    and 

Oceania 3,457,667 

(6)  Polar  Regions 1,656,394 


Total 


52,802,673 


POPULATION. 


Per 

Square 

Kilo. 

18.5 

40.5 

6.2 

3.6 

0.7 


136,759,067     1,547,470   177.808     11.6 
— Hiibner's  Geographisch-Statistische  Tabellen. 


In            Per 
Square     Thousands.    Square 
Kilometers.                          Mile. 
44,216,523        820,768     48.0 
9,906,647        393,486   102.9 
29,802,603        180,321      15.6 
39,587,860        146,432       9.5 

8,955,369 
4,290,065 

6,450       1.8 
13       0.008 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  DISCOVERY— Continued. 


Date. 

Explorer  and  Nationality. 

Discovery  or  Exploration. 

A.I). 

1513 

Balboa  (Span.).  .  .  • 

Crosses   Isthmus   of   Panama  and   discovers   Pacific 

1516 
1517 
1519-21 
1519-21 

Solis  (Span.)  
Sebastian  Cabot  (Eng.).  .  . 
Cortez  (Span.)  
Magellan  (Span.).  . 

Ocean. 
Reaches  La  Plata. 
Hudson  Strait. 
C9nquest  of  Mexico. 
First  to  circumnavigate  the  globe.     Passes  through 

1534 

Pizarro  (Span  ) 

the  Strait  of  Magellan,  crosses  the  Pacific,  and  dis- 
covers the  Philippines. 
Completes  the  Conquest  of  Peru 

1535 
1535-42 

1539 
about  1540 

Diego  d'Almagro  (Span.). 
Jacques  Cartier  (Fr.)  

Francesco  de  Ulloa  (Span.) 

Conquers  Chili. 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.     Ascends  river  to  Hochelaga 
(Montreal). 
Explores  Gulf  of  California. 
Continent  of  Australia  seen  by  French  sailors 

1541 

Pizarro     and     Orellana  | 
(Span  )  .  .  .                     f 

Amazon  River. 

1542 

1553 
1576 
1577-80 

Antonio  de  Mota  
Ruy  Lopez  de  Villalobos.  . 
(Span.) 
Pinto  (Port.)  
Sir  H.  Willoughby  (Eng.). 
Frobisher  (Eng.)  
Sir  F.  Drake  (Eng.).  . 

First  reaches  Japan. 
Discovers    Pelew   Islands,   and   takes   possession   of 
Philippine  Islands  for  Spain. 
Visits  Japan. 
Novaia  Zemlia. 
Labrador  and  Baffin  Land. 
Second  circumnavigation  of  the  globe,  and  first  saw 

1587 
1596 

J.  Davis  (Eng.)  
Barentz  and  Heemskerk  | 

Cape  Horn.       Explored  W.  coast  of  N.  America 
nearly  as  far  as  Vancouver  Archipelago. 
Davis  Strait. 

1598 
1606 

1608 

1610 

1614-17 

1616 


1618 
1642 
1643 
1645 

1660 

1673 

1725-43 

1728  and  '41 

1764-66 
1768-79 


1770 

1785-88 
1789 
1792 

1795-1806 
1799-1804 

1801-1804 
1803-6 

1805-9 

1807-8 

1819 

1825 
1819 


(Dut.). 

Mendana  (Span.) 

Quiros  (Span.) 

Torres  (Span.) 

Cham  plain  (French) 

H.  Hudson  (Eng.) 

Spillbergen  (Dut.) 

W.  Baffin  (Eng.) 

LeMaire    and    Schouten  | 

(Dut.) \ 

Dirk  Hartog  (Dut.). 

G.  Thompson  (Eng.  mer.). 

Abel  Tasman  (Dut.) 

Vries  (Dut.) 

Deshnev  (Cossack) 


French 

Marquette  and  Joliet  (Fr  ) 

Russians 

Bering        (Dan.)        and  ( 
Tishirikov  (Rus.).  .  .  .  f 

Byron  (Eng.) 

Capt.  Cook  (Eng.) 


James  Bruce  (Scot.) 

Liakhov  (Russian) 

La  Perouse  (French) 

A.  Mackenzie  (Scot.) 

Vancouver  (Eng.) 

Mungo  Park  (Scot.) 

Alex,     von      Humboldt  I 

(Ger.) f 

Flinders  (Eng.) 

Krusen stern  (Rus  )    

Salt,  (Eng.) 

Klaproth  (Ger.) 

Sir  E.  Parry  (Eng.) 

Sir  J.  Franklin J 

Richardson    and     Back  > 

(Eng.) } 

Long(U.  S.) 


Discovers  Marquesas  Islands. 

Tahiti  (Sagittaria),  and  other  South  Sea  Islands. 

Torres  Strait.     Dutch  reach  Australia. 

Discovers  Lake  Ontario. 

Hudson  Bay  and  discoveries  in  N.  America. 

Circumnavigation  of  the  globe. 

Enters  Baffin  Bay. 

Round  Cape  Horn. 

West  coast  of  Australia. 

Sails  up  Gambia. 

Van  Diemen's  Land  (Tasmania)  and  New  Zealand. 

Explores  E.  coast  Japan,  Saghalien,  and  Kurile  Is. 

Rounds  East  Cape  of  Asia  from  the  Kolyma  to  the 

Anadyr. 

Lake  region  of  the  St.  Lawrence  discovered. 
Exploration  of  the  Mississippi  from  the  north. 
Exploration  of  the  coasts  of  Siberia. 

Bering  Strait  and  the  NW.  coast  of  America. 

Circumnavigation  of  the  globe 

Voyages  round  the  world.      Hydrographical  surveys 

of  the  Society  Islands,  Sandwich  Islands,  E.  coast 

of  Australia,  Cook  Strait  in  New  Zealand,  Antarctic 

Ocean,  NW.  coast  of  America,  etc. 
Sources  of  the  Blue  Nile. 
Discovers  New  Siberian  Islands. 
North  of  Japan,  Saghalien,  etc. 
Exploration  of  the  Mackenzie  River. 
Vancouver  Island  circumnavigated.     Discovered  by 

Perez,  1774.    Exploration  of  NW.  coast  of  America. 
Journeys  and  explorations  in  the  Niger  districts. 

Explorations  in  South  America  and  "Cosmos." 
Southern  coasts  of  Australia. 

Surveys  in  Sea  of  Japan  and  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  Sagha- 
lien, etc. 

Visit  to  Abyssinia 
Exploration  of  the  Caucasus. 
Parry  Archipelago. 

Coppermine  and  Mackenzie  Rivers  explored. 
Exploration  of  Rocky  Mountains, 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


THE    UNKNOWN    WORLD,    1800. 
THE  PROGRESS  OF  DISCOVERY— Continued. 


Date. 

Explorer  and  Nationality. 

Discovery  or  Exploration. 

1819 

1823 
1823 

Win.  Smith  (Eng.)  

Wrangel  (Rus.)  
Den  ham  and  Clapperton  \ 
(Eng  )     .                            ( 

South  Orkney  Islands  and  South  Shetlands.     Visited 
by  Weddell  in  1822. 
Discovers  Wrangel  Land. 

Lake  Chad. 

1825-26 
1827-8 
1829 

1830-32 
1830 

A.  G.  Laing  (Scot.)  
Ren:>  Caillie  (French).  .  .  . 
Sturt  (Eng.)  

Biscoe  (Eng.)  

Reached  Timbuktu  from  Tripoli. 
Journey  from  Kakandy  to  Timbuktu  and  Morocco. 
Descends  the  Murrumbidgee  and  discovers  the  Mur- 
ray River. 
Enderby  Land  and  Graham  Land. 
Royal  Geographical  Society  founded  in  London. 

1831 
1832 
1833-35 
1835 

Sir  J.  C.  Ross  (Eng.).  .  . 
Laird  and  Oldfield  (Scot.). 
Sir  G.  Back  (Eng.)     
Sir  F.  Schomburgk  (Ger.). 

Magnetic  North  Pole. 
Exploration  of  the  Niger  and  Benu6. 
Great  Fish  River. 
Explorations  in  Guiana. 

THE    UNKNOWN    WORLD,    1900. 

The  black  areas  are  unexplored. 

The  shaded  portion   represents  the  radius  of  a  three  weeks'  journey  from  London  in 

1800  and  1900.  — Bartholomew' s  Atlas. 


6                      SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 

THE  PROGRESS  OF  DISCOVERY—  Continued. 

Date. 

Explorer  and  Nationality. 

Discovery  or  Exploration. 

1837 
1837-40 
1839 
1839 

1840 
1841 
1841-73 
1844-45 
1845 
1848 
1849-55 

1850 
1852-4,1861 
1856-59 

1858 

1860 
1862 
1862-63 
1864-66 

1867-72 
1868-71 

1869 

1870-1886 
1871-75 
1872 

1872-76 

1872-76 
1873 
1874-75 
1876 
1876-90 

1876 

1878-79 
1878-89 

1878-85 
1878-92 

1879 

1881-85 
1885 

1886 
1887 

1893-96 

1897 
1893-97 
1895-96 
1896 
1896-98 
1897 

1897 
1898-99 
1899 
1900 

1000-02 

Wood  (Eng.)  
D'Urville  (French)  
J    Balleny  (Eng  ) 

Sources  of  the  Oxus. 
Adelie  Land.     Reached  66°  30'  S.  lat. 
Balleny  Islands,  60°  44'  S.  lat. 
Discovers  Lake  Torrens,  S.   Australia,  and  in   1841 
journeys  from  Adelaide  to  King  George's  Sound. 
Remains  of  ancient  Nineveh. 
Victoria  Land,  with  volcanoes  Erebus  and  Terror. 
Thirty  years'  travel  in  Central  South  Africa. 
Crosses  Australia,  Moreton  Bay  to  Port  Essington. 
Sails  on  his  last  voyage  never  to  return. 
Mt.  Kilima  Njaro.     Sighted  Mt.  Kenia. 

Western  Sudan  and  Sahara. 

Northwest  Passage. 
Explorations  in  Peru. 
Basin  of  Ogowo  River,  W.  Africa 
Lake  Tanganyika 
Victoria  Nyanza. 
Explores  Upper  Nile.  Discovers  Albert  Nyanza.  1864. 
Crossed  Australia. 
Journeys  in  Central  and  Eastern  Arabia. 
Journey  in  W.  Sudan  by  Ghadames,  Murzuk,  and 
Wadai  to  R.  Niger. 
Extensive  travel  and  exploration  in  China. 
Exploration  of  the  Jur.  Niam-Niam,  and  Monbuttu 
countries. 
Explorations  in  Lake  Chad  region  and  Central  Sudan 
States. 
Journeys  in  Mongolia,  Tibet,  etc. 
Exploration  of  N.  part  of  Spitzbergen.     Vaigats  Is. 

Franz  Josef  Land. 

Explores  the  depths  of  the  oceans. 

Traverses  Northwest  Australia. 
Crosses  Western  Australia  from  East  to  West. 
Crosses  Equatorial  Africa. 
Explorations  in  the  Ogowe  and  Gabun  region. 
Congo  Basin;    Mt.  Ruwenzori;    Forests  on  the  Aru- 
wimi,  etc. 

Grant  Land.     Penetrated  as  far  N.  as  83°  20'  lat. 

Northeast  passage. 
Journeys  through  Masai  Land,  British  South  Africa, 
Sokoto,  Morocco,  etc. 
Twice  crosses  Africa. 
Travels  and  Surveys  in  Equatorial  Africa.    Discovery 
of  Semliki  River,  etc. 

Sources  of  the  Niger. 

Grinnell  Land  and  NE.  coast  of  Greenland. 
Across  Africa  from  West  coast,  Congo  Basin. 
Welle-Mobangi,  etc. 
North  Greenland. 
Travels  from  Pekin  to  Kashmir. 

Hviotenland,  etc.;  reached  his  "Farthest  North"  in 
lat.  86°  13'  6"  N. 
Surveys  and  explorations  in  Franz  Josef  Land. 
Explorations  in  North  Central  Asia. 
Travels  in  Tonkin  and  China. 
Explores  region  of  Lake  Rudolf. 
Travels  from  Upper  Mobangi  to  Fashoda. 
Attempt  to  cross  over  the  North  Pole  in  a  balloon, 
with  fatal  results. 
Crosses  Western  Australia  from  S.  to  N. 
"Belgica,"  first  ship  to  winter  within  Antarctic  circle. 
Explorations  in  Congo  and  Zambezi  headwaters. 
Reached  lat.  78°  50'  S.  via  Victoria  Land. 
Reached  lat.  86°  33'  N.  via  Franz  Josef  Land. 
Important  Journey  in  Central  Asia. 

Eyre  (Eng.)  

Triimmer  
Sir  James  C.  Ross  (Eng.).  . 
D.  Livingstone  (Scot.).  .  . 
Leichhardt  (Ger.)  
Sir  John  Franklin  (Eng.). 
Rehmann  and  Krapf  (  Ger.  ) 
Richardson    and    Barth  j 
(Eng.-Ger)  j 
Sir  R.  M'Clure  (Irish)  
SirC.  R.  Markham  (Eng.). 
Du  Chaillu  (French)  
Sir  R.  Burton  (Scot.).  .  .  . 
Speke  and  Grant  (Brit.).  . 
Sir  S.  Baker  (Eng.)  
M'Douall  Stuart  (Scot.).  . 
W.  G.  Palgrave(Eng-).  .  . 
G.  Rohlfs  (Ger.).  .  . 

Richthofen  (Ger.)  
G.  Schweinfurth  (Ger.).  .  . 

G.  Nachtigal  (Ger.)  
Prejevalsky  (Rus.)  . 

Leigh  Smith  (Eng.)  
Payer    and     Weyprecht  1 
(Austrian)  \ 
"Challenger"      Expedi-  ) 
tion(Brit.)  .  .                  f 

Ernest  Giles  
Warburton  (Irish)  
Lieut.  Cameron  (Eng.)..  .  . 
De  Breeze  (French)  
H.  M.  Stanley  (Eng.)  

Sir     Geo.      Nares     and  | 
A.  H.  Markham  (Eng.)  ( 
Nordenskjold  (Swed.)  
Thomson  (Scot.).  .  .  . 

Major  Serpa  Pinto  (Port.). 
Emin  Pasha  (Ger  )  .     . 

Moustier     and     Zweifel  I 
(Swiss)  j 
Greely  (U.  S.)  
Wiesmann  (Ger.)  
Junker  (Rus.-Ger.)  
Peary  (U.  S.)  
Capt.  Yo  unghusband  j 
(Eng.).  .  . 

Nansen  (Norw.)  
Jackson  (Scot  ) 

Sven  Hedin  (Swed.)  

Pr.  Henri  d'Orleans  
Donaldson  Smith  (Scot  ).. 
Capt.  Marchand  
Andr£e  (Swed.).  .  .  . 

D.  Carnegie.  
De  Gerlache  (Belgian).    .  . 
Major  Gibbons  . 
Borchgrevink  (Brit.  Ex.). 
Duke  of  Abruzzi  (Ital.).  .  . 
Sven  Hedin  (Swed.)  

—  Bartholomew's  Atlas. 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


STEPPES,  HEATHER 
[CAPABLE  DF  CULTIVATION  BUT  FALL 
TABLELAND  LOWLAND. 


DF  THE  EARTH'S  SURFACE 


INDIAN 
OCEAN 
14.69% 


DESERTS 
^MOUNTAIN  CHAIN 
;ANDOTHER  UNPROD 
^DISTRICTS** 


POLAR  REGIONS 
0-82% 


I      STEPPES,  PASTURES  ETC. 

PRAIRIES,  LLANOS,  PAMPAS! 

"  "IIIIISAVANNASIII  !|!| 


STURES  AND  STEPPES 
ECAPABLE  OF  CULTIVATION]] 


ymjjt. 

BRUSHLAND 


UNPROD.; 

NTAIN  CHAI 
ICE  BOUND  OISTR 


PASTURES  AND  STEPPE 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  LAND  AND  WATER  OF  THE  EARTH'S   SURFACE  AND  THE  DIVISION 
OF  LAND  IN  FIVE  CONTINENTS, 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


TOTAL   AREAS   AND    POPULATION   OF   THE    POLAR    REGIONS. 


(1)  Under  no  sovereignty 

(2)  Danish  possessions  on  Greenland.  ..  . 

(3)  British  possessions: 

Arctic  Island  in  North  America. .  . 
South  Georgia 

(4)  Russian    possessions    in    the    Arctic 

Ocean  (New  Siberian  Islands).  .  .  . 


Square 
Miles. 
1,103,554 
34,015 

502,354 
1,573 

14,895 


Square 

Kilo- 

meters. 

2,858,210 

88,100 

1,301,100 
4,075 

38,580 


In 
Thou- 

sands. 

"12" 


Population. 

Per 

Square 
Mile. 


0.00 


Per 

Square 
Kilo 

'o'.Y 

0.00 


1,656,391       4,290,065  13  0.3  0.1 

—Hiibner's  Geographisch-Statistische  Tabellen. 


MAP  OF  THE  ARCTIC  REGIONS,  —Bartholomew's  Atlas. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


THE  POLAR  REGIONS. 


National  emulation,  more  particu- 
larly since  the  great  success  of  Nan- 
sen,  seems  to  have  played  the  chief 
role  in  all  the  recent  researches  un- 
dertaken in  the  vicinity  ot"  the  poles. 

No  fewer  than  three  expeditions  were 
organized  in  1902  for  the  main  purpose 
of  reaching  the  North  Pole.  Otto 
Sverdrup,  the  Norwegian,  with  Nan- 
sen's  old  ship,  the  ''Fram,"  started  in 
through  Smith  Sound;  Lieut.  Robert 
E.  Peary,  of  the  United  States  navy, 
pursued  a  like  course ;  while  Mr.  E.  B. 
Baldwin,  also  an  American,  selected 
Franz  Josef  Land  as  his  point  of  de- 
parture, although  Prince  Luigi,  of  Sa- 
voy, had  only  just  vainly  attempted  it. 

The  expedition  led  by  Capt.  Sver- 
drup was  incontestably  the  most  suc- 
cessful, says  Dr.  Herman  Haack  in  his 
Geographen  Kalender.  As  early  as 
1898  his  expedition  was  already  under 
way.  He  spent  the  first  winter  north 
of  Cape  Sabine,  where,  by  means  of 
extended  sledge  journeys,  he  explored 
the.  fiords  of  Hayes  Sound,  in 
the  following  spring  even  advancing 
as  far  as  the  west  coast  of  Elles- 
mereland.  Finding  the  ice  condi- 
tions no  more  favorable  in  1899 
than  in  the  previous  summer,  he 
abandoned  forthwith  his  former  plan 
and  fixed  upon  Jones  Sound  as  the 
starting  point  for  his  investigations, 
in  the  hope  of  finding  on  the  west 
coast  of  Ellesmereland  a  better  and 
freer  water  course  to  the  north  than 
the  narrow  neck  of  Smith  Sound  can 
afford,  which  is  so  easily  obstructed  by 
the  pack  ice  from  the  Pole.  Sverdrup 
met  with  difficulties  in  Jones  Sound 
also,  for  he  could  push  no  farther 
forward  than  Inglefeld  had  reached  in 
1852,  and  so  he  took  up  his  second 
winter  quarters  at  the  point  where  the 
coast  of  Ellesmereland  seemed  to  bend 
northward,  under  north  latitude  76 
deg.  29  min.  and  west  longitude  84 
deg.  24  min. 

The  sledge  journeys  of  the  fall  of 
that  year  established  the  fact  that 
Ellesmereland  extended  much  farther 
westward  than  was  supposed,  and  was 
separated  from  North  Kent  only  by 
the  Belcher  Channel,  a  small  arm  of 
the  sea.  In  the  spring  of  1900  Sver- 
drup continued  the  exploration  of  the 
west  coast  of  Ellesmereland,  where  he 
discovered  a  deep  fiord,  while  his  as- 
sistant, Isachsen,  examined  a  large 
body  of  land  lying  to  the  west  of  it. 
The  "Fram"  being  free  from  ice  in 


August,  the  passage  through  Jones 
Sound  was  continued,  but  the  ship 
was  soon  fast  again  in  the  Belcher 
Channel  near  the  westernmost  point  of 
Ellesmereland,  and  Sverdrup  estab- 
lished his  third  winter  quarters  under 
latitude  76  deg.  48  min.  and  longitude 
89  deg.  The  fall  of  1900  and  the 
spring  of  1901  were  devoted  to  sledge 
journeys. 

Sverdrup  himself  continued  his  ex- 
ploration of  Ellesmereland,  examining 
anew  and  more  thoroughly  the  fiord 
which  he  discovered  the  year  before, 
after  which  he  turned  northward  and 
succeeded  in  reaching  the  most  west- 
erly point  occupied  by  him  in  the 
spring  of  1899,  to  which  he  had  then 
proceeded  from  Smith  Sound. 

Isachsen  proceeded  westward  and 
discovered  north  of  North  Cornwall 
two  larger  islands,  exploring  their 
southern  coasts  till  they  turned  to- 
ward the  north.  Under  latitude  79 
deg.  30  min.  and  longitude  106  deg., 
he  reached  his  farthest  western  limit, 
from  which  point  neither  to  the  west 
nor  to  the  north  was  any  land  visible, 
and  from  the  character  of  the  floating 
ice  it  was  not  probable  that  any  land 
existed  in  either  direction.  In  July  of 
that  year  the  north  coast  of  North 
Devon  was  explored  in  boats. 

All  attempts  to  get  the  "Fram"  out 
of  the  ice  having  failed,  Sverdrup  was 
compelled  to  pass  a  fourth  winter  in 
1901-2  in  this  region,  during  which 
other  extended  sledge  journeys  were 
undertaken.  Following  the  west  coast 
of  Ellesmereland,  Sverdrup  attempted 
to  reach  80  deg.  16  min.  N.,  85  deg.  33 
min.  W.,  the  farthest  point  attained  by 
Lieut.  Aldrich,  of  the  English  Polar 
Expedition  of  1875-76,  on  the  west 
coast  of  Grinnell  Land,  coming  down 
from  the  north.  He  was  not  success- 
ful, however,  though  he  penetrated  as 
far  north  as  80  deg.  37  min.,  which 
was  but  a  short  distance  from  the  goal. 
Sledge  journeys  undertaken  by  other 
participants  in  the  expedition  resulted 
in  the  exploration  of  the  west  coast  of 
North  Devon.  In  the  beginning  of 
August,  1902,  when  the  "Fram"  was 
again  free  from  ice,  Sverdrup  started 
immediately  upon  his  homeward  way, 
reaching  Stavanger  on  the  19th  of  Sep- 
tember. The  chief  result  of  this  ex- 
pedition was  the  discovery  of  large 
land  areas  west  of  Ellesmereland,  and 
since  the  discovery  of  Franz  Joset 
Land  no  such  extension  of  our  knowl- 


10 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


edge  of  these  regions  has  been  sig- 
nalized. 

Lieut.  Robert  N.  Peary,  U.  S.  N., 
conceived  a  plan  of  reaching  the  North 
Pole  by  sledge  journeys,  accompanied 
by  no  one  but  Esquimaux  and  his 
black  servant  Henson.  For  this  pur- 
pose it  became  necessary  to  establish, 
well  to  the  south,  a  point  of  departure 
that  could  be  reached  every  year  by  a 
ship,  which  could  supply  fresh  pro- 
visions and  new  outfittings,  that  were 
to  be  pushed  toward  the  north  and  de- 
posited in  caches  along  the  coast.  The 
weak  point  of  the  scheme  lay  in  the 
fact  that  the  advance  to  the  farthest 
points  already  reached  required  so 
much  time"  for  so  small  a  sledge 
crew  that  further  penetration  into 
the  unknown  must  be  undertaken 
at  an  advanced  season  of  the 
year,  when  the  stability  of  the  ice 
made  such  a  movement  questionable. 
The  winter  of  1898-99  Peary  passed  at 
Etah,  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Smith 
Sound,  in  order  to  interest  the  abo- 
rigines in  his  plan,  buy  dogs,  and  per- 
fect other  preparations.  After  his 
ship,  the  ''Windward,"  reached  him 
with  fresh  supplies  in  the  fall  of  1899, 
he  was  transported  to  Cape  Sabine, 
which  he  had  fixed  upon  as  the  start- 
ing point  and  base  of  the  expedition. 
Here  he  passed  the  winter  of  1899- 
1900.  In  the  spring  of  1900  he  under- 
took a  sledge  journey  straight  across 
Ellesmereland,  and  in  the  fall  of  that 
year  established  a  line  of  depots  to- 
ward the  north.  In  the  spring  of  1901 
he  made  the  first  energetic  move  to- 
ward the  Pole,  which  led  him  from 
Grant  Land  in  the  direction  of  Green- 
land. He  passed  the  most  northern 
point,  83  deg.  24  min.,  reached  by 
Lockwood  in  the  Greely  expedition  of 
1882,  and  fixed,  under  latitude  83  deg. 
39  min.,  the  northern  extremity  of 
Greenland.  He  followed  the  coast  to- 
ward the  east  until  it  began  to  bend 
decidedly  to  the  southeast  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Independence  Bay,  thus  estab- 
lishing the  insular  nature  of  Green- 
land. 

On  his  return  he  made  a  dash  for 
the  north  and  reached  83  deg.  50  min., 
the  highest  point  thus  far  attained  on 
the  American  side  of  the  polar  archi- 
pelago. During  the  spring  of  1902, 
Peary  even  exceeded  this.  Starting 
from  Cape  Hekla,  the  northernmost 
point  of  Grant  Land,  he  proceeded  over 
the  ice  as  far  as  84  deg.  17  min.,  while 
Capt.  Markham,  in  1876,  succeeded 
only  in  reaching  83  deg.  20  min.  from 
this  side.  From  the  European  side, 


however,  Capt.  Cagni,  of  the  Italian 
expedition,  starting  from  Franz  Josef 
Land,  attained  the  advanced  position 
of  86  deg.  34  min. 

Peary  was  obliged  to  make  his  dash 
in  April,  and,  as  was  the  case  with 
Markham,  he  found  the  ice  in  a  very 
unsatisfactory  condition ;  the  immense 
hummocks  of  compressed  drift-ice  in- 
creased the  difficulties  of  travel  for 
both  dogs  and  men.  There  were  no 
traces,  however,  of  the  unchangeable 
paleocrystic  ice  mentioned  by  Mark- 
ham,  for  on  the  return  Peary  met  with 
numerous  open  places  and  channels 
which  caused  serious  delays.  No  land 
was  visible  to  the  north  of  either 
Greenland  or  Grant  Land.  In  spite  of 
the  unsuccessful  termination  of  his  ex- 
pedition, Peary  is  still  convinced  that 
the  best  point  of  departure  is  from  the 
American  side  of  the  archipelago,  and, 
moreover,  that,  with  an  early  start 
from  Grant  Land,  the  Pole  may  be 
reached  by  sledge.  Though  Sverdrup 
and  Peary  added  to  our  knowledge  of 
the  Polar  regions,  the  third  expedition 
fitted  out  by  Mr.  Ziegler,  an  American, 
and  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Bald- 
win, who  started  from  Franz  Josef 
Land  for  the  Pole,  was  closed  without 
definite  results.  Several  small  islands 
were  discovered ;  the  hut  in  which 
Nansen  and  Johansen  lived  in  1895-6 
was  again  found ;  some  scientific 
events  were  noted ;  meteorological 
sketches  and  photographs  of  the 
Northern  Lights  were  made,  and  yet 
the  finality  of  the  expedition  was  a 
fiasco.  No  earnest  attempt  to  reach 
the  Pole  was  made.  Serious  friction 
between  Baldwin  and  Fridtjof,  the 
sailing  master  of  the  expedition,  is  re- 
sponsible for  the  unsuccessful  termina- 
tion. 

Among  the  most  important  of  the 
Polar  expeditions  is  that  led  by  Baron 
Toll,  a  Russian,  for  the  discovery  and 
exploration  of  the  island  either  exist- 
ing or  supposed  to  exist  to  the  north 
of  the  New  Siberian  Islands.  Having 
twice  before,  in  1886  and  1894,  visited 
the  northernmost  of  these  islands,  Toll 
left  Europe  again  in  1900  in  the  steam- 
ship "Sarja"  upon  a  similar  quest. 
Upon  entering  the  Sea  of  Kara,  he  did 
not  pick  up  the  ship  which  was  bring- 
ing him  coal,  and  since  both  the  con- 
dition of  the  ice  and  the  open  sea  were 
favorable  to  his  designs,  he  preferred 
not  to  wait  for  it.  Cape  Tscheljuskin, 
the  extreme  northern  point  of  Asia, 
and  the  intended  termination  of  the 
first  summer's  journey,  was  not 
reached,  but  the  condition  of  the  ice 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


11 


compelled  him  to  put  into  Colin-Archer 
haven,  at  the  entrance  to  the  Taimyr 
Straits,  on  September  26,  where  he 
passed  the  winter. 

Failing  in  two  attempts  to  gain  the 
mouth  of  the  Jenissei  by  crossing  the 
land,  Lieutenant  Kolomeizoff  finally 
reached  it  by  following  the  coast.  Dur- 
ing the  spring  of  1901,  the  extent  of 
Taimyr  Bay  was  carefully  explored 
upon  sleds,  and  through  the  discovery 
of  the  hut  in  which  Lapten  spent  the 
winter  of  1840-1,  as  well  as  by  reach- 
ing the  most  northern  station  of  the 
Middendorf  expedition  of  1843,  the 
mouth  of  the  Taimyr  River  was  def- 
initely fixed.  The  "Sarja"  could  not 
proceed  till  August  25.  Cape  Tschel- 
juskin  was  safely  rounded  and  the 
course  set  for  the  location  where,  ac- 
cording to  Toll's  observation  in  1886, 
the  distant  Polarland,  seen  as  early  as 
1811  by  Sannikow,  to  the  north  of 
Kotelny,  ought  to  be.  This  point  was 
passed  without  sighting  the  supposed 
land,  and  a  few  miles  before  reaching 
Cape  Emma,  the  southernmost  point 
on  Bennett  Island,  discovered  by  the 
"Jeannette"  expedition,  the  ice  became 
so  packed  that  further  progress  north- 
ward was  impossible.  On  the  return 
voyage  the  ship  cruised  again  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  supposed  Sannikow 
land,  but  without  sighting  it.  On  Sep- 
tember 24,  1901,  the  "Sarja"  froze  in 
at  the  island  of  Kotelny,  in  Nerpitscha 
Bay,  where  the  expedition  passed  the 
winter.  Whether  or  not  Sannikow 
and  Toll  were  deceived  as  to  what  they 
saw  cannot  yet  be  determined.  It  is 
quite  possible  that  they  may  have  mis- 
calculated the  distance  and  that  the 
island  may  lie  farther  north  in  a  sec- 
tion not  touched  even  by  Nansen's 


drift  in  the  "Fram"  during  the  long 
winter  night  of  his  journey  in  1893-4. 
Being  unable  to  get  coal  from  the  Lena 
River,  the  "Sarja"  became  unfit  for 
long  journeys;  accordingly  Toll  re- 
solved upon  sledge  journeys  to  the 
north,  similar  to  those  undertaken 
from  the  "Fram"  by  Nansen.  The 
geologist,  Birula,  began  such  a  journey 
May  11,  intending  to  explore  the  larg- 
est of  the  New  Siberian  Islands.  On 
June  5  Toll  followed  him,  accompanied 
by  the  astronomer  Seeberg  and  two 
Jakuts,  but  touched  only  at  the  north- 
ernmost point,  Cape  Wyssoki,  which 
he  left  on  July  13,  crossing  the  ice  for 
Bennett  Island.  Toll  left  Lieut.  F. 
Mattheissen  in  charge  of  the  "Sarja," 
but  August  21  arrived  before  any 
earnest  effort  could  be  made  to  proceed 
to  New  Siberia  and  Bennett  Land  to 
bring  back  the  sledge  parties.  About 
Kotelny  and  Faddejew  the  ice  was  so 
thick  that  these  islands  could  be  passed 
neither  to  the  north  nor  the  south,  and 
since  the  open  season  was  fast  drawing 
to  a  close,  Mattheissen  brought  the 
"Sarja"  back  to  the  Lena,  where  he 
anchored  in  the  bay  of  Tiksi  Septem- 
ber 8.  Being  too  deep  of  draft  to 
steam  up  the  river,  the  "Sarja"  was 
abandoned,  and  the  crew,  together 
with  the  scientific  collection  and  in- 
struments, were  transferred  to  Jakutsk 
on  the  small  steamer  "Lena." 

It  was  expected  that  Toll  and  Bi- 
rula would  return  to  the  mainland  at 
the  beginning  of  winter,  but  Birula  re- 
turned in  1903,  in  good  health,  without 
having  seen  Toll.  Perhaps  the  condi- 
tion of  the  ice  between  Bennett  Land 
and  New  Siberia  prevented  Toll's  re- 
turn, and  it  was  held  that  he  would  at- 
tempt it  again  in  the  spring  of  1903. 


THE  GREAT  [LAURENTIAN]  LAKES. 


Lakes. 

Length, 
Miles. 

Breadth, 
Miles. 

Area, 
Sq.  Miles. 

Height 
above  Sea, 
Feet. 

Superior.  '  
Huron  (with  Georgian  Bay). 

390 
400 

160 

160 

31,420 
24,000 

576f 

St.  Clair  
Erie  .... 

25 
250 

25 
60 

360 
10,000 

seef 

Ontario  .  . 

190 

52 

7,330 

240 

Michigan.  .           .                                  

345 

58 

25,590 

578* 

Lake  Michigan  is  wholly  within  the  United  States  and  is  connected 
with   Lake  Huron   by  the   Strait  of   Mackinaw. 

— Statistical  Year  Book  of  Canada. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


ANTARCTIC  EXPLORATIONS. 
Though  the  quest  of  the  North  Pole 
has  monopolized  the  world's  attention 
for  more  than  a  century,  it  has  of  late 
not  been  entirely  without  a  rival. 
The  British  expedition  broke  the 
farthest-south  record  by  reaching  the 
latitude  of  82  deg.  17  min.  Mr.  Borch- 
grevink  previously  held  the  record  at 
78  deg.  51  min. 


TILE   BRITISH    EXPEDITION 

sailed  from  London  in  July,  1901,  on 
the  Discovery,  under  command  of  Capt. 
Scott,  R.  N.  Fearful  lest  the  currents 
might  destroy  the  expedition,  a  rescu- 
ing party  was  dispatched  in  1902  un- 
der Lieut.  William  Colbeck,  who  took 
part  in  the  Borchgrevink  South  Polar 
expedition.  The  rescuers  on  the  Morn- 


MAP   OF  THE    ANTARCTIC   REGIONS. 

— Bartholomew's  Atlas  (with  additions.) 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


18 


ing  left  Wellington,  December  6,  1902, 
and  returned  to  the  same  place  March 
25,  1U03,  bringing  reports  of  the  suc- 
cessful work  of  the  main  expedition. 
The  Discovery  reached  Cape  Adare, 
the  northernmost  point  of  Victoria 
Land,  January  9,  1902,  and  followed 
the  coast  south;  from  Mt.  Erebus  the 
ship  skirted  the  wall  of  ice,  discovered 
by  Ross,  as  far  as  longitude  1C5  deg. 
E.,  where  it  turned  more  to  the  north. 
Behind  the  ice  wall  reared  the  high- 
lands covered  with  glaciers  which  Ross 
had  sighted. 

Under  67  deg.  N.  and  152  deg.  30 
min.  E.  the  ship  reached  its  farthest 
point,  whence  it  returned  to  Victoria 
Land  to  go  into  winter  quarters  in 
MacMurdo  Bay,  near  the  volcano  Mt. 
Erebus,  in  longitude  174  deg.  E. 

Sledge  journeys  began  in  September, 
1902.  The  one  led  by  Captain  Scott 
marched  for  three  months,  attaining  a 
point  under  82  deg.  17  min.,  which  sur- 
passed Borchgrevink's  78  deg.  50  min. 
by  nearly  3%  deg.  A  second  sledge 
party,  commanded  by  Lieutenant  Armi- 
tage*  turned  westward  of  Erebus,  and 
during  a  march  of  fifty-two  days 
reached  an  elevation  of  9,000  feet.  This 
is  the  more  noteworthy  since  all  the 
dogs  died,  supposedly  from  spoiled  pro- 
visions. The  Morning  found  the  Dis- 
covery still  in  winter  quarters,  and 
when  the  rescuers  departed  the  Dis- 
covery seemed  still  fast  in  the  ice. 

Late  in  1903  the  Morning  and  the 
whaler  Terra  Nova  were  refitted  and 
started  on  a  second  expedition  to  the 
relief  of  the  Discovery.  The  latter 
was  found  on  February  14  and  the 
three  vessels  returned  to  Lyttleton, 
New  Zealand,  on  April  1,  1904.  Among 
the  chief  results  of  the  expedition  was 
the  discovery  that  Mount  Erebus  and 
Mount  Terror  are  on  a  small  island, 
and  that  there  is  a  large  land  mass 
lying  west  and  southwest  of  the  ice 
barrier,  with  ice  plateaus  9,000  feet 
in  height  and  peaks  which  reach  to 
14,000.  It  was  discovered  that  the  ice 
barrier  is  afloat,  though  fed  from  land, 
and  that  high  land  lies  to  the  southeast 
of  the  hitherto  unknown  extremity  of 
the  barrier. 

THE  GERMAN  EXPEDITION, 

which  entered  the  ice-pack  south  of  the 
Indian  Ocean  on  February  13,  1902, 
left  it  on  April  9,  1903,  and  returned 
from  a  voyage  highly  fruitful  of  scien- 
tific results,  although  not  comparable 
with  the  voyage  of  the  Discovery  in 
sensational  experiences.  Incidentally 
it  has  swept  away  the  Termination 
Land  of  Wilkes,  passed  the  winter  in 


the  close  pack,  carried  out  numerous 
and  important  sledge  journeys,  discov- 
ered new  land  (called  Kaiser  Wilhelm 
II.  Coast),  and  actually  reached  land 
in  the  solitary  peak  called  the  Gauss- 
berg.  Balloons  were  used  successfully 
during  the  expedition.  The  farthest 
south  was  66  deg.  2  min.,  and  the 
ship  was  frozen  for  many  months  in 
ice  30  feet  thick. 

THE    SWEDISH    EXPEDITION, 

under  Captain  Otto  Nordenskjold,  left 
Europe  in  October,  1901,  and  entered 
the  Antarctic  regions  in  February, 
1902.  The  ship  returned  from  the 
Falkland  Islands  to  Graham's  Land  in 
March,  1902,  went  south  again  in  the 
southern  summer  of  1902-1903.  With 
the  assistance  of  the  Swedish  govern- 
ment the  Norwegian  steamer  Frithjof 
was  dispatched  for  the  relief  of  the 
Antarctic,  whose  commander,  by  the 
way,  is  Captain  Larsen,  well  known 
for  his  Antarctic  voyage  in  the  Jason. 
To  the  Republic  of  Argentine,  which 
sent  the  gunboat  Uraguay,  belongs  the 
honor  of  having  rescued  the  Swedish 
expedition,  which  was  found  at  Snow 
Hill  on  Louis  Philippe  Land  in  des- 
perate straits,  their  vessel  having  been 
crushed  by  the  ice  and  sunk  on  Febru- 
ary. 12,  1903. 

THE    SCOTTISH   EXPEDITION, 

on  the  Scotia,  under  the  command  of 
Mr.  W.  S.  Bruse  (formerly  of  the 
Jackson-Harmsworth  expedition),  set 
sail  on  November  3,  1902,  for  what  is 
known  as  the  Weddell  quadrant  of  the 
Antarctic  regions,  with  the  intention 
of  following  in  the  wake  of  Captain 
Jas.  Weddell,  who  reached  a  high 
southern  latitude  in  open  sea.  This 
route  was  advisedly  selected,  as  the 
Scottish  expedition  is  devoting  its  at- 
tention to  oceanographical  work.  Cap- 
tain Robertson,  the  well-known  whal- 
ing skipper,  commanded  the  Scotia. 
Contrary  to  expectation,  the  Scotia 
wintered  in  the  ice,  and  no  further 
news  of  her  has  yet  been  received. 

THE  FRENCH  EXPEDITION, 

under  the  command  of  Dr.  Charcot, 
sailed  from  Havre  in  August,  1903,  to 
explore  Alexander  Land.  The  origi- 
nal plan  of  the  expedition  was  to  ex- 
plore Nova  Zembla,  but  just  then  the 
Swedish  expedition  was  causing  a 
great  deal  of  anxiety,  and  it  was  de- 
cided to  direct  the  expedition  toward 
the  South  Pole  in  search  of  Norden- 
skjold. The  rescue  of  the  Swedish  ex- 
pedition then  left  Dr.  Charcot  free  to 
make  explorations  in  Antarctic  re- 
gions. 


14 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


AREA    AND    POPULATION    OF    THE    PRINCIPAL    COUNTRIES 

COMMERCE  WITH 

Revised  and  Corrected  by  the  Bureau  of 


Area  and  Population. 


Countries. 

Area. 

Population. 

Popula- 
tion per 
Square 
Mile. 

Argentina.  .  . 

Sq.  Miles. 
1,135,840 

4,794,000 

4  22 

Australasia:  Commonwealth  
New  Zealand  
Austria-Hungary  
Austria  '  
Hungary 

2,972,573 
104,751 
241,333 
2'  115,903 
2a  125,430 

3,772,000 
788,000 
45,405,000 
2a  26,151,000 
2a  19,254,000 

1.27 
7.52 
188.14 
225  .  63 
153  51 

Belgium  
Bolivia  .  . 

11,373 
703,604 

6,694,000 
1,816,000 

588.59 
2  5.S 

Brazil  
British  colonies,  n.  e.  s  
Bulgaria  
Canada  
Central  America  :  Costa  Rica  

3,219,000 
951,333 
38,080 
3,048,710 
23,000 

14,334,000 
14,434,000 
3,744,000 
5,457,000 
313,000 

4.45 
15.17 
98.33 
1.79 
13.61 

Guatemala  
Honduras  
Nicaragua-  
San  Salvador  
Chile  
China.  

46,774 
46,250 
49,200 
7,225 
279,901 
1,532,420 
504,773 

1,647,000 
775,000 
i9  500,000 
1,007,000 
3,051,000 
407,253,000 
9  4,000,000 

35.21 

16.76 
10.16 
139.38 
10.90 
265  .  76 
7  92 

Cuba  
Denmark.  .  .  . 

43,000 
15,360 

1,573,000 
2,465.000 

36.58 
160  48 

Ecuador  
Egypt.  . 

116,000 
383,900 

1,204,000 
9,734,000 

10.38 
25  36 

Finland  
France  
Algeria  .  . 

144,255 
207,054 
184  474 

2,744,000 
38,962,000 
4,739  000 

19.02 
188.17 
25  69 

Tunis  

51,000 

1,900,000 

37  25 

French  colonies,  n   e.  s 

3  375,602 

26,427,000 

7  83 

French  East  Indies  6  
German  Empire 

461,196 
208,830 

18,346,000 
58,549,000 

39.78 
280  36 

German  colonies  
Greece.  .... 

1,025,829 
25,014 

13,543,000 
2,434,000 

13.20 
97  31 

Haiti 

10  204 

1,294  000 

126  81 

India,  British7    . 

1,766,642 

294,361,000 

166  62 

Italy  . 

110  646 

32,475  000 

293  50 

Japan  

147,655 

45,862,000 

310  60 

Formosa.  .  .  . 

13,458 

2,706,000 

201  07 

Korea  
Mexico.  .  .  . 

84,400 
767,060 

9  12,000,000 
13,545,000 

142.18 
17  65 

12  563 

5,347  000 

425  61 

Dutch  East  Indies  

736,400 
124,130 

35,736,000 
2,263,000 

48.53 
18  23 

Paraguay  
Persia  . 

97,722 
628,000 

636,000 
9  9,500,000 

6.51 
15  13 

Peru  

713,859 

4,610,000 

6.46 

Portugal  
Roumania  

36,038 
50,700 

5,429,000 
5,913,000 

150.65 
116.63 

Russia  
Santo  Domingo  

8,660,395 
18  045 

141,000,000 
610,000 

16.28 
33  80 

Servia  

18,630 

2,536,000 

136.12 

Siam  

236,000 
194  783 

5,000,000 
18,618,000 

21.19 
95  58 

172  876 

5  199  000 

30  07 

Switzerland  
Turkey 

15,976 
1  115  046 

3,356,000 
24,932,000 

210.07 
22  36 

United  Kingdom  
United  States 

121,371 
8a  3,025  600 

41,961,000 
80,372,000 

345.73 
26.56 

Philippine  Islands  

115,000 

7,590,000 

66.00 

Uruguay  

72,210 
593,940 

959,000 
2,445,000 

13.28 
4  12 

Total.  . 

41,414,336 

1,508,659,000 

1  Exclusive  of  intercolonial  commerce,  but  including  gold  and  silver.  2  Including  gold 
5  French  Africa.  6  Includes  French  possessions  in  India  and  French  Indo-China,  viz., 
the  feudatory  States.  8  Included  under  Sweden.  8a  Exclusive  of  Alaska  and  Hawaii. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


15 


OF   THE  WORLD,    THEIR  TOTAL    FOREIGN  COMMERCE,   AND 
THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Statistics,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor. 


Foreign 

Commerce. 

Commercf 
United 

j  with  the 
States. 

• 

Excess  of 

Exports  from 

Imports  into 

Year. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

Exports  (  +  )  or 

United  States 

United  States 

Imports  (  —  ). 

to. 

from. 

Dollars. 

Dollars. 

Dollars. 

Dollars. 

Dollars. 

1902 

99,433,000 

173,205,000 

+      73,772,000 

9,808,529 

10,396,873 

1902 

i  203,644,000 

i  213,713,000 

+       10,069,000 

28,101,784 

2  13,845,001 

1902 

255,121,000 

2  66,403,000 

+       11,282,000 

1902 

349,228,000 

388,460,000 

+      39,232,000 

6,672,580 

10,093,346 

1902 

'459,472,666  ' 

'371,620,660  ' 

'  -  "  87,852,'ddo 

43,515,112 

17,912,084 

1902 

5,587,000 

11,076,000 

+        5,489,000 

76,926 

1,731 

1902 

113,288,000 

177,323,000 

+      64,035,000 

11,155,565 

71,583,086 

1902 

475,370,000 

280,744,000 

-     194,626,000 

57,886,757 

22,875,024 

1902 

13,751,000 

20,011,000 

+        6,260,000 

31903 

224,814,000 

196,161,000 

-      28,653,000 

i23,472,'416'  ' 

MJMKUIO  ' 

1902 

4,415,000 

5,661,000 

+        1,246,000 

1,697,043 

3,291,545 

1900 

3,018,000 

7,134,000 

+        4,116,000 

1,128,418  . 

2,190,145 

1902 

1,672,000 

2,357,000 

+           685,000 

969,963 

1,136,220 

1901 

2,185,000 

3,243,000 

+        1,058,000 

1,364,518 

2,199,313 

1902 

2,624,000 

3,926,000 

+         1,302,000 

868,329 

583,459 

1902 

48,330,000 

67,846,000 

+       19,510,000 

3,753,222 

7,155,839 

1902 

198,364,000 

134,720,000 

-      63,644,000 

22,698,282 

26,182,113 

1898 

10,695,000 

18,487.000 

+        7,792,000 

2,923,404 

3,140,043 

31903 

58,826,000 

77,849,000 

+      19,023,000 

21,769,572 

62,341,942 

1902 

116,726,000 

85,730,000 

-       30,996,000 

14,812,900 

68,494 

1902 

7,029,000 

8,811,000 

4-         1,782,000 

1,347,850 

1,823,166 

1902 

73,229,000 

87,081,000 

+       13,852,000 

667,577 

10,854,628 

1902 

45,191,000 

39,117,000 

-        6,074,000 

(4) 

(4) 

1902 

848,026,000 

820,671,000 

-      27,355,000 

70,497,327 

87,895,253 

1902 

64,228.000 

60,804,000 

-        3,424,000 

s  386,758 

6  461,102 

1901 

12,483,000 

7,551,000 

4,932,000 

1901-2 

46,808,000 

35,806,000 

-       11,002,000 

2,785,418 

1,088,493 

1902 

41,964,000 

40,677,000 

1,287,000 

62,361 

3,873 

1902 

1,340,178,000 

1,113,313,000 

-     226,865,000 

174,264,495 

111,999,904 

1901 

8,969,000 

4,497,000 

4,472,000 

30,949 

11,702 

1902 

26,034,000 

15,466,000 

-       10,568,000 

369,919 

1,229,144 

1901 

5,500,000 

12,760,000 

+        7,260,000 

1,956,343 

1,127,641 

1902-3 

255,614,000 

408,396,000 

+     152,782,000 

4,866,683 

51,831,665 

1902 

342,718,000 

284,177,000 

-      58,541,000 

33,135,512 

33,612,864 

1902 

135,322,000 

127,326,000 

7,996,000 

21,622,603 

40,597,582 

1902 

5,030,000 

6,881,000 

+        1,851,000 

1902 

6,744,000 

4,142,000 

2,602,000 

257,130 

31903 
1902 

74,690,000 
867,308,000 

88,200,000 
732,975,000 

4-       13,510,000 
-     134,333,000 

42,227,786 
74,576,164 

'»  61,802,902" 

20,899,588 

1901 

86,894,000 

98,724,000 

+       11,830,000 

2,210,963 

15,343,948 

1902 

77,779,000 

45,687,000 

-      32,092,000 

(8) 

(8) 

1902 

2,270,000 

3,787,000 

+        1,517,000 

14,815 

3,890 

1902 
1902 
1902 

23,703,000 
21,062,000 
60.044,000 

13,243,000 
17,938,000 
30,710,000 

10,460,000 
3,124,000 
-      29,334,000 

2t573,'289'  ' 
2,915,897 

2,826,493 

3,229,813 

1902 
1901 

54,686,000 
305,614,000 

72,340,000 
392,215,000 

+       18,654,000 
+      86,601  ,000 

138,635 
7,518,177 

65 

7,262,757 

1901 

2,987,000 

5,224,000 

+        2,237,000 

1,700,371 

3,361,319 

1902 

8,650,000 

13,920,000 
91   10^  000 

+        5,270,000 
+        5  321  000 

33,149 

1902 
1902 
1902 
1898-99 
1902 

1  75^4871000 
134,605,000 
217,803,000 
117,134,000 
2,571,416,000 

Z  1  ,  1  Uo  ,  UUu 

161,297,000 
105,154,000 
168,741,000 
59,072,000 
1,379,283,000 

-      29!45l|oOO 
-      49,062,000 
-      58,062,000 
-1,192,133,000 

15,976,788 
9,530,137 
203,357 
354,457 
523,773,397 

8,787,621 
4,193,307 
19,864,767 
2,359,830 
180,249,114 

3  1903 
1902 

1898 

'  32^9721000 
-      24,565,000 
8,560,000 

'  33',122!000 
33,656,000 
14,900,000 

'  150,  000 

+        9,091,000 
+        6,340,000 

4*  ,038,909 
1,549,812 
2,736,726 

11,372,584 
2,830,069 
6,609,919 

i    11,621,366,000 

10.266,667,000 

-1,354,699,000 

1,356,965,925 

1,003,224,820 

and  silver.  2a  Not  included  in  total.  3  Year  ending  June  30  "  Included  under .Russia. 
Cochin  China,  Tonkin,  Annam,  Cambodia,  and  Laos.  7  Including  area  and  population  ot 
a  Estimated. 


16 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


CHAPTER    II. 


SHIPPING     AND     YACHTS. 


SUMMARY   OF   SHIPPING. 


The  growth  of  our  merchant  marine 
is  slow,  and  is  in  no  sense  commensu- 
rate with  our  phenomenal  advance- 
ment in  manufactures  and  commerce. 
At  the  same  time,  it  is  a  fact  worthy 
of  note  that  the  documented  tonnage 
of  the  United  States  on  June  30,  1903, 
for  the  first  time  in  our  history  exceed- 
ed 6,000,000  gross  tons  register,  com- 
prising 24,425  vessels  of  6,087,345 
gross  tons.  These  figures  do  not  in- 
clude 1,828  yachts  of  74,990  gross  tons. 
The  total  shipping  of  the  United  King- 
dom for  1902  was  20,258  vessels,  of 
15,357,052  gross  tons  (vessels  of  Brit- 
ish colonies  number  15,533  of  512,268 
net  tons).  On  January  1,  1902,  the  to- 
tal shipping  of  the  German  Empire  was 
6,024  vessels  of  3,503,551  gross  tons. 
The  shipping  of  the  United  Kingdom 
and  Germany  is  largely  employed  in 
developing  foreign  trade.  The  ship- 
ping of  the  United  States  is  almost 
wholly  a  part  of  our  domestic  trans- 
portation system.  On  June  30,  1903, 
5,141,037  gross  tons  were  engaged  in 
transportation  and  coastwise  trade, 
879,264  gross  tons  were  devoted  to 
foreign  trade,  and  67,044  to  fisheries. 
The  distribution  of  our  tonnage  on 
June  30,  1903,  was :  Atlantic  Ocean, 
3.157,373  gross  tons;  Pacific  Ocean, 
812.179  gross  tons;  the  Great  Lakes, 
1,902,698  gross  tons;  Mississippi  sys- 
tem, 215,095  gross  tons.  Our  ship- 
ping on  the  Pacific  has  increased  more 
rapidly  than  on  the  Atlantic.  In  re- 
gard to  motive  power,  3,408,088  gross 
tons  were  propelled  by  steam,  and  1,- 
965,924  gross  tons  were  sailing  ves- 
sels, and  713,333  gross  tons  of  canal- 
boats  and  barges  were  variously  pro- 
pelled. As  regards  the  materials  of 
construction,  2,440,247  gross  tons  were 
of  iron  and  steel  construction,  and  3,- 
647,098  gross  tons  were  of  wood.  The 
following  table  shows  the  geographical 
distribution,  motive  power,  and  ma- 
terial of  construction  of  American 
shipping  June  30,  1903. 


American  Shipping. 

Number. 

Gross 
Tonnage. 

GEOGRAPHICAL    DIS- 
TRIBUTION. 

Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts  . 
Porto  Rico  
Pacific  coast 

17,218 
59 
2,575 

3,149,711 
7,662 
775,859 

Hawaiian  Islands  
Northern  lakes  
Western  rivers  

69 
3,110 
1,394 

36,320 
1,902,638 
215,095 

Total 

24,425 

6,087,345 

POWER   AND    MATERIAL. 

Sail: 
Wood 

16,187 

2,391,017 

184 

288,240 

Total.  .  .               ... 

16,371 

2,679,257 

Steam: 
Wood. 

6,675 

1,256,081 

Iron  and  steel  
Total  

1,379 
8,054 

2,152,007 
3,418,088 

Canal  boats 

695 

78,406 

Barges  

2,840 

634,927 

Total      . 

3,535 

713,333 

CONSTRUCTION   DURING 
THE    YEAR    1903. 

Geographical  distribution. 
Altantic  and  Gulf  coasts  . 

847 
191 

244,860 
43,336 

Northern  lakes  

123 

136,844 

Western  rivers  

150 

11,112 

Total  

Power  and  material. 
Sail: 
Wood 

1,311 
466 

436,152 
77,795 

Steel                  

4 

12,184 

Steam  : 
Wood                        

451 

31,674 

Iron  and  steel  

100 
19 

240,107 
2,215 

Barges: 
Wood     

267 

66,249 

Steel  

4 

5,928 

Total.  . 

1,311 

436,152 

17 


18 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


During  the  years  1902  and  1903, 
nearly  100,000  tons  of  large  ocean-go- 
ing steamers  have  been  added  to  our 
registered  fleet. 

The  subject  of  the  losses  of  vessels 
from  various  causes  is  a  most  impor- 
tant one.  During  the  year  ending 
June  30,  1903,  487  vessels  of  107,084 
gross  tons  were  reported.  The  num- 
ber and  rig  of  vessels  lost  is  shown 
by  the  annexed  table  : 


nearby  countries.  The  excellent  light- 
house system  of  the  American  coast  and 
care  in  navigation  have,  however,  over- 
come liability  to  accident  from  the  na- 
ture of  our  trade  along  the  coasts. 
Collision  differs  totally  from  stranding 
in  that,  for  its  prevention,  one  must 
look  to  the  navigating  officers.  The 
figures  show  that  superior  care  and  in- 
telligence are  possessed  by  the  navi- 
gating officers  of  American  steamers. 


Rig. 

Strancjed. 

Collision. 

Fire. 

Foun- 
dered. 

Aban- 
doned. 

Total. 

Steam.  .  . 

21 

8 

49 

28 

106 

Sail. 

153 

25 

61 

107 

.  .  .      .  . 

359 

Unrigged  

7 

3 

2 

10 

22 

Total  

181 

36 

112 

145 

13 

487 

The  very  heavy  percentage  of  loss 
of  steamers  by  fire  discloses  unsatis- 
factory attention  to  duty  in  the  hold 
or  insufficient  fire  apparatus,  or  both. 
The  table  given  includes  lost  American 
vessels  of  all  sizes  on  the  rivers  and 
lakes  of  the  country,  as  well  as  salt 
water.  For  comparison  of  the  relative 
losses  of  the  merchant  shipping  of  the 
United  States  and  foreign  nations,  the 
most  complete  figures  are  those  of  the 
"Bureau  Veritas."  They  cover  only 
sea-going  steamers  of  over  100  gross 
tons  and  sea-going  sail  vessels  of  over 
50  net  tons.  The  proportion  of  for- 
eign vessels  on  the  ocean  is  so  great 
and  of  American  vessels  so  small  that 
the  figures  do  not  clearly  disclose  the 
relative  security  of  navigation  under 
various  flags  and  laws.  Figures  show 
that  American  sea-going  vessels  from 
1896  to  1903  have  been  less  liable  to 
accident  but  more  liable  to  total  loss 
than  foreign  steamers,  while  American 
sea-going  sail  vessels  have  been  more 
liable  both  to  accident  and  loss  than 
foreign  sea-going  sail  vessels.  The 
losses  of  both  steamers  and  sail  vessels 
of  all  nations  are  due,  of  course,  more 
to  stranding  than  to  any  other  cause, 
as  it  accounts  for  47  per  cent,  of  the 
losses  of  American  sea-going  steamers 
and  53  per  cent,  of  the  losses  of 
American  sea-going  sail  vessels. 
The  losses  of  foreign  steamers  are 
44  per  cent.,  and  tne  losses  of  for- 
eign sail  vessels  46  per  cent.  There 
is  a  special  reason  why  American  ves- 
sels are  more  liable  to  stranding 
than  the  vessels  of  other  nations  which 
conduct  the  world's  deep-sea  trade. 
American  vessels  are  seldom  found  in 
midocean  on  long  voyages.  Their 
course  is  usually  along  our  own  coasts 
in  the  domestic  trade,  or  in  trade  with 


The  third  cause  of  loss  and  accident 
in  the  order  followed  by  the  "Bureau 
Veritas"  is  fire.  The  element  of  di- 
rect human  responsibility  in  the  case 
of  fire  is  considerably  greater  than  in 
cases  of  collision,  where  fog  and  the 
fault  of  the  second  party  to  the  colli- 
sion may  produce  disaster,  and  is 
much  greater  than  in  cases  of  strand- 
ing, where  fog,  defective  charts,  and 
an  inadequately  lighted  coast  add  to 
the  perils  which  stress  of  weather  al- 
ways creates.  Afloat  or  ashore  fire 
seems  usually  to  be  a  peril  to  life  and 
property,  to  be  guarded  against  only 
by  a  higher  degree  of  men's  watchful- 
ness or  by  better  extinguishing  ap- 
pliances. Each  vessel  is  separated 
usually  by  the  water  from  every  other 
vessel  as  buildings  ashore  are  not  sepa- 
rated, so  that  extra  precautions  should 
produce  better  results  with  ships  than 
with  buildings.  The  American  steam 
fleet  contains  a  considerable  propor- 
tion of  wooden  hulls,  while  foreign 
steamers  are  usually  steel.  Still  it  is 
not  pleasant  to  notice  that  while  the 
loss  of  18  per  cent,  of  lost  American 
steamers  may  be  charged  to  fire,  the 
loss  of  only  4  per  cent,  of  lost  for- 
eign steamers  is  charged  to  this  cause ; 
that  while  8  per  cent,  of  damaged 
American  steamers  suffered  from  fire, 
only  5  per  cent,  of  foreign  vessels  came 
from  this  cause ;  that  4  per  cent,  of 
lost  American  sail  vessels  were  burned 
and  only  2  per  cent,  of  lost  foreign 
sail  vessels  were  burned.  The  only  re- 
lieving feature  of  these  particular  fig- 
ures is  that  the  proportion  of  accidents 
from  fire  to  American  sail  vessels — 3 
per  cent,  of  the  total — was  the  same  as 
to  foreign  vessels.  The  situation  dis- 
closed may  be  corrected.  Whether  that 
correction  should  come  from  the  under- 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


writers  or  from  the  Government  in  its 
legislative  or  executive  branch  is  not 
now  considered. 

Collision  to  a  great  extent,  and  fire 
to  a  greater  extent, -cause  loss  or  acci- 
dent to  vessels  mainly  through  lack  of 
skill  and  vigilance  of  the  officers  and 
crew.  Except  where  caused  by  unu- 
sual storms  or  waves  vessels  founder, 
on  the  other  hand,  on  account  of  struc- 
tural weakness  of  the  hull.  This 
weakness  may  be  inherent  and  the 
fault  of  the  builder,  or  it  may  be  due 
to  age  and  inadequate  repair,  the  fault 
of  the  owner.  In  rare  cases  a  new  ves- 
sel, splendidly  built,  may  yield  to  the 
tempest.  The  separation  of  causes  of 
loss  by  the  "Bureau  Veritas"  into 
foundered,  abandoned,  and  missing, 
while  proper  enough  from  the  point  of 
view  of  the  statistician,  is  not  wholly 
satisfactory  to  those  required  to  deal 
with  facts  from  the  point  of  view  of 
possible  remedy.  The  three  classes, 
foundered,  abandoned,  and  missing, 
really  constitute  one  class  for  remedial 
purposes.  That  class  consists  of  ves- 
sels which,  on  account  of  defects  of 
the  hull,  are  lost  at  sea.  Most  of 
them  founder.  Some  of  them  are 
abandoned  by  their  crews  and  the  ship 
does  not  actually  go  down  before  their 
eyes.  All  of  these  ultimately  go  down 
except  the  proportion  kept  afloat  by 
their  cargoes,  such  as  lumber-laden 
schooners.  This  small  proportion  con- 
stitutes the  class  known  as  "derelicts." 
Leaks  (defects  in  a  vessel's  bottom) 
cause  about  2  per  cent,  of  the  accidents 
to  American  steamers  and  to  foreign 
steamers.  Leaks,  again,  cause  20  per 
cent,  of  the  accidents  to  American  sail 
vessels,  and  only  15  per  cent,  of  the 
accidents  to  foreign  sail  vessels. 

Stress  of  weather  or  storms  ac- 
counted for  10  per  cent  of  the  acci- 
dents to  American  steamers,  13  per 
cent,  of  accidents  to  foreign  steamers, 
30  per  cent,  of  accidents  to  American 
sail  vessels,  and  35  per  cent,  of  acci- 
dents to  foreign  sail  vessels.  Doubt- 
less the  excellent  system  of  weather 
reports  and  storm  warning  along  the 
American  coasts  helps  to  produce  this 
favorable  showing  for  American  ves- 
sels. The  principal  cause  of  accidents 
to  American  steamers  lies  in  the  en- 
gines and  boilers  to  which  29  per  cent, 
of  our  steamer  accidents  are  charged, 
compared  with  24  per  cent,  for  for- 
eign steamers.  Collision  (31  per  cent.) 
is  the  principal  cause  of  British  steam- 
er accidents;  stranding  (31  per  cent.) 
of  German  accidents.  Accidents  to 
engines  and  boilers  may  be  due  to  de- 


fective original  construction,  to  inade- 
quate repairs,  or  to  faults  of  the  men 
in  charge  of  them.  Generally  speak- 
ing, American  machinery  holds  a 
high  place  in  the  world's  esteem,  and 
while  positive  evidence  is  not  at  hand, 
it  still  seems  probable  that  American 
marine  engines  and  boilers  are  equal 
to  those  of  foreign  make.  If  that  be 
so  then  the  large  proportion  of  acci- 
dents from  engines  and  boilers  must 
proceed  from  one  or  both  of  the  other 
two  causes  mentioned.  The  returns 
of  the  number  of  men  including  mas- 
ters required  to  man  the  documented 
fleet  of  merchant  vessels  and  yachts 
of  the  United  States  report  crews  ag- 
gregating 135,828  men,  88,249  men  be- 
ing engaged  on  steamers,  while  the 
crews  of  sailing  vessels  number  45,- 
030  men,  and  unrigged  boats  require 
2,549  men  to  man  them.  These  fig- 
ures are  only  for  the  crews  reported. 

Returns  for  1903  show  that  3,086 
American  steam  vessels,  including 
yachts,  aggregating  2,994.866  gross 
tons,  are  propelled  by  engines  aggre- 
gating 2,369,202  indicated  horsepower. 
The  figures  indicate  an  annual  con- 
sumption of  about  10,000,000  long  tons 
of  coal  for  fuel  on  these  steamers,  and 
the  employment  on  board  of  about  20,- 
000  men  as  firemen  and  trimmers.  The 
total  number  of  steam  vessels  (includ- 
ing motor  launches)  on  June  30,  1903, 
was  8,801  of  3,459,644  gross  tons,  so 
that  the  figures  stated  cover  86  per 
cent,  of  our  steam  tonnage,  including 
yachts.  In  the  navy  207  steam  vessels 
of  206,953  tons  (displacement)  are 
propelled  by  engines  of  624,745  indi- 
cated horse-power. — Condensed  from 
the  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Commissioner 
of  Navigation. 


Flag  Day. — Flag  Day  is  June  14. 
"Old  Glory"  was  127  years  old  on  June 
14,  1904. 


NATIONAL  SWISS  RAILWAYS. 

Four  of  the  chief  railway  lines  in 
Switzerland — the  Central  Suisse,  the 
Nord  Est,  the  Union  Suisse,  and  the 
Jura-Simplon — have  been  nationalized. 
There  only  remains  the  St.  Gothard 
Company.  The  existing  concession 
will  be  renounced  1905,  and  the  pur- 
chase price  fixed  on  the  basis  of  the 
average  returns  of  the  10  years  pre- 
ceding 1894-1904. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


STATEMENT    OF    NUMBER   AND    NET    AND    GROSS    TONNAGE 

STEAM  AND  SAILING  VESSELS  OF  OVER  100  TONS,  OF 

THE  SEVERAL  COUNTRIES  OF  THE  WORLD, 

AS  RECORDED  IN  LLOYD'S 

REGISTER  FOR  1903-4. 


OF 


Steam. 


Sail. 


Total. 


.riag. 

Num- 
ber. 

Net  Tons. 

Gross 
Tons. 

Num- 
ber. 

Net  Tons. 

Num- 
ber. 

Ton- 
nage. 

British: 
United  Kingdom  

7,530 

8,233,721 

13,410,894 

1,622 

1,478,677 

9,152 

14,889,571 

Colonies 

1,023 

466,732 

782,688 

959 

334  115 

1  982 

1  116  803 

Total  

American  (United  States)  : 
Sea  
Lake  

8,553 

862 
349 

8,700,453 

810,003 
756,470 

14,193,582 

1,220,995 
1,001,072 

2,581 

2,119 

56 

1,812,792 

1,259,986 
129,903 

11,134 

2,981 
405 

16,006,374 

2,480,981 
1,130,975 

Total 

1,211 

1,566,473 

2,222,067 

2,175 

1,389,889 

3,386 

3,611,956 

Argentine  
Austro-Hungarian.  .  . 

119 

267 

44,678 
348,461 

70,862 
557,745 

99 
29 

24,918 
20,952 

218 
296 

95,780 
578,697 

Belgian.  . 

112 

103,459 

156  559 

2 

488 

114 

157,047 

Brazilian.  .  .  . 
Chilean. 

228 
49 

84,110 
42,164 

132,107 
67,186 

90 
59 

22,979 
36,572 

318 
108 

155,086 
103,758 

Chinese.  .  . 
Cuban.  ... 

45 
41 

38,807 
24,703 

60,491 
38,550 

12 

2,324 

45 
53 

60,491 
40,874 

Danish. 

385 

283  490 

483  968 

414 

97  279 

799 

581  247 

Dutch.  (  
French. 

360 

717 

387,800 
584  180 

613,219 
1  153  761 

98 
638 

45,626 
468  255 

458 
1  355 

658,845 
1,622,016 

German 

1  425 

I  720  106 

2  794  311 

473 

488  936 

1  898 

3  283  247 

Greek.  .  . 

199 

'205*996 

325  895 

192 

52  304 

391 

378,199 

Italian  
Japanese  
Mexican  
Norwegian.  .  . 

365 
544 
32 

962 

448,704 
366,232 
9,070 
570  869 

704,109 
585,542 
15,210 
935  229 

861 
1,042 
16 
1  256 

476,226 
141,276 
3,678 
718  511 

1,226 
1,586 
48 
2  218 

1,180,335 

726,818 
18,888 
1,653,740 

Philippine  Islands.  .  .  . 

92 

27,035 

43,138 

37 

8,261 

129 

51,399 

Portuguese 

48 

32  642 

51  217 

152 

50  087 

200 

101,304 

Russian 

573 

354  539 

578  343 

726 

231  305 

1  299 

809,648 

Spanish.  .  .  . 

459 

461  333 

720  822 

136 

43  625 

595 

764,447 

Swedish.  . 

750 

308  623 

502  581 

764 

218  535 

1  514 

721,116 

Turkish  

125 

57  970 

92  869 

216 

61  625 

341 

154,494 

Other  countries  

23,330 

15 

5,333 

47 

28,663 

Total,  including  coun- 
tries not  specified.  .  .  . 

17,761 

16,822,466 

27,183,365 

12,182 

6,459,766 

29,943 

33,643,131 

THE  WORLD'S  LARGE  AND  FAST  OCEAN  STEAMSHIPS. 

The  following  table  shows  the  sea- 

foing  screw  steamships  in  the  world  of 
2  knots  or  upward,  and  of  2,000  gross 
tons  or  more,  recorded  in  Lloyd's  Reg- 
ister on  July  1,  1903$  including  a  few 
vessels  building  at  that  time.  While 
in  tonnage  these  vessels  are  about  one- 
fourth  of  the  wrorld's  sea-going  steam 
tonnage,  in  efficiency,  due  to  their  size 
and  speed,  they  represent  more  nearly 
one-third  of  the  effective  ocean-carry- 
ing power  of  the  world  in  the  general 
foreign  and  colonial  carrying  trade, 
and  probably  85  per  cent,  of  the 
world's  foreign  passenger  trade. 


1 

903. 

Speed. 

Num- 
ber. 

Tons. 

Twenty  knots  and  over  
Under  20  and  over  19  knots. 

20 
9 

236,114 
63,219 

Under  19  and  over  18  knots. 

24 

191,454 

Under  18  and  over  17  knots  . 

56 

378,197 

Under  17  and  over  16  knots. 

80 

550,315 

Under  16  and  over  15  knots. 

98 

509,479 

Under  15  and  over  14  knots. 

154 

766,719 

Under  14  and  over  13  knots. 

379 

1,886.602 

Under  13  and  over  12  knots. 

502 

2,079,775 

Total.  . 

1,322 

6,661,874 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


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22 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


flag: 


The  following  table  classifies  these    vessels  in  1903,  according  to  speed  and 


Speed  in  Knots. 


20 

19 

18 

17 

16 

i5 

14 

13 

12 

Total. 

British 

7 

17 

25 

40 

38 

80 

197 

308 

712 

German  
American.  . 

5 

4 

2 

3 
3 

9 

7 
15 

8 
26 

9 

27 

38 

28 

68 
17 

140 
12Q 

French  

2 

2 

19 

5 

1 

3 

42 

39 

113 

Russian  

2 

4 

2 

2 

2 

20 

32 

Spanish  
Roumanian  

1 

"  Y  ' 

2 

2 

5 

6 

7 

23 
1 

Italian  

1 

9 

6 

10 

12 

38 

Japanese  . 

3 

2 

3 

7 

24 

6 

45 

Austro-Hungarian  

2 

3 

2 

11 

6 

24 

Danish  

3 

3 

Dutch 

5 

6 

3 

14 

28 

Belgian.     ...           

1 

1 

9 

2 

13 

Chilean  

9 

1 

10 

Portuguese 

-    6 

6 

Brazilian    .         

3 

3 

Argentine 

2 

2 

Total 

20 

9 

24 

56 

80 

98 

154 

379 

502 

1  322 

MOTIVE  POWER  AND  CHIEF  MATERIALS  OF  CONSTRUCTION  OF 
THE  WORLD'S  MERCHANT  MARINE. 

MOTIVE  POWER. 


Year. 


1890. 
1895. 
1900. 
1903. 


Total 

Vessels. 

Steam. 

S 

ail. 

Num- 
ber. 

Tons. 

Num- 
ber. 

Gross 
Tons. 

Net  Tons. 

Num- 
ber. 

Net  Tons. 

32,298 
30,368 
28,422 
29,943 

22,151,651 
25,107,632 
29,043,728 
33,643,131 

11,108 
13,256 
15,898 
17,761 

12,985,372 
16,887,971 
22,369,358 
27,183,365 

8,295,514 
10,573,642 
13,856,513 
16,822,466 

21,190 
17,112 
12,524 
12,182 

9,166,279 
8,219,661 
6,674,370 
6,459,766 

Recorded  in  Lloyd's,  100  tons  or  over. 
CON  STRUCTION. 


Year. 

Total  Vessels. 

Steam. 

Sail. 

Num- 
ber. 

Tons. 

Num- 
ber. 

Gross  Tons. 

Num- 
ber. 

Net  Tons. 

1890  
1895 

1,362 
794 
1,285 
1,336 

1,646,809 
1,211,615 
2,268,938 
2,346,315 

880 
629 
966 
900 

1,328,541 
1,114,019 
2,046,339 
2,218,600 

482 
165 
319 
436 

318,268 
97,596 
222,599 
285,340 

1900.  
1902  

Vessels  built  in  the  world  (over  100  tons),  according  to  Lloyd's  (including  vessels  not 
recorded  in  Lloyd's). 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


FOREIGN  CARRYING   TRADE — UNITED  STATES. 


The  following  statement  of  the 
value  of  imports  and  exports  carried 
in  United  States  and  in  foreign  ves- 
sels, and  the  tonnage  of  entries  and 


clearances  from  1821  to  1903,  is  fur- 
nished by  the  Bureau  of  Statistics, 
Treasury  Department : 


Imports. 

Exports. 

Fiscal  Year  — 

In  Cars  and 
Other  Land 
Vehicles. 

In  American 

Vessels. 

In  Foreign 
Vessels. 

In  Cars  and 
Other  Land 
Vehicles. 

In  American 
Vessels. 

In  Foreign 
Vessels. 

1821    

$58,025,890 

$4,559,825 

$55,175,572 

$9,798,410 

1825  . 

91,902,512 

4,437,563 

88,799,749 

10,735  639 

1830  
1835 

66,035,739 

135,288,865 

4,481,181 
14,606,877 

63,882,719 
94,135,191 

9,966,789 
27  558  386 

1840 

92,802,352 

14,339,167 

105,622,257 

26,463,689 

1845 

102  438  481 

14,816  083 

86,942  442 

27  704  164 

1850 

139,657,043 

38,481,275 

99,615,041 

52,283,679 

1855 

202,234,900 

59,233,620 

203,250,562 

71,906,284 

1860 

228,164  855 

134,001  399 

279,082,902 

121,039  394 

1865  
1870  
1875  
1880  

813i68'3,859  ' 
15,142,465 

74,385,116 
153,237,077 
157,872,726 
149,317,368 

174,170,536 
309,140,510 
382,949,568 
503,494,913 

'  $7',364,376 

5,838,928 

93,017,756 
199,732  324 
156,385,066 
109,029,209 

262,839,588 
329,786,978 
501,838,949 
720,770,521 

1885      . 

21,149,470 

112,864,052 

443,513,801 

24,183,299 

82,001,691 

636,004,765 

1890.  

40,621,361 

124,948,948 

623,740,100 

32,949,902 

77,502,138 

747,376.644 

1895 

33  201,988 

108,229,615 

590,538,362 

49,902,754 

62,277,581 

695,357,830 

1900.  .  . 
1903  

44,412,509 
66,208,195 

104,304,940 
123,666,832 

701,223,735 
835,844,210 

110,483,141 
138,851,301 

90,779,252 
91,028,200 

1,193,220,689 
1.190,258,178 

Note.—  The  amounts  carried  in  cars -and  other  land  vehicles  were  not  separately  stated 
prior  to  July  1,  1870.  Exports  are  stated  in  mixed  gold  and  currency  values  from  1862  to  1869 
inclusive. 


The  following  table  shows  the  dis- 
tances by  the  proposed  Panama  route 
from  some  of  the  principal  seaports  of 


PANAMA  ROUTE. 

North  and  South  America,  Europe  and 
Africa,  to  San  Francisco  and  Val- 
paraiso. 


(Nautical  miles.) 


From 

Panama 
Route, 
San  Fran- 
cisco. 

Panama 
Route, 
Valpa- 
raiso. 

From 

Panama 
Route. 
San  Fran- 
cisco. 

Panama 
Route. 
Valpa- 
raiso. 

Halifax 

5,604 

5,210 

Hamburg  

8,423 

7,729 

Portland  
Boston  
New  York 

5,471 
5,425 
5  278 

4,781 
4,735 

4,584 

Bremen  
Amsterdam  
Antwerp  

8,419 
8,202 
8,172 

7,725 
7,508 
7,478 

Philadelphia 

5  267 

4  573 

Havre.                    .  .    . 

7,959 

7,265 

5  320 

4  626 

8  367 

7,673 

4  915 

4  221 

London  

8,145 

7,451 

Savannah 

4,920 

4,226 

Liverpool  

7,907 

7,213 

Key  West  
Pensacola  
Mobile 

4,428 
4,696 
4,723 

3,744 
4,002 
4,029 

Glasgow  
Dublin  
Lisbon  

7,890 
7,823 
7,502 

7,186 
7,129 
6,813 

4  732 

4  038 

Gibraltar 

7677 

6,983 

Galveston  

4,833 
4  365 

4,139 
3  671 

Barcelona  
Naples   . 

8,191 
8,663 

7,497 
7,969 

San  Juan  (P.  R.).  .  .. 
Buenos  Ayres  

4,335 

8,732 
8  632 

3,641 
8,038 
8  038 

Trieste  
Constantinople  
Alexandria  

9,358 
9,514 
9,482 

8,664 
8,820 
8,788 

Rio  Janeiro  

7,642 
9  238 

6,948 
8  544 

Port  Said  

9,610 
8,605 

8,916 
7,911 

Stockholm  
Copenhagen  

8,940 
8,503 

8,246 
7,809 

Free  Town  
Cape  Town  

7,160 
9,760 

6,468 

*  New  York  to  San  Francisco  via  Magellan  Straits,  13,090. 


24 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


PANAMA 
NICARAGUA' 


'07AL    LENGTH. 

186. 53  Mars 


&  SHARPNESS  Of  CVffVATURE 

TOTAL  LFMGTH  ?2. 
TOTAL  m  or  DEGREES  7  7/  ° 


49.29 M. 


LOCKS. 


//O. 


SUMMIT  LEVEL  //Of  7 


J*V 

JAN.  /ST/2W. 


MEAN  SEA  LEVEL  O. 

T/ME  OF  TffANS/  T 


•3  78  X/VQ  TS_  GA1N-         -- 


JAN. 


DIAGRAM  SHOWING  SUPERIOR  ADVANTAGES     OF    THE    PANAMA    CANAL 
OVER    THE    NICARAGUA  CANAL. 

PANAMA,   SUEZ,  AND  CAPE  OF      WORLD'S  OUTPUT  OF  TONNAGE. 


\jt\j\ju    a.\jrrj    AVV>HJ  xjno. 

The    following   table   gives   the   dis- 
tance from  New  York  to  ports  named 
by  the  routes  specified  : 

Countries. 

1903. 

1902. 

Tons. 
1,619,040 
272,350 
314,900 
91,120 
189,930 
49,900 
34,330 
14,560 
22,440 
20,900 
2,740 
2,040 
200 
13,500 
35,570 
3,820 

United  Kingdom  
Germany  
United  States  
Holland  
France  

Tons. 
1,409,630 
261,003 
493,144 
71,423 
107,431 
52,380 
61,057 
17,301 
23,849 
37,208 
63,726 
2,040 
72 
13,252 
35,411 
6,631 
4,309 
2,379 
16,000 

From 

Via 
Pan- 
ama. 

Via 
Suez. 

Via  Cape 
of  Good 
Hope. 

New  York  to— 
Tientsin  
Shanghai  .... 
Tokyo  
Manila  
Melbourne  .  .  . 

10,908 
10,828 
9,692 
11,412 
9,911 

12,914 
12,187 
13,019 
11,435 
12,737 

15,063 
14,446 
15,178 
13,555 
12,206 

Italy  
Norway  and  Sweden  .  . 
Belgium  
Denmark  
Austria-Hungary. 

Russia  
Spain  and  Portugal.  .  .  . 
Greece.  .  . 

There  are  47  steamships  engaged  in 
cable-laying  and  repairing. 

Canada  
Japan  (European)  
China  (European)  
Hongkong  (  European  )  . 
Singapore  (European).  . 
Other  countries  

The     longest     submarine     telephone 
cable  is  on  the  London-Brussels  route. 
It  extends  from  St.  Margaret's  Bay  to 
La  Panne,  a  distance  of  54  miles. 

3,000 
10,000 

—  London  Statist. 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


25 


DIMENSIONS  OF  THE  LARGEST  FAST   OCEAN   STEAMERS. 


The  largest  and  in  many  respects 
the  highest  type  of  marine  architecture 
is  to  be  found  in  the  modern  ocean 
greyhound, for  transatlantic  trade.  In 
recent  years  the  rival  companies  have 
vied  with  each  other  ir  the  effort  to 
excel,  and  steamships  of  larger  size, 


greater  speed,  and  more  perfect  equip- 
ment have  followed  each  other,  until 
it  would  seem  that  the  limit  had  been 
reached.  In  the  accompanying  table 
the  largest  and  most  recent  steamers 
are  placed  in  comparison  with  the 
"Great  Eastern." 


Name  of  Ship. 

Date. 

Length 
over  All. 

Beam. 

Depth. 

Draught. 

Displace- 
ment. 

Maxi- 
mum 
Speed. 

Great  Eastern 

1858 

Feet. 

692 

Feet. 
83 

Feet. 
57* 

Feet. 
25* 

Tons. 
27,000 

Knots. 
12 

Paris  
Teutonic  
Campania  
St.  Paul  
Kaiser  Wilhelm  der  Grosse. 
Oceanic  
Deutschland.  
Baltic  

1888 
1890 
1893 
1895 
1897 
1899 
1900 
1904 

560 
585 
625 
554 
649 
704 
686* 
725J 

63 
57* 
65 
63 
66 
68 
67* 
75 

42 
42 
41* 
42 
43 
49 
44 
49 

26* 
26 
28 
27 
29 
32* 
29 
30* 

13,000 
12,000 
19,000 
14,000 
20,000 
28,500 
22,000 
40,000 

20 
20 
22 
21 
22.35 
20 
23.5 
20 

The  following  tables  show  the  fast 
recorded  times  in  which  journeys  have 
been  made  between  English  ports  and 


SPEEDS  OF  OCEAN  GREYHOUNDS. 

those  of  the  United  States,  Canada, 
India,  China,  Burmah,  Australia, 
South  Africa,  aijd  the  West  Indies. 


Dis- 

Speed, 

The  Atlantic 
Record. 

Line  or  Company. 

Timing  of  Record  Run  taken 
between 

tance, 

Nauti- 
cal 
Miles. 

Record 
Run. 

Knots 
per 
Hour. 

D.    H.  M. 

De  u  t  s  c  h  1  and 
(16,500). 

Hamburg  -  Amer- 
ican. 

New  York  (Sandy  Hook)  and 
Plymouth  (off  Eddystone). 

2,982 

E.    5     7  38 

23.36 

Kronprinz  Wil- 

North -German 

New    York    (Sandy    Hook) 

2,978 

E..  5     8  18 

23.21 

helm  (15,000). 
Kaiser  Wilhelm 

Lloyd. 
North  -German 

and  Plymouth. 
New  York  (Sandy  Hook)  and 

3,112 

E.    5  11  58 

23.58 

II. 

Lloyd. 

Plymouth  (off  Eddystone). 

Lucania(  12,952) 

Cunard  

Queenstown  (Daunt's  Rock) 

2,779 

W.  5     7  23 

21.81 

and  New  York. 

St.  Paul  (11,629) 
Teutonic 

American  
White  Star  

Southampton  and  New  York. 
Queenstown  (Daunt's  Rock) 

3,046 

2,778 

W.  6    0  31 
W.  5  16  31 

21.08 
20.34 

(10,000). 

and  New  York. 

Minneapolis 

Atlantic  Transport 

(Off)  Dover  and  New  York 

3,265 

W.  8     2  31 

16.80 

(13,402). 
New    England 

Dominion  

(Sandy  Hook). 
Queenstown  (Daunt's  Rock) 

2,636 

W.  6  12  42 

16.62 

(11,400). 

and  Boston  Light. 

Tunisian 

Allan  

Rimouski  and  Moville  (Ire- 

2,307 

E.    6     5  20 

15.5 

(10,576). 

land)  via  Belle  Isle. 

E.  =  Sailing  eastward.  W.  =  Sailing  westward. 


—Daily  Mail  Year  Book,  1904 


RECORD  OF  ATLANTIC  PASSENGER  SERVICE  TO  NEW  YORK. 


Year, 

No.  of 
Pas- 

Cabin. 

Steerage. 

Total. 

Year. 

No.  of 
Pas- 

Cabin. 

Steerage. 

Total. 

sages. 

sages. 

1896 
1897 
1898 

852 
901 
812 

99,223 
90,932 
80,586 

252,350 
192,004 
219,651 

351,573 
382,936 
300,237 

1900 
1901 
1902 

838 
887 
922 

137,852 
128,143 
139,848 

403,491 

438,868 
574,276 

541,343 
567,011 
714,124 

1899 

826 

107,415 

303,762 

411,177 

—Daily  Mail  Year  Book,  1904. 


26 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


RETURN    OF    PASSENGERS     LANDED    AT    NEW    YORK    BY    FIVE 
PRINCIPAL    LINES. 


19 

32. 

19 

31. 

19 

00. 

Line. 

Cabin. 

Steerage. 

Cabin. 

Steerage. 

Cabin. 

Steerage. 

North-German  Lloyd  
Hamburg-  American  
White  Star  
Cunard.  
American  

27,767 
20,698 
18,402 
16,308 
14,456 

110,697 
98,988 
40,225 
23,650 
20,658 

22,960 
20,977 
18,167 
17,783 
12,110 

101,384 
78,560 
30,483 
19,943 
12  511 

26,577 
23,657 
14,948 
20,000 
16,435 

92,143 
72,245 
29,370 
22,751 

16,884 

-Daily  Mail  Year  Book,  1904. 


FIRST  STEAMBOATS,  PIONEER  SAILINGS,  AND 
EARLIEST  LINES. 


1707.  Denis  Papin  experimented  on  River 
Fulda  with  paddle-wheel  steamboat. 

1736.  Jonathan  Hulls  patented  designs 
similar  to  modern  paddle  boat. 

1769.  James  Watt  invented  a  double-acting 
side-lever  engine. 

1783.  Marquess  of  Jouffrey  made  experi- 
ments in  France. 

1785.  James  Ramsey,  in  America,  propelled 
a  boat  with  steam  through  a  stern-pipe. 

1785  Robert  Fitch,  in  America,  propelled  a 
boat  with  canoe-paddles  fixed  to  a  moving 
beam. 

1787.  Robert   Miller,    of   Edinburgh,   tried 
primitive  manual  machinery. 

1788.  Miller,  with  Symington,  produced  a 
double-hull  stern-wheel  steamboat. 

1802.  Charlotte  Dundas,  the  first  practical 
steam  tugboat,  designed  by  Symington. 

1804.  Phoenix,  screw-boat  designed  by 
Stephens  in  New  York;  first  steamer  to  make 
a  sea  voyage. 

1807.  Clermont,  first  passenger  steamer  con- 
tinuously employed;  built  by  Fulton  in  U.  S.A. 

1812.  Comet,  first  passenger  steamer  con- 
tinuously employed  in  Europe;  built  by  Miller 
in  Scotland. 

1818.  Rob  Roy,  first  sea-trading  steamer  in 
the  world,  built  at  Glasgow. 

1819.  Savannah,    first    auxiliary    steamer, 

Saddle  wheels,  to  cross  the  Atlantic;  built  in 
ew  York. 

1821.  Aaron  Manby,  first  steamer  (English 
canal  boat)  built  of  iron. 

1823.  City  of  Dublin  Steam  Packet  Co.  was 
established. 

1824.  General   Steam   Navigation  Co.   was 
established  at  London. 

1824.  George  Thompson  &  Co.  (Aberdeen 
Line),  were  established. 

1825.  Enterprise  made  the  first  steam  pass- 
age to  India. 

1825.  William  Fawcett,  pioneer  steamer  of 
the  P.  &  O.  S.  N.  Co. 

1830.  T.  &  J.  Harrison  (Harrison  Line)  were 
established  at  Liverpool. 

1832.  Elburkah,  iron  steamer,  took  a  private 
exploring  party  up  the  Niger. 

1834.  Ltoyd's  Register  for  British  and 
Foreign  Shipping  established. 


1836.  Austrian  Lloyd  Steam  Navigation  Co. 
established  at  Trieste. 

1837.  Francis    B.    Ogden,    first    successful 
screw    tugboat;    fitted    with    Ericsson's    pro- 
peller. 

1838.  Archimedes,   made  the   Dover-Calais 
passage  under  two  hours,  fitted  with  Smith's 
propeller. 

1838.  R.  F.  Stockton,  built  for  a  tugboat, 
fitted    with    Ericsson's    propeller,    sailed    to 
America ;  first  iron  vessel  to  cross  the  Atlantic ; 
first  screw  steamer  used  in  America. 

1839.  Thames,  pioneer  steamer  of  the  Royal 
Mail  Steam  Packet  Co. 

1839.  George    Smith    &    Sons    (City    Line) 
were  established  at  Glasgow. 

1840.  Britannia,  pioneer    steamer    of    the 
Cunard  Line. 

1840.  Chile,  pioneer  steamer  of  the  Pacific 
Steam  Navigation  Co. 

1845.  Great  Britain,  first  iron  screw  steamer, 
precursor  of  modern  Atlantic  steamer. 

1845.  Thos.  Wilson,  Sons  &  Co.,  Ltd.  (Wil- 
son Line),  established  at  Hull. 

1847.  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Co.  established 
in  America. 

1849.  Houlder  Brothers  &  Co.  established 
at  London. 

1850.  Bullard,  King  &  Co.  (Natal  Line)  es- 
tablished at  London. 

1850.  Messageries  Maritimes  de  France  es- 
tablished. 

1850.  Inman  (now  American)  Line,  estab- 
lished at  Liverpool. 

1851.  Tiber,  first  steamer  of  the  Bibby  Line, 
established  1821  at  Liverpool. 

1852.  Forerunner,    pioneer  steamer  of  the 
African  Steamship  Co. 

1853.  Union  Steamship  Co.  was  established 
(now  Union-Castle  Line.) 

1853.  Borussia,  first  steamer  of  the  Ham- 
burg-American Packet  Co.,  established  1847. 

1854.  Canadian,  first  steamer  of  the  Allan 
Line,  established  1820. 

1855.  British  India  Steam  Navigation  Co. 
was  established. 

1856.  Tempest,  first  steamer  Anchor  Line. 
1858.  Bremen,  first  Atlantic  steamer  of  the 

Norddeutscher  Lloyd,  established  1856. 

1858.  Great    Eastern    launched     into     the 
Thames.  Jan.  31;  commenced.  May  1,  1854. 
— Whittaker's  Almanac. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


28 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


NUMBER  OF  VESSELS  OVER  5,000  TONS  EACH,  AND  PARTICULARS 
OF  LARGEST  VESSELS  BELONGING  TO  EACH  COUNTRY. 


Country. 

No. 

Ship's  Name. 

Gr.  Tons. 

Speed. 

Owners. 

Austria  
Belgium.  .  .  . 
Brazil 

7 
2 

1 
5 
39 
139 
437 

13 

8 
21 

14 
9 
2 
54 

751 

Austria  

7,588 
11,899 
2,987 
5,975 
10,100 
11,884 
19,036 
21,035 
4,700 
12,531 
6,025 
6,444 
4,434 
7,297 
6,875 
5,383 
21,000 

*u 

12* 
16 
* 
* 
16 
21 

8* 

* 

15 

* 

14 

* 

20 
19 

* 
* 

nder  12  K 

Austrian  Lloyd. 
Red  Star  Line. 
Hamburg  S.  American  SS.  Co. 
S.  American  Nav.  Co. 
Forende   Dampskibs,  Copenhagen. 
Compagnie  Gen.  Transatlantique. 
Norddeutscher  Lloyd. 
White  Star  Line. 
M.  S.  Vagliano. 
Holland-American  Line. 
L.  Capuccio  &  Co. 
Nippon  Yusen  Kaisha. 
McLaren  &  McLaren. 
Russian  Vol.  Fleet  Assn. 
Compania  Transatlantica. 
A.  Johnson. 
Gt.  Northern  Steamship  Co. 

nots. 

Vaderland  
RioGallejos  
Rancajua  
United  States  
La  Savoie  

Chile  

Denmark.  .  . 
France  
Germany.  .  . 
Gr.  Britain.  . 
Greece  
Holland.  .  .  . 
Italy.  .  , 

Kaiser  Wilhelm  II. 
Cedric  

Keramiac  
Noordam  
11  Piemonte  
Aki  Maru 

Japan 

Norway.  .  .  . 
Russia  
Spain  
Sweden  
UnitedStates 

Total.  . 

Afton  
Moskva.  .  . 

Alfonso  XII  
Kronprins  Gustaf.. 
Minnesota 

(1)  Wood  Paddle-boats. 

(2)  Iron 


FROM  STEAM  PACKET  TO  STEAM  PALACE. 

(5)  Steel  Twin-Screw  Steamers. 


(3)  Iron  Screw  Steamers. 

(4)  Steel      " 


Date 

Name  of  Steamer. 

Owners. 

Remarks. 

1833 
1838 

Royal  William.  .  .(1) 
Sirius  

Quebec  &  HalifaxS.N.Co.  -j 
British  and  Amer.S.N.Co.  . 

From  Pictou  (N.S.),  1st  to  cross  the 
Atlantic. 
From  Cork,  1st  departure  from  U   K 

1840 
1849 

Great  Western  
Royal  William  (2).  .. 
Britannia  
Atlantic  

Great  Western  S.N.Co.  . 
Transatlantic  SS.  Co  
Cunard  Line  
Collins       "      

Bristol,  1st  built  for  Atlantic. 
Liverpool,  1st  departure. 
Liverpool,  1st  carriedBritish  mails. 
New  York,  1st  carried  U.S.  mails. 

1854 

Canadian  

Allan         "      

Glasgow,  1st  steamer  of  Line 

1856 

Anchor     " 

1st 

Borussia  
Adriatic 

Hamburg-American  Line  . 
Collins  Line 

Hamburg,  1st        " 
Last  Sailing  of  Line 

1858 

Bremen  

Norddeutscher  Lloyd  

From  Bremen  to  New  York. 

1856 
1862 

Persia  (2) 

Scotia 

Cunard  

1st  Cunard  iron  paddle  steamer. 
Last 

1845 
1850 
1858 
1868 

Great  Britain.  .  .  .  (3) 
City  of  Glasgow  
GREAT  EASTERN.  .  .. 
Italy 

Great  Western  S.N.Co.  .  .  . 
Inman  Line  
East.and  Australian  SS.Co. 
National  Line 

1st  Atlantic  iron  screw  steamer. 
1st  to  carry  steerage  passengers. 
Paddle  wheels  and  propeller. 

1869 
1871 

City  of  Brussels. 
Oceanic  (1st) 

Inman       "     
White  Star  Line  . 

1st                          "  steam  steering  gear. 
1st  with'midship  saloon   &c 

1873 

Pennsylvania  

American       " 

1st  sailing  of  Line  to  Liverpool 

1874 

Britannic 

White  Star    "      . 

1st  to  exceed  5  000  tons  Great  Eastern 

1875 

City  of  Berlin 

1879 

Arizona   . 

Guion.  . 

1882 
1883 

Alaska  
Oregon.  . 

\"         "$'••'•'•"'[ 

1st  "ocean  greyhound." 
Sunk    outside   New  York;    every  one 

1  Cunard            (2)  f 

saved  by  N.  D.  Lloyd  ss.  Fulda. 

1879 

Buenos  Ayrean.  .  (4) 

Allan  Line 

1881 

Servia 

City  of  Rome.  ...... 

j  Inman  (1)  Line  < 

1884 

'America  

J  Anchor(2)    "      f 
National                ... 

1st  and  last  express  ss  of  Line. 

1886 

j  Umbria  I 
1  Etruria  j 
Aller  . 

Cunard           "      

1st  with  20  knots  speed. 

1888 

j  City  of  NewYork(S) 
I  City  of  Paris. 

Inman  &  Internationale  1)  ( 

1st  twin-screw  ocean  expresses,  t 
1st  to  exceed  10  000  tons  G  E  excepted 

1889 

j  Teutonic  1 

White  Star  Line  

Designed  as  mercantile  cruisers. 

1890 
1892 

1  Majestic  f 
Fiirst  Bismarck  
La  Touraine  

Hamburg-  American  Line  . 
Compagnie  Generale  Trans. 

1st  under  6i  days  from  Southampton. 
Record  Havre  to  New  York,  6f  days. 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


29 


FROM  STEAM  PACKET  TO  STEAM  PALACE— Continued. 


Date 

Name  of  Steamer. 

Owners. 

Remarks. 

1893 

j  Campania  /_ 

Cunard  Line.  .  . 

Lucania:  highest  day's  run  562  knots. 

1895 

j  St.  Paul  1 

1 
American  .  •] 

Largest  express  steamers  ever  built  in 

1897 
1899 
1900 
1901 

1  St.  Louis  f 
KaiserWilhelm  d.  Gr 
Oceanic  
Deutschland  
CELTIC.  . 

Norddeutscher  Lloyd  ...  . 
White  Star  Line  
Hamburg-American  Line. 
White  Star  Line.  .  .  . 

America. 
Record  day's  run,  580  knots.        [tons. 
Balanced  engines.   1st  to  exceed  15,000 
Fastest  ocean  steamer  in  the  world. 
1st  to  exceed  20  000  tons 

1902 
1903 
1904 

KRONPRINzWlLHELM 

Kaiser  Wilhelm  II.  .  . 
Baltic  

Norddeutscher  Lloyd.  .  .  . 
Norddeutscher  Lloyd  ...  . 
White  Star  Line  

Largest  express  steamer  in  the  world. 
Largest  ss.  in  the  world—  726x76x49. 

*  Union  Co.  of  N.Z.'s  Rotomohana,  1,763  tons,  was  first  ocean  steel  ss.  1879. 

t  Martello,  2,432  tons,  of  Wilson  Line,  was  first  Atlantic  cargo  triple-expansion  ss.  1884. 

j  Netting  Hill,  3,921  tons,  of  Twin-screw  Cargo  Line,  came  out  so  engined,  1881. 


1862. 
1869 
1882. 
1889. 
1894. 
1897. 

1903. 

R 

Unc 

EDUCr 

Days, 
ler  9  fr 
8 
7 
6 

I* 

1     5* 

riON   OF  PASSAGE. 
Tons, 
am  Q'town.Scotia  3,871 
CityofBruss',  3,081 
"       Alaska  6,400 
"       City  of  Paris  10,669 
Lucania.  .  .  .  12,950 
S'ton.     Kaiser  Wil- 
helm der  Gr  14,349 
"  Cherb'gDeutschland  16,502 

1838,  1 
1845 
1858 
1871 
1881 
1893 
1899 
1904 

PROG] 
st  to  ext 

- 

IESS   I> 
Fee 
eed   200 
300 
680 
400 
500 
600 
700 
725 

r   LENGTH. 

t. 
Great  Western 
Great  Britain 
Great  Eastern 
Oceanic  (1).  . 
Servia. 

Tons. 
1,340 
2,084 
18,918 
3,807 
7,392 
12,952 
17,247 
23,000 

Campania.  .  . 
Oceanic  (2).  . 
Baltic  

LARGEST   STEAMSHIP   OWNERS   IN   THE  WORLD. 
Owners  of  over  100,000  gross  tons  in  order  of  tonnage. 


LINES. 

Head  OflSce. 

Total 
Tonnage. 

Over 
*  20 

knots 

KNOTS. 

Under 
12 

knots 

1 

20 

1 
1 

*2 

19 
1 

18 

1 
2 

12 

17 

*2 

4 
8 

16 

15 

14 

13 

12 

Hamburg-American  .  . 
Norddeutscher  Lloyd. 
Brit.  Ind.  Steam  N.Co. 
P.  &  O.  Steam  N.  Co.  . 

Hamburg  
Bremen  

650,000 
583,000 
432,000 
349,000 
314,000 
281,000 
260,000 
263,000 
248,000 
239,000 
237,000 
236,000 
208,000 
231,000 
203,000 
189,000 
189,000 
180,000 
170,000 
169,000 
160,000 
151,000 
149,000 
138,000 
135,000 
134,000 
130,000 
129,000 
125,000 
124,000 
115,000 
109,000 
108,000 
108,000 
105,000 
105,000 
102,000 
100.000 

1 
3 

'i 

4 
5 
5 
4 
2 

1 

7 
21 
1 

'8 

25 
11 
2 
0 
1 
3 
7 
1 

"i 

2 
2 

5 
2 

0 

'(> 

*7 

2 
1 

7 
23 
23 
11 
4 
9 
13 
24 
23 
25 

e 

11 

12 
14 
11 
4 
23 
3 
3 
4 

*4 
4 

*4 
4 

3 
1 

3 
2 

4 

10 
23 
38 
9 
20 
20 
1 
13 
4 
7 
19 
4 
13 
13 
11 
21 
9 
2 

*7 

'  1 
2 
2 
5 
7 
0 

'3 
14 
25 
11 
2 

'5 

15 

93 
50 
11 
5 
13 
12 

is 

41 
11 
47 
93 
75 
65 
41 
24 
5 
6 
13 
15 
45 
3 
109 
6 
18 
15 
20 
9 
4 
17 
5 
17 
36 
38 
19 
23 
51 
33 

125 
122 
125 
59 
49 
47 
27 
55 
78 
58 
72 
113 
102 
107 
71 
49 
37- 
25 
23 
52 
45 
41 
119 
19 
30 
30 
32 
19 
15 
35 
34 
28 
40 
38 
36 
23 
66 
33 

London  
London  
London  

Union  cast  e  .  .  .    . 

White  Star  
A.  Holt  
NipponYusen  Kaisha 
Messageries  Maritimes 
Ellerman  Lines,  Ltd.  . 
Elder,  Dempster  &Co.. 
Wilson  
Navigazione  Gen.Ital. 
Austrian  Lloyd  

Liverpool  
Liverpool  
Tokio  
Paris 

2 

3 

2 

4 

10 

'i 

'4 
*2 

*4 
3 

.'4 
3 
1 

'e 

3 
3 
1 
2 

3 

'2 
1 

9 
3 

*i 

i 

6 

J4 
1 
1 

"i 

Liverpool  
Liverpool  
Hull  
Rome  
Trieste  

Clan 

Harrison  

Liverpool  
Philadelphia.  .  .  . 
Montreal  
Paris 

'2 

-2 

*4 

*2 

'i 
'i 

*9 

American  
Canadian  Pacific  Ry.  . 
Comp.  Gene".  Trans.  .  . 
Hansa  

Bremen  

Pacific  Steam  N.Co.  .  . 
For.Damps.  Selskab.  . 
Atlantic  Trans.  Co.  .  . 

Copenhagen  
London  
Glasgow  

'2 

Allan             

Glasgow  
Hamburg  
Liverpool  

Hamb'g  S.  American  . 
Cunard  
Dominion  Line  
Lamport  &  Holt  
Chargeurs  Re*unis  .... 
Kosmos  
Prince 

1 

2 

4 

i 
l 

1 

'2 

Paris  
Hamburg  
Newcastle-on-T. 
West  Hartlepool 
London  
Hamburg  
St.  Petersburg.  .  . 
London  

'2 

R.  Ropner  &  Co  
Royal  Mail  S.  P.  Co.  . 
Deutsch-Australische. 
Russ.Steam  N.&T.Co. 
Shell  

8 

3 

1 

—  Whittaker's  Almanac. 

30                    SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 

OCEAN  STEAMERS.     16   Knots   and   over.     Number  belonging  to   each 
Country. 

Country. 

20  knots 
&  above. 

'5 
9 

'2 
'5 

19  knots. 

18*  kts. 

18  knots. 

17*  knots. 

12 

8 

'2 

17  kts. 

'? 

17 
'3 

12 

16  knots. 

Total. 

Austria  
Belgium  
France.  .  .  . 

'2 
'2 

4 
1 

i 
i 

i 

15 
3 

2 

1 

'3 
4 

40 
4 
2 
2 
2 
18 

2 
1 
21 
3 
13 
90* 
4 
5 
8 
3 
40 

Denmark  
Germany  
Great  Britain.  .  . 
Italy.  .    . 

Japan  

Russia  . 

Spain  
United  States.  .  . 

21 

9 

2 

19 

22 

39 

78 

190 

*P.  &  O.,  21;  R.  Mail,  11;  Union-Castle,  10;  White  Star,  8;  Cunard,  7;  Pacific  S.  N.  Co.,  7; 
Orient,  5;  Atlantic  Transport  Co.,  3;  Dominion,  3;  Elder,  Dempster,  3;  Canadian  Pac.  Rail.,  3: 
Union  of  N.  Zealand,  3;  Allan,  2;  Khedivial  Mail  Co.,  2;  Anchor,  1;  International  Nav.  Co.,  1. 
N.B. — There  were  on  June  30,  1903,  only  1,446  ocean  steamers  in  the  world  capable  of  a  sea- 
speed  of  at  least  12  knots  per  hour,  of  which  751  were  British.  See  article  on,"  Baltic  "  on  page  32. 

OCEAN  STEAMERS.     20  Knots  and  over.     In  order  of  Tonnage. 


Built 
in 

Names. 

Owners. 

Gross 
Tons. 

Dimen- 
sions. 

Spd. 

Builders. 

1902 
1899 
1900 
1901 
1897 
1893 
1893 
1897 
1900 
1900 
1895 
1895 
1888 
1889 
1890 
1889 
1890 
1884 
1884 
1898 
1898 
1898 
1898 

*  Kaiser  Wilhelm  II  
Oceanic  

N.D.  Lloyd.  .  . 
White  Star  

19,360 
17,274 
16,502 
14,908 
14,349 
12,950  } 
12,950  F 
12,480 

11,869 
11,864  | 
11,629 
10,798 
10,786 
10,147 
9,984 
8,278 
8,128 
8,120 
7,297 
7,270 

1,728 

678x72x38 
685x68x44 
662x67x40 
640x66x43 
627x66x35 

601x65x37 
581x63x44 
563x60x35 

535x63x37 
527x63x22 

565x58x39 
528x51x36 
501x57x38 

487x58x26 
300x37x17 

23* 
21 
23* 
23 
22* 

22 
22 
20 

21 
20 

20 
20 
20 

20 
.20 

StettinV.Co. 
Harland&W. 
Stettin  V.  Co. 

Fairfield. 
Schichau. 
Owners. 

Cramp&Sons. 
Clydebank. 

Harland&W. 
Stettin  V.Co. 
Fairfield. 

Clydebank. 
Caird  &  Co. 

Deutschland  
Kronprinz  Wilhelm  
Kaiser  Wilhelm  der  Grosse 

Hamburg-American 
N.  D.  Lloyd  

Lucania  
Kaiser  Friedrich 

F.  Schichau  
Com.  Gdn.  Trans.  .  . 

International  Mer-  j 
cantile.Marine.  Co.  j 

White  Star  '.'.'.'..    '.'. 

N.  D.  Lloyd.  '.'.'.'.    '.'. 
Cunard 

La  Lorraine  
La  Savoie 

St.  Louis  
St  Paul 

New  York  
Philadelphia  (ex  Paris)  .  .  . 
Majestic   .  *          .        ...... 

Teutonic  

Kaiserin  Maria  Theresa.  .  . 

Etruria             .          

Russ.  Voi.Flt.Assoc. 
P.  &  O  

Moskva  

Smolensk.  .  .            .        ... 

Isis  1 
Osiris  P 

*  Kaiser  Wilhelm  II.    H.  P.  38,000  ;  room  for  775  1st  class,  342  2d  class,  and  770  3d  class  pas- 
sengers and  crew  of  620. 

SHORT  TRIP  STEAMERS    (British  and  Foreign).     20  Knots  and  over. 


BRITISH  BOATS. 

*Connaught,  Leinster,  Munster,  Ulster,  all  23*  knots 
Empress  Queen  22,  Pr.  of  Wales  21,  Queen  Vict'ia  21 
France  21*,  Sussex,  Tamise,  Manche,  all  21J,Arundel 

Brighton  (turbine  engines) 

Banshee  21,  Cambria,  Anglia,  Hibernia,  Scotia 

Britannia,  Cambria,  Westward  Ho 

La  Marguerite  20*,  Royal  Sovereign 

King  Edward  (turbine  engines),  Queen  Alexandra.  .  . 


Total. 


FOREIGN  BOATS. 

Belgian  Government :  3,  22  kts. ;  3,  21  kts 6 

Cie.  des  Chemins  de  Fer  du  Nord  of  France 2 

Zeeland  Steamship  Co.  of  Holland 3 

Central  Railroad  Co.,  New  Jersey,  U.  S 1 


Owners. 

City  of  Dublin  Steam  Packet  Co. 
Isle  of  Man  Steam  Packet  Co. 
London,  B.  &.  S.  C.  Railway. 
London  B.  &  S.  C.  Railway. 
London  &  North-Western  Railway. 
P.  A.  Campbell,  Ltd. 
Fairfield  S.  &  E.  Co.,  Ltd. 
John  Williamson. 


Dover — Ostend  Service. 
Dover — Calais  Service. 
Queensborough — Flushing  Service. 
New  York— The  Highlands. 


Total. 


12 


*  The  four  fastest  short-trip  steamers  in  the  world. 


— Whittaker's  Almanac. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


r", 


32 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


THE  NEW  WHITE  STAR  LINER  "BALTIC" -- THE 
VESSEL  IN  THE  WORLD. 


LARGEST 


THE  FOUR  UPPER  DECKS  OP  THE  "BALTIC." 


The  success  of  the  "Oceanic" 
showed  that  the  most  remunerative 
type  of  craft  for  the  transatlantic 
traffic  is  the  vessel  of  a  medium  speed, 
maintained  under  all  varying  condi- 
tions, but  of  a  tremendous  tonnage. 
Although  speed  may  be  an  important 
desideratum  from  one  point  of  view, 
such  a  qualification  is  in  reality  only 
appealing  to  a  limited  quota  of  pas- 
sengers, the  bulk  of  travelers  prefer- 
ring greater  comfort  and  steadiness  of 
the  vessel,  especially  in  rough  weather. 
Each  of  the  two  vessels  built  after  the 
"Oceanic"  has  marked  an  increase  in 
size  and  tonnage  upon  its  predecessor. 

The  latest  liner,  the  "Baltic,"  sur- 
passes in  size  anything  that  has  thus 
far  been  attempted,  though  it  is  by  no 
means  the  finite,  for  Messrs.  Harland 
&  Wolff  have  declared  their  readiness 
to  build  a  vessel  of  50,000  tons.  The 
realization  of  such  a  vessel  is  de- 
pendent upon  the  capacity  of  a  dock 
to  accommodate  it. 

The  length  of  the  "Baltic"  over  all 
is  725  feet  9  inches.  This  is  an  in- 
crease upon  the  length  of  the  "Celtic" 
and  "Cedric"  of  25  feet.  The  beam  is 
the  same,  being  75  feet ;  the  depth,  49 
feet.  The  gross  tonnage  is  23,000 
tons,  an  increase  of  about  3,000  tons. 
The  cargo  capacity  is  about  28,000 
tons,  and  the  total  displacement  at  the 
load  draft  approximates  40,000  tons. 

The  total  complement  of  passengers 
is  3,000  passengers,  and  a  crew  of 
about  350.  The  general  arrangement 
of  the  ship  is  similar  to  the  other  two 
vessels  of  this  type — a  continuous 
shade  deck  running  fore  and  aft,  with 
three  tiers  of  deckhouses  and  two 
promenade  decks  above  same.  On  the 


upper  promenade  deck  is  the  first-class 
smokeroom  and  library,  and  the  two 
houses  below  contain  •  the  deck  state- 
rooms. All  the  first-class  accommo- 
dation is  situated  amidships. 

The  vessel  is  not  speedy.  In  the 
case  of  the  "Oceanic"  a  speed  of  20 
knots  can  be  maintained,  but  in  the 
subsequent  vessels  this  was  reduced  to 
about  lGl/>  knots.  The  "Baltic"  will 
approximate  the  same  speed,  with  a 
great  reserve  of  power,  to  enable  this 
rate  of  traveling  to  be  maintained 
even  under  adverse  conditions. 

The  "Baltic"  is  fitted  with  engines 
of  Harland  &  Wolff's  quadruple-expan- 
sion type,  developing  about  13,000 
I.  H.  P.  The  engines  are  arranged  on 
the  balance  principle,  which  practical- 
ly does  away  with  all  vibration.  The 
twin  engines  and  twin  screws  afford 
another  element  of  safety  to  the  ship 
and  passengers,  and  the  possibility  of 
danger  is  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

The  maiden  trip  of  the  "Baltic"  was 
made  without  incident.  Her  trip  oc- 
cupied 7  days  13  hours  and  37  min- 
utes. She  left  Liverpool  at  5  P.  M. 
on  June  20,  1904,  and  by  8:21  had 
passed  Rock  Light  on  her  way  to 
Queenstown.  Her  daily  runs  were : 
July  1,  312  knots ;  July  2,  395  knots ; 
July  3,  403  knots ;  July  4,  417  knots ; 
July  5,  387  knots ;  July  6,  407  knots ; 
July  7,  414  knots. 

The  engines  ran  from  seventy-eight 
to  eighty  revolutions  a  minute,  while 
the  forty-eight  furnaces  consumed  only 
235  tons  of  coal  a  day.  Her  engine 
and  fireroom  force  is  comparatively 
small — fourteen  engineers,  fifteen  oil- 
ers, thirty-six  firemen,  twenty-six  coal 
passers,  two  storekeepers,  two  stew- 
ards and  one  winchman  making  up  the 
three  watches. 


Electricity  on  Shipboard. — Among 
the  later  developments  of  electricity 
is  that  on  shipboard.  The  most  com- 
plete installation  of  this  kind  is  that 
on  the  "Kronprinz  Wilhelm."  Here 
all  the  cabins  have  telephones,  in  ad- 
dition to  the  electric  light,  and  call 
bells.  The  first-class  cabins  and 
the  dining-room  are  heated  by  elec- 
tric stoves.  A  system  of  bulkhead 
telegraphy  enables  the  captain  in  a 
moment  of  danger,  caused  by  collision, 
to  see,  while  on  the  bridge,  whether 
all  the  water-tight  doors  are  closed. 
There  are  forty  such  doors,  and  each 
one  falls  into  place. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


Copyright,  1904,  by  Munn  &  Co 


THE     QUADRUPLE     SCREW    TURBINE     CUNARDERS     OF     1906    COMPARED 

WITH     THE     PARK     ROW     BUILDING,    TRINITY    CHURCH,    THE 

WHITE     STAR     STEAMSHIP     "BALTIC"     OF     1871,  AND 

THE     FIRST     CUNARD     STEAMSHIP 

"BRITANNIA"     OF     1840. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


AMERICAN   FREIGHT   LOCOMOTIVES   AND   THE  ENGINES   OF   THE 
"OCEANIC"— A  COMPARISON   OF   HORSEPOWER. 


We  are  told  that  "Comparisons  are 
odious,"  and  the  statement  would 
seem  to  be  based  upon  a  fairly  cor- 
rect estimate  of  human  nature ;  but 
as  soon  as  we  get  outside  of  the  range 
of  human  susceptibilities  and  apply 
our  comparisons  to  insensate  things, 
comparisons  become  not  only  extreme- 
ly interesting,  but  at  times  a  valua- 
ble means  of  increasing  our  general 
knowledge  and  our  sense  of  the  prop- 
er relative  proportion  of  things. 

The  pictorial  comparison  to  be 
found  here  is  based  upon  one  of  the 
mammoth  freight ,  locomotives  which 
are  being  turned  out  in  considerable 
numbers  just  now  Jiy  the  leading  loco- 
motive works  of  the  country.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  usual  information  as  to 
dimensions  and  construction,  Mr.  R. 
Wells,  the  superintendent  of  the  Rog- 
ers Locomotive  Works,  has  favored  us 
with  particulars  of  some  novel  ex- 
periments which  he  carried  out  to  de- 
termine the  exact  location  of  the  cen- 
ter of  gravity  of  this  locomotive  above 
the  rails.  He  has  also  given  us  particu- 
lars of  its  horsepower  and  freight- 
hauling  capacity  on  a  level  road,  and  it 
occurs  to  us  that  a  comparison  of  the 
relative  power  of  one  of  these  engines 
when  working  up  to  its  maximum  indi- 
cated horsepower  with  the  maximum 
indicated  horsepower  of  the  "Oceanic," 
the  second  largest  steamship  in  the 
world,  will  be  attractive  to  that  sec- 
tion of  our  readers  that  likes  to  have 
its  facts  enlivened  occasionally  with  a 
touch  of  the  fanciful  and  curious. 

The  locomotive  shown  is  an  extreme- 
ly powerful  Consolidation  which  was 
recently  built  by  the  Rogers  Company 
for  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad  for 
use  on  one  of  the  divisions  of  their  line 
where  the  grades  are  somewhat  heav- 
ier than  on  the  divisions  connecting 
with  it.  It  was  designed  to  haul 
trains  of  a  maximum  weight  of  2,000 
tons  over  grades  of  38  feet  to  the  mile. 
The  cylinders  are  23  inches  in  diam- 
eter, by  30  inches  stroke ;  the  drivers 
are  57  inches  in  diameter  and  they 
carry  198,000  pounds  weight  of  the 
locomotive  out  of  a  total  weight  of 
218,000  pounds.  The  boiler,  which  is 
of  the  Belpaire  type,  is  80  inches  in 
diameter  at  the  smoke-box ;  the  fire- 
box measures  42  inches  by  132  inches, 
and  there  are  4J7  2-inch  tubes  which 
are  13  feet  8  inches  in  length.  There 
are  252  square  feet  of  heating  sur- 
face in  the  fire-box,  and  2,951  square 


feet  in  the  tubes,  making  a  total  heat- 
ing surface  of  8,203  square  feet.  The 
tender  is  exceptionally  large,  the  ca- 
pacity of  the  tank  being  5,000  gallons, 
while  the  coal  space  has  a  capacity  of 
10  tons. 

The  increase  in  the  diameter  of  lo- 
comotive boilers  which  has  taken  place 
of  late  years  has  necessitated  their  be- 
ing carried  above  the  tops  of  the 
wheels,  with  the  result  that  the  cen- 
ter of  the  boiler  is  in  some  recent  loco- 
motives as  much  as  9  feet  above  the 
rails.  To  the  uninitiated  these  im- 
mense machines  have  an  exceedingly 
top-heavy  appearance,  and  it  looks  as 
though  their  stability  would  be  endan- 
gered, especially  when  they  are  run- 
ning at  high  speed  around  a  curve. 
Before  sending  this  engine  out  of  the 
shops,  the  Rogers  Locomotive  Com- 
pany made  an  experimental  test  to 
determine  the  exact  location  of  its  cen- 
ter of  gravity.  The  result  is  certain- 
ly surprising,  for  although  the  top  of 
the  boiler  is  fully  9  feet  above  the 
rails,  the  center  of  gravity  was  found 
to  be  only  50 %  inches  above  the  top 
of  the  rails,  that  is  to  say,  about  6l/2 
inches  below  the  top  of  the  driving 
wheels.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
great  bulk  of  the  boiler  is  very  decep- 
tive to  the  eye,  and  one  is  liable  to  for- 
get that  the  greatest  concentration  of 
weight  lies  in  the  heavy  frame,  the 
wheels,  the  axles,  cranks  and  running 
gear,  and  the  heavy  saddle  and  cylinder 
castings.  The  test  was  made  by  sus- 
pending the  engine  on  the  upper  sur- 
face of  two  3-inch  steel  pins  or  jour- 
nals as  pivots,  the  one  at  the  front  be- 
ing located  6  inches  in  front  of  the 
cylinder  saddle,  and  the  one  at  the  rear 
6  inches  back  of  the  boiler,  both  pivots 
being,  of  course,  the  same  distance 
above  the  rails  and  on  the  vertical  cen- 
ter line  of  the  engine.  After  several 
trials,  points  of  suspension  were  found 
which  were  in  line  with  the  center  of 
gravity,  which,  as  thus  determined, 
was  found  to  be  50^  inches  above  the 
top  of  the  rail.  As  the  bearing  points 
of  the  drivers  on  the  rails  are  about 
56  inches  apart,  the  base  on  which  the 
engine  runs  must  be  1.1  times  as  wide 
as  the  height  of  the  center  of  gravity 
of  the  engine  above  the  rails.  It  is 
evident  from  this  test  that  the  center 
of  gravity  of  such  a  locomotive  could 
be  raised  still  higher  without  endan- 
gering the  stability  of  the  engine  under 
the  ordinary  conditions  of  service. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


35 


Copyright,  1CCO,  by  Munn  &  Co. 

A  COMPARISON  OF   MARINE  ENGINE  AND  LOCOMOTIVE  POWER. 


36 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


A  COMPARISON  OF  MARINE  ENGINE  AND 
LOCOMOTIVE    HORSEPOWER. 

In  order  to  secure  a  basis  for  com- 
parison of  the  power  of.  a  modern 
freight  locomotive  with  that  of  a  mod- 
ern steamship,  we  have  chosen  the 
"Oceanic."  This  truly  gigantic  ship, 
which  exceeds  the  "Great  Eastern"  in 
length  and  in  displacement,  is  704 
feet  in  length,  and  on  a  draft  of  321/* 
feet  displaces  28,500  tons.  As  the 
depth  of  water  in  the  entrance  chan- 
nels to  New  York  Harbor  will  not 
accommodate  a  vessel  drawing  that 
amount,  for  the  purpose  of  this  com- 
parison we  will  suppose  that  the 
"Oceanic"  is  drawing  30  feet,  at 
which  draft  she  would  displace  about 
26,000  tons.  On  this  displacement 
her  engines  will  indicate  about  28,000 
horsepower  when  driving  the  vessel  at 
a  speed  of  22  land  miles  an  hour. 

Now,  it  is  estimated  that  the  big 
Rogers  Consolidation  could  haul  about 
3,250  tons  weight  of  train  at  a  speed 
of  22  miles  an  hour,  on  the  level,  and 
that  while  doing  this  work  it  would  in- 
dicate about  1,7GO  horsepower.  Here 
then  we  have  a  basis  of  comparison, 
and  we  may  apply  it  in  two  ways. 
Either  we  may  ask  how  many  of  these- 
locomotives  would  have  to  be  crowded 
into  the  hold  of  the  "Oceanic,"  and 
coupled  to  her  main  shafts,  in  order  to 
drive  her  through  the  water  at  22 
miles  an  hour,  or  we  may  determine 
how  many  of  these  locomotives  it 
would  take  to  haul  the  "Oceanic"  if 
she  were  placed  upon  a  movable  cradle 
of  the  kind  designed  by  Captain  Eads 
for  his  Tehuantepec  Ship  Railway. 
In  the  first  case,  we  know  that  when 
the  main  shafts  of  the  "Oceanic"  are 
making  about  90  turns  a  minute,  the 
engines  are  indicating  about  28,000 
horsepower,  which  is  their  maximum 
capacity.  On  the  other  hand,  we 
know  that  when  the  drivers  of  one  of 
these  locomotives  are  making  about 
]50  turns  a  minute,  and  the  maxi- 
mum tractive  effort  is  being  exerted 
at  the  periphery  of  the  wheels,  it  is 
indicating  about  1,760  horsepower, 
which  represents  its  possible  maximum 
indication  at  that  speed.  If  now  the 
sixteen  necessary  locomotives  (the 
number  being  found  by  dividing  the 
horsepower  of  the  ship  by  the  horse- 
power of  the  locomotive)  were  ar- 
ranged in  two  lines,  one  above  each 
main  shaft,  and  the  tractive  effort  of 
the  drivers  transmitted  by  means  of 
friction  wheels  to  the  shafts,  the  speed 
of  the  rotation  being  reduced  by  in- 
termediate gearing,  in  the  ratio  of  150 


to  90,  we  should  have  the  conditions 
shown  in  the  engraving  on  the  pre- 
vious page,  where  the  locomotives,  in 
double  phalanx,  are  shown  grinding 
merrily  away  at  their  unwonted  task 
of  driving  a  modern  transatlantic  liner. 

To  determine  how  many  Rogers 
Consolidations  it  would  take  to  haul 
the  "Oceanic"  over  a  ship  railway 
whose  grade  is  perfectly  level,  we  will 
neglect  the  weight  of  the  cradle  and 
assume  that  its  rolling  friction  is  the 
same  as  that  of  a  weight  of  loaded 
freight  cars,  equal  to  that  of  the  ship. 
The  displacement  (that  is,  the  weight 
of  the  water  which  the  ship  displaces 
at  a  given  draft)  on  a  draft  of  30  feet 
would  be  about  26,000  tons,  and  di- 
viding this  amount  by  3,250  tons, 
which  is  the  maximum  weight  of  train 
which  one  locomotive  can  haul  at  22 
miles  an  hour,  we  find  that  it  would 
take  just  eight  locomotives  to  haul 
the  "Oceanic"  by  rail  at  a  speed  of  22 
miles  an  hour.  This  result  is  par-^ 
ticularly  interesting  as  showing  how 
quickly  the  resistance  of  the  water  to 
the  motion  of  the  ship  increases  with 
the  speed.  As  a  matter  of  fact  it 
increases  as  the  cube  of  the  speed, 
with  the  result  that,  although  the 
"Oceanic"  could  be  moved  at  a  canal- 
boat  speed  of  21/£  miles  an  hour  by 
less  locomotives  than  it  would  take  to 
haul  it  at  that  speed  on  land,  at  a 
speed  of  22  miles  an  hour  it  requires 
just  twice  the  power  on  the  water  that 
it  would  on  the  land. 

The  "Oceanic,"  as  she  rests  upon  the 
ship  railway  cradle,  represents  both 
the  dead  and  the  live  load ;  that  is  to 
say,  the  ship  and  the  cargo.  With  a 
view  to  showing  graphically  what  an 
enormous  mass  is  represented  by  her 
26,000  tons  displacement,  attention  is 
drawn  to  the  sketch  showing  an 
equivalent  weight  in  loaded  box  cars 
of  40,000  pounds  capacity,  each  of 
which  with  its  load  would  weigh  about 
thirty  long  tons.  If  this  weight  were 
made  up  into  two  separate  trains  each 
train  would  contain  433  cars  and 
would  be  about  three  miles  in  length. 


Between  Brussels  and  Charleroi 
there  is  a  length  of  nearly  30  miles  of 
canal  served  by  overhead  wires.  The 
motor  "tractors"  run  on  the  rough 
canal  towpath,  with  plain  wheels  of 
hard  steel.  In  another  style  on  the 
Finow  and  the  Tetlow  Canals,  the 
"tractor"  runs  on  a  single  rail  by  the 
pair  of  wheels  on  one  side,  and  oh  the 
towpath  by  a  plain  pair  of  wheels  on 
the  other  side. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


87 


Copyright,  3901,  by  Munn  &  Co. 

SUPPLIES   OF  THE    "DEUTSCHLAND." 


38 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SUPPLIES   OF   THE   "  DEUTSCHLAND." 


Not  by  any  means  the  least  im- 
pressive evidence  of  the  huge  size 
to  which  the  modern  transatlantic 
steamship  has  grown  is  to  be  found 
in  the  graphic  representation,  now 
presented,  of  the  bewildering  amount 
of  provisions  that  have  to  be  taken 
aboard  for  a  single  trip  across  the 
ocean.  A  mere  tabulation  of  the  vari- 
ous kinds  of  food  which  go  to  re- 
plenish the  ship's  larder,  during  the 
few  days  which  she  spends  in  port, 
fails  to  convey  any  adequate  idea  of 
the  vast  amount  of  stores  taken 
aboard.  Our  pictorial  representation 
is,  of  course,  purely  imaginary,  par- 
ticularly as  regards  -the  live  stock ; 
the  beef,  mutton,  game,  etc.,  being  re- 
ceived on  the  ship  in  the  dressed  condi- 
tion, no  live  stock  whatever  being  car- 
ried. The  drawing  was  made  up  from 
a  list  of  the  actual  amount  of  pro- 
visions carried  on  a  recent  eastward 
trip  on  the  Hamburg-American  liner 
"Deutschland,"  and  the  number  of  live 
stock  which  contributed  to  meet 
the  supplies  for  one  voyage  was  es- 
timated from  the  actual  number  of  cat- 
tle, sheep,  etc.,  that  would  be  required 
to  make  up  the  total  weights  in  dressed 
meats.  With  the  exception  of  the  live 
stock,  the  provisions  are  shown  in  the 
actual  shape  in  which  they  would  be 
taken  on  board. 

The  dimensions  of  the  vessel  are : 
Length,  686  feet;  beam,  67  feet,  and 
displacement,  23,000  tons;  her  highest 
average  speed  for  the  whole  trip  is 
23.36  knots,  and  she  has  made  the 
journey  from  Sandy  Hook  to  the 
Lizard  in  five  days  seven  hours  and 
thirty-eight  minutes.  In  considering 
the  question  of  feeding  the  passengers 
on  a  vessel  of  this  size,  the  thought 
is  suggested  that  here  are  other  hun- 
gry mouths  within  the  hull  of  the  ship 
besides  those  to  be  found  in  the  din- 
ing saloons  of  the  passengers  and  the 
messrooms  of  the  crew ;  mouths  that 
are  so  voracious  that  they  require 
feeding  not  merely  at  the  three  regular 
meal  hours  of  the  ship,  but  every  hour 
of  the  day  and  night,  from  the  time 
the  moorings  are  cast  off  at  one  port 
until  the  vessel  is  warped  alongside  at 
the  other.  We  refer  to  the  112  fur- 
naces in  which  the  fuel  of  the  sixteen 
boilers  in  the  boiler-room  is  consumed 
at  the  rate  of  572  tons  per  day.  Now, 
although  the  voyage  from  New  York 
to  Hamburg  lasts  only  six  or  seven 
days,  according  to  the  state  of  the 
weather,  the  bunkers  of  the  ship  are 


constructed  to  hold  a  sufficiently  large 
reserve  of  coal  to  cover  all  contin- 
gencies, her  total  coal  capacity  being 
about  5,000  tons;  and  at  each  voyage 
care  is  taken  to  see  that  they  are 
pretty  well  filled. 

The  total  number  of  souls  on  board 
of  the  vessel  when  she  has  a  full  pas- 
senger list  is  1,617,  made  up  of  467  first 
cabin,  300  second  cabin,  300  steerage 
and  a  crew  of  550,  the  crew  compris- 
ing officers,  seamen,  stewards  and  the 
engine-room  force.  Sixteen  hundred 
and  seventeen  souls  would  constitute 
the  total  inhabitants  of  many  an 
American  community  that  dignifies 
itself  with  the  name  of  "city,"  and  it  is 
a  fact  that  the  long  procession  which 
is  shown  in  our  illustration,  wending 
its  way  through  the  assembled  pro- 
visions on  the  quay,  by  no  means  rep- 
resents the  length  of  the  line  were  the 
passengers  and  crew  strung  out  along 
Broadway  or  any  great  thoroughfare 
of  that  city.  If  this  number  of  people 
were  to  march  four  deep  through 
Broadway,  with  a  distance  of  say 
about  a  yard  between  ranks,  they 
would  extend  for  about  a  quarter  of  a 
mile,  or  say  the  length  of  five  city 
blocks. 

TO  feed  these  people  for  a  period  of 
six  days  requires,  in  meat  alone,  the 
equivalent  of  fourteen  steers,  ten 
calves,  twenty-nine  sheep,  twenty-six 
lambs,  and  nine  hogs.  If  the  flocks  of 
chickens,  geese  and  game  required  to 
furnish  the  three  tons  of  poultry  and 
game  that  are  consumed  were  to  join 
in  the  procession  aboard  the  vessel, 
they  would  constitute  a  contingent  by 
themselves  not  less  than  1.500  strong. 
The  ship's  larder  is  also  stocked  with 
1,700  pounds  of  fish,  400  pounds  of 
tongues,  sweetbreads,  etc.,  1,700  dozen 
eggs  and  14  barrels  of  oysters  and 
clams.  The  1,700  dozen  eggs  packed 
in  cases  would  cover  a  considerable 
area,  as  shown  in  our  engraving,  while 
the  1,000  brick  of  ice  cream  would  re- 
quire 100  tubs  to  hold  them.  Of  table 
butter  there  would  be  taken  on  board 
1,300  pounds,  while  the  2,200  quarts  of 
milk  would  require  64  cans  to  hold  it, 
and  the  300  quarts  of  cream  8  cans. 

In  the  way  of  vegetables  there  are 
shipped  on  board  175  barrels  of  pota- 
toes, 75  barrels  of  assorted  vegetables, 
20  crates  of  tomatoes  and  table  celery, 
200  dozen  lettuce ;  while  the  require- 
ments of  dessert  alone  would  call  for 
4  1-4  tons  of  fresh  fruits.  For  making 
up  into  daily  supply  of  bread,  biscuits, 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


39 


40 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


cakes,  pies,  and  the  toothsome  odds- 
and-ends  of  the  pastry  cook's  art,  there 
are  taken  on  board  at  each  trip  90  bar- 
rels of  flour,  each  weighing  195  pounds, 
this  item  alone  adding  a  weight  of  8% 
tons  to  the  cooks'  stores.  To  this  also 
we  must  add  350  pounds  of  yeast  and 
GOO  pounds  of  oatmeal  and  hominy. 

Under  the  head  of  liquids  the  most 
important  item  is  the  400  tons  of 
drinking  water,  whose  bulk  is  ade- 
quately represented  by  the  circular 
tank  shown  in  our  engraving.  This  is 
supplemented  by  12,000  quarts  of  wine 
and  liquors,  15,000  quarts  of  beer  in 
kegs,  besides  3,000  bottles  of  beer. 
Last,  but  not  by  any  means  least,  is 
the  supply  of  40  tons  of  ice. 

Of  course,  it  will  be  understood  that, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  coal,  it  is  not  to 
be  supposed  that  all  of  this  supply  will 


be  consumed  on  the  voyage.  There 
must  be  a  margin,  and  a  fairly  liberal 
margin,  of  every  kind  of  provision. 
Moreover,  the  extent  to  which  the 
larder  and  cellar  are  emptied  will  vary 
according  to  the  condition  of  the  voy- 
age. In  tempestuous  weather,  where 
the  trip  is  a  succession  of  heavy  gales, 
and  the  dining  room  tables  are  liable 
to  be  practically  deserted  for  two  or 
three  days  at  a  stretch,  the  consump- 
tion will  be  modified  considerably. 
Stormy  voyages  of  this  character, 
after  all,  occur  at  infrequent  intervals, 
and  as  a  rule  the  supplies  are  pretty 
well  consumed  by  the  time  the  pas- 
sage is  over. 

Now,  haying  dealt  with  the  general 
food  supplies,  we  will  deal  with  the 
food  supplies  of  another  large  liner  for 
a  single  trip. 


PROVISIONING  THE  "  KRONPRINZ  WILHELM 
TRANSATLANTIC    TRIP. 


FOR  A  SINGLE 


The  Book  of  Genesis  does  not  record 
the  tonnage  of  the  huge  vessel  which 
finally  stranded  on  Mount  Ararat,  af- 
ter finishing  the  most  wonderful  voy- 
age ever  described  in  the  annals  of 
mankind.  But  it  is  quite  safe  to  as- 
sume that  the  dimensions  of  the  Ark, 
that  old-time  floating  storehouse,  are 
exceeded  in  size  by  the  largest  of 
steamships  now  crossing  the  Atlantic. 

Not  the  least  striking  evidence  of 
the  size  of  these  modern  monsters  of 
the  deep  is  afforded  by  the  vast  quan- 
tities of  food  which  must  be  taken 
aboard  for  a  single  six-day  trip  across 
the  Atlantic.  For  the  1,500  passen- 
gers and  the  several  hundred  men  con- 
stituting the  crew,  carloads  of  food 
and  whole  tanks  of  liquids  are  neces- 
sary. To  enumerate  in  cold  type  the 
exact  quantities  of  bread,  meat,  and 
vegetables  consumed  in  a  weekly  trip 
would  give  but  an  inadequate  idea  of 
the  storing  capacity  of  a  modern  liner. 
We  have,  therefore,  prepared  a  picture 
which  graphically  shows  by  compari- 
son with  the  average  man  the  equiva- 
lent of  the  meat,  poultry,  and  bread- 
stuffs,  as  well  as  the  liquors  used. 
Each  kind  of  food  has  been  concen- 
trated into  a  giant  unit,  compared 
with  which  the  figure  of  the  average 
man  seems  puny. 

On  the  "Kronprinz  Wilhelm,"  of  the 
North  German  Lloyd  Line,  which 
steamship  we  have  taken  for  the  pur- 
pose of  instituting  our  comparisons, 
some  19,800  pounds  of  fresh  meat  and 


14,300  pounds  of  salt  beef  and  mut- 
ton, in  all  34,100  pounds  of  meat,  are 
eaten  during  a  single  trip  from  New 
York  to  Bremen.  This  enormous  quan- 
tity of  meat  has  been  pictured  in  the 
form  of  a  single  joint  of  beef,  which, 
if  it  actually  existed,  would  be  some- 
what less  than  10  feet  high,  10  feet 
long,  and  5  feet  wide.  If  placed  on 
one  end  of  a  scale,  it  would  require 
about  227  average  men  in  the  other  end 
to  tip  the  beam. 

For  a  single  voyage  the  "Kronprinz 
Wilhelm"  uses  2,640  pounds  of  ham, 
1,320  pounds  of  bacon,  and  506  pounds 
of  sausage — in  all,  4,466  pounds. 
Since  most  of  this  is  pork,  it  may 
well  be  pictured  in  the  form  of  a  ham. 
That  single  ham  is  equivalent  in 
weight  to  374  average  hams.  It  is 
7^4  feet  high,  3  feet  in  diameter  and 
2  feet  thick. 

The  poultry  eaten  by  the  passen- 
gers of  the  steamer  during  a  trip  to 
Bremen  or  New  York  weighs  4,840 
pounds.  Suppose  that  we  show  these 
4,840  pounds  of  poultry  in  the  form 
of  a  turkey,  dressed  and  ready  for 
the  oven.  The  bird  would  be  a  giant 
10  feet  long,  8  feet  broad,  and  5  feet 
high. 

Sauerkraut,  beans,  peas,  rice,  and 
fresh  vegetables  are  consumed  to  the 
amount  of  25,320  pounds.  Packed  for 
market,  these  preserved  and  fresh  vege- 
tables would  be  contained  in  290  bas- 
kets of  the  usual  form,  which  piled  up 
make  a  formidable  truncated  pyramid- 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


41 


The  quantity  of  eggs  required  is  no 
less  startling  than  the  quantity  of 
vegetables,  for  some  25,000  are  needed 
to  satisfy  the  wants  of  passengers  and 
crew.  Eggs  are  usually  packed  in 
cases,  30  dozen  to  the  case.  The 
"Kronprinz  Wilhelm,"  when  she  leaves 
New  York  or  Bremen,  must  therefore 
take  on  board  69  of  these  cases,  which 
have  been  shown  in  a  great  pile,  23 
cases  high  and  3  cases  wide. 

The  bakers  of  the  ship  find  it  neces- 
sary to  use  33,000  pounds  of  flour  dur- 
ing the  trip.  In  other  words,  169  bar- 
rels are  stowed  away  somewhere  in  the 
hold  of  the  big  ship. 

Besides  the  foods  already  enumerat- 
ed, 1,980  pounds  of  fresh  fish  and  330 
pounds  of  salted  fish  are  eaten  during 
the  six-day  voyage.  The  total  amount 
of  2,310  pounds  would  be  equivalent 
to  a  single  bluefish  20  feet  long,  5  feet 
in  greatest  diameter,  and  1%  feet 
broad.  Such  a  fish  compares  favor- 
ably in  length,  at  least,  with  a  good- 
sized  whale. 

The  potatoes  required  far  outweigh 
any  other  single  article  of  food  con- 
tained in  the  storerooms ;  for  their  en- 
tire weight  is  61,600  pounds.  If  it 
were  possible  to  grow  a  single  tuber  of 
that  weight,  it  would  have  a  height  of 
14  feet  and  a  diameter  of  7  feet. 

The  butter,  too,  if  packed  into  a  sin- 
gle tub,  would  assume  large  dimen- 
sions. This  single  tub  would  contain 
6,600  pounds,  and  would  be  6  feet 
high. 


Of  dried  fruit,  2,640  pounds  are  eat- 
en, and  of  fresh  fruit  11,000  pounds, 
in  all  13,640  pounds.  If  this  fruit 
were  all  concentrated  into  a  single 
pear,  its  height  would  be  7  feet,  and 
the  width  at  the  thickest  part  5  feet. 

Whole  lakes  of  liquids  are  drunk  up 
by  the  thirsty  passengers  and  crew. 
No  less  than  425  tons  of  fresh  water 
are  required,  which  occupy  14,175  cu- 
bic feet  and  would  fill  a  tank  25  feet 
in  diameter  and  30  feet  high.  The 
1,716  gallons  of  milk  used  for  drinking 
and  cooking  would  be  contained  in  a 
can  6  feet  1  inch  in  diameter  and  11% 
feet  high.  The  gallons  and  gallons  of 
wines,  liquors,  and  beer  consumed 
should  dishearten  the  most  optimistic 
-temperance  advocate.  Under  the  joy- 
ous title  of  "beverages"  the  following 
items  are  to  be  found  in  the  purser's 
account  book : 

Champagne 850  bottles. 

Claret 980  bottles. 

Madeira,   sherry,  etc....    135  bottles. 
Rhine  and  Moselle  wines.1,700  bottles. 

Rum  and  cordials 760  bottles. 

Mineral  water 5,250  bottles. 

Beer  in  kegs 2,960  gallons. 

Beer  in  bottles 600  bottles. 

Suppose  these  things  to  drink  were 
contained  in  one  claret  bottle.  Some 
idea  of  the  hugeness  of-  this  bottle  may 
be  gained  when  it  is  considered  that  its 
height  would  be  over  24  feet  and  its 
diameter  over  6  feet. 


THE    ATLANTIC    LINERS. 

NEW     CUNARDERS PASSENGERS     CARRIED PRICE     OF     SPEED ATLANTIC     TRUST. 


THE  NEW  CUNARDERS. — The  most 
notable  event  in  shipping  circles  during 
1903  was  the  government  agreement 
with  the  Cunard  Company,  for  the 
building  of  two  vessels  of  higher 
speed  than  any  liners  in  existence.  It 
is  an  eminently  desirable  and  satisfac- 
tory arrangement  from  the  British 
point  of  view,  and  the  development  of 
its  scientific  and  technical  aspects  will 
be  followed  with  an  intensity  of  in- 
terest which  can  perhaps  only  be  par- 
alleled within  living  memory  by  the 
construction  of  the  "Great  Eastern." 
The  reasons  for  this  we  shall  note  di- 
rectly. 

CUNARD  AGREEMENT. — Ten  years 
have  elapsed  since  the  "Campania" 
and  "Lucania"  made  the  last  British 
record  of  22  knots,  since  which  period 
five  German  liners  have  eclipsed  the 
performance  of  these  ships.  It  is  con- 


fidently believed  that  the  Cunard  Com- 
pany will  be  able  to  exceed  the  limits 
imposed  by  the  government  terms — of 
a  minimum  average  ocean  speed  of 
24^  knots  an  hour  in  moderate  weath- 
er. This  will  be  a  knot  above  the 
"crack"  German  vessels. 

Subject  to  certain  very  fair  condi- 
tions, the  government  will  advance  a 
sum  not  exceeding  $3,000.000  for  the 
building  of  the  two  new  vessels.  This 
will  be  secured  by  a  charge  upon  the 
whole  of  the  company's  assets.  It  is 
to  be  advanced  in  instalments  on  the 
inspector  certifying  the  attainment  of 
certain  stages  of  progress  in  the  work, 
and  the  sum  will  have  to  be  repaid  in 
twenty  yearly  instalments. 

For  the  mail  service  the  company 
will  receive  $340.000  per  annum,  with 
extra  payment  for  mails  weighing  over 
100  tons  (or  4,000  cubic  feet  measure- 


42 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


rnent),  carried  in  any  one  week.  The 
plans  for  the  vessels  are  not  yet  made 
public. 

THE  FAST  BOATS. — That  the  new 
departure  will  pay  seems  assured,  be- 
cause statistics  show  that  the  fastest 
boats,  notwithstanding  their  higher 
rates,  attract  more  passengers  than  the 
slower  boats  do.  The  latter  are  just 
as  comfortable,  and  the  cuisine  is  the 
same,  yet  a  knot  or  two  more  in  speed 
doubles  and  trebles  the  first-class  pas- 
sengers, to  whom  in  many  cases  time 
is  money. 

Thus,  in  one  week  in  April,  1903, 
the  "Kaiser  Wilhelm  II."  left  New 
York  with  521  first-class,  and  355  sec- 
ond-class passengers,  while  on  the 
same  day  a  vessel  of  the  American 
Line  left  with  only  82  first-class  and 
72  second-class  passengers.  On  one 
day  in  May  the  "Kronprinz  Wilhelm" 
left  with  380  first  and  187  second  class 
passengers,  while  on  the  following  day 
a  White  Star  liner  took  149  first  and 
160  second  class.  Such  significant 
contrasts  might  be  largely  multiplied. 

"CEDRIC"  RECORD. — The  big  fast 
ships  suffer  less  from  rough  weather 
than  the  smaller,  slower  ones,  and  that 
apart  from  speed  attracts.  The  sur- 
geon of  the  "Cedric,"  next  to  the  larg- 
est liner,  reported  that  on  her  maiden 
voyage  not  a  single  passenger  was  sea- 
sick. A  wine  glass,  brimming  full, 
was  placed  on  the  edge  of  a  sideboard, 
and  left  undisturbed  throughout  the 
voyage,  but  not  a  drop  was  spilled, 
nor  did  the  glass  move. 

THE  PRICE  OF  SPEED. — The  in- 
creased price  that  must  be  paid  for 


speed  is  a  matter  that  lies  in  a  nut- 
shell. The  reason  is  that  a  slight  ad- 
vance in  speed  requires  an  immense 
increase  in  engine  power  and  vast  coal 
storage.  These  increase  the  displace- 
ment, which  again  makes  still  greater 
demands  on  the  power  required.  By 
the  time  these  are  provided  for,  there 
is  no  cargo  space  left  worth  mention- 
ing. There  the  limit  to  size  for  that 
speed  is  reached,  and  to  obtain  higher 
rates  involves  bigger  vessels.  This, 
too,  explains  why  improvements  in  the 
design  of  and  economical  working  of 
engines  and  boilers  is  so  eagerly  sought 
after  with  a  view  to  reduce  the  cubical 
space  required  for  these  in  the  hull, 
and  is  also  one  reason  why  steam  tur- 
bines are  being  put  on  vessels  of  in- 
creasingly large  dimensions. 

COST  IN  COAL. — The  Admiralty 
Committee  on  "Subsidies  to  Merchant 
Cruisers"  have  issued  some  tabular 
statements  which  show  the  price  of 
speed  in  a  very  graphic  way.  From 
one  of  these  we  see  that  while  a  20- 
knot  steamer  consumes  2,228  tons  of 
coal  on  a  3,000  mile  voyage,  a  26-knot 
one  will  be  expected  to  consume  6,131 
tons ;  and  that  the  19,000  horsepower 
of  the  first  must  give  place  to  the  enor- 
mous total  of  68,000  horsepower  for 
the  last.  The  cost  again  of  the  vessel 
is  $1,750,000  in  the  slower  ship,  and 
$6.250,000  in  the  swifter.  A  heavy 
price  truly  to  pay  for  the  extra  six 
knots !  But  the  investment  is  a  good 
one  on  passenger  liners  as  the  previ- 
ous paragraph  shows.  The  next  table 
shows  these  and  other  points  in  a 
striking  manner: 


Speed,  in  knots  
Time  of  voyage  (chronom- 
eter hours)  

20 
150 

21 
143 

22 
136 

23 
130 

24 
125 

25 
120 

26 
115.5 

Prime  cost,  dollars  
Indicated  horsepower.  .  .  . 
Length,  in  feet  
Displacement  tonnage.  .  . 
Coal,  in  tons  
Steam    pressure,    pounds 
per  square  inch  

1,750,000 
19,000 
600 
13,000 

2,228 

150 

2,000,000 
22,000 
630 
15,000 
2,456 

165 

2,350,000 
25,500 
660 
17,300 
2,912 

181 

2,875,000 
30,000 
690 
19,800 
3,058 

198 

4,250,000 
40,000 
720 
22,400 
3,900 

216 

5,000,000 
52,000 
750 
25,400 
4,876 

234 

6,250,000 
68,000 
780 
28,500 
6,131 

25J 

Machinery      department, 
number  of  hands  

100 

110 

125 

150 

200 

260 

34^ 

The  following  table  compiled  from  Lloyd's  gives  the  number  of  vessels  built  in  Great  Britain, 
arranged  according  to  size.     They  vary  somewhat  from  the  returns  quoted  on  other  pages. 


Vessels. 


Sail  .  .  . 
Steam  . 


Total.  . 


81 


c  = 


10      34 
10       34 


53 


51) 


11 


Grand  Total. 


551) 


Tonn'ge. 


36,384 
1,376,327 


1,412,711 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


43 


STEAM  TURBINES  AND  SPEED. 


GROWTH  OF  THE  STEAM  TURBINE. — 
The  steam  turbine  has  been  applied 
to  the  propulsion  of  vessels,  and  is 
steadily  growing  in  favor. 

The  number  of  vessels  so  fitted  is 
not  large,  but  the  development  is 
none  the  iess  remarkable  when  we 
remember  that  pleasure,  and  cross- 
channel  steamers,  torpedo-boat  de- 
stroyers, and  yachts  are  now  fitted 
with  these  engines,  while  ten  years 
ago  not  one  turbine  vessel  was  in 
service. 

EARLY  TYPES. — The  "Turbinia," 
1894,  was  the  first  of  the  kind,  fol- 
lowed by  the  "Viper,"  1898,  and  the 
"Cobra."  The  "King  Edward,"  1901, 
was  the  first  passenger  steamer  so  fit- 
ted, followed  by  the  "Queen  Alexan- 
dra," 1902,  both  for  passenger  service 
on  the  Clyde. 

CROSS-CHANNEL  BOATS. — The  suc- 
cess of  these  vessels  was  the  immediate 
cause  of  the  application  of  the  steam 
turbine  to  the  cross-channel  services — 
the  "Queen"  for  the  Dover-Calais 
route,  and  the  "Brighton,"  the  New- 
haven-Dieppe  boat.  On  an  unofficial 
trip  made  in  August,  1903,  this  vessel 
maintained  a  speed  of  20  knots.  The 
"Brighton"  is  282  feet  in  length,  and 
accommodates  1,000  passengers.  Her 
engines  are  rated  at  7,000  horsepower. 
The  reversing  turbines  are  fitted  to 
the  outside  screw  shafts,  and  are  ca- 
pable of  moving  her  astern  at  about 
12  knots.  The  lubrication  of  the  en- 
gines is  automatic,  the  oil  being  sup- 
plied at  a  pressure  of  6  Ibs.  per  square 
inch.  The  "Queen"  has  also  behaved 
excellently,  running  between  Dover 
and  Calais  within  the  hour,  in  a  gale 
of  wind. 

IRISH  BOATS. — Two  steam  turbine 
vessels  are  being  built  for  the  Mid- 
land Railway  service  between  Eng- 
land, the  Isle  of  Man,  and  Belfast. 
Two  others  of  the  same  class  will  be 
fitted  with  ordinary  reciprocating  en- 
gines, so  that  relative  tests  of  the  two 
kinds  of  propulsion  will  be  available 
under  equal  conditions.  The  steamers 
will  be  of  20  knots  speed,  330  feet  long, 
by  40  feet  beam,  and  25  feet  depth. 

THREE  YACHTS  have  been  fitted  with 
steam  turbines.  Two  torpedo-boat  de- 
stroyers, the  "Velox"  and  the  "Eden," 
and  the  "Amethyst,"  third-class  cruis- 
er, are  designed  for  turbine  propulsion, 
the  first  being  in  commission,  the  oth- 


ers  at  the   time   of  writing  being   on 
order. 

A  COMMISSION  has  been  appointed, 
at  the  suggestion  of  Lord  Inverclyde, 
to  investigate  the  question  of  the 
economy  of  steam  turbines  and  their 
suitability  to  the  new  big  Cunarders. 
The  commission  comprises  representa- 
tives of  the  Admiralty,  the  Cunard 
Company,  Lloyd's,  and  three  shipbuild- 
ers. At  the  time  of  writing  no  deci- 
sion has  been  published.  But  the  fact 
of  such  a  commission  having  been  ap- 
pointed testifies  to  the  rapid  headway 
which  the  turbine  is  making.  But  two 
or  three  years  since,  most  shipbuilders 
would  have  declined  even  to  seriously 
entertain  or  to  discuss  such  a  proposal. 
The  Allan  Line  and  the  Union  Steam- 
ship Co.  are  building  a  17  and  an  18- 
knot  turbine  vessel  respectively. 

OBJECTIONS. — Though  the  above  is 
not  a  large  list,  it  must  be  remember- 
ed that  shipowners  and  the  Admiralty 
are  naturally  very  cautious  in  fitting 
vessels  with  novel  means  of  propul- 
sion. The  whole  history  of  steam 
navigation  is  one  of  slow  but  sure  ad- 
vances. The  installation  of  water- 
tube  boilers  is  another  case  in  point. 

The  great  objection  to  the  use  of 
turbines  for  driving  ocean  liners  is  that 
this  form  of  engine  does  not  reverse. 
A  separate  set  of  engines  is  employed 
for  reversing,  at  lower  speeds.  The 
captains  of  big  vessels  strongly  object 
to  this,  because  they  say  that  even 
greater  power  would  be  desirable  for 
going  astern  than  ahead,  in  order  to 
avoid  sudden  collision. 

LAND  TURBINES. — On  land,  Par- 
sons' turbines  are  being  used  exten- 
sively for  driving  electric  generators, 
aggregating  about  250,000  horsepower, 
and  in  sizes  up  to  5,000  horsepower. 
Yet  the  first  practical  steam  turbine 
was  not  built  until  1884,  and  that  is 
now  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum. 
A  recent  computation  gives  the  total 
aggregate  power  of  steam  turbines  of 
all  types  in  use,  under  construction,  or 
ordered,  in  different  parts  of  the  world, 
at  over  500,000  horsepower. 

ADVANTAGES  OF  TURBINES.— The 
principal  point  in  favor  of  a  turbine 
is,  that  it  has  no  reciprocating  mo- 
tion, like  that  of  the  piston  of  a  com- 
mon engine,  and  therefore  the  hull  of 
a  vessel  is  not  shaken  so  much  as  by 
reciprocating  engines.  Turbine  en- 


44 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


gines  weigh  much  less,  and  occupy 
less  room  than  ordinary  engines  of  the 
same  power,  so  that  passenger  accom- 
modation can  be  increased.  Usually 
three  sets  of  engines  are  employed, 
each  driving  a  separate  propeller  shaft, 
which  again  conduces  to  steadiness  of 
motion. 

EXPIRATION  OF  PARSONS'  PATENT. 
— Several  circumstances  have  occurred 
latterly  to  help  on  the  progress  of  the 
steam  turbine  besides  its  recent  suc- 
cessful application  to  steam  yachts, 
Clyde  pleasure  steamers,  and  cross- 
channel  services.  One  of  these  is 
the  expiration  during  the  year  1903 
of  the  five  years'  extension  of  the 
patent  that  was  granted  to  the  Hon. 
C.  A.  Parsons  in  1884.  A  result 


of  this  is  that  several  firms  now  ex- 
press their  intention  of  going  in  for 
the  manufacture  of  Parsons'  turbines. 
Another  is  that  the  success  of  these 
turbines  has  acted  as  a  stimulus  to 
other  inventors,  and  the  Parsons  tur- 
bine will  have  to  face  the  rivalry  of 
others,  including  the  De  Laval,  and 
another  promising  one,  that  of  Mr.  C. 
G.  Curtis,  of  New  York. 

It  is  safe  to  predict  that  the  old- 
fashioned  steam  engines,  the  big  mill 
type  excepted,  will  gradually  give  place 
to  the  steam  turbines,  and  to  the  gas 
and  oil  engines.  Apart  from  economy 
and  compactness,  the  turbines  are 
cleaner  than  any  other  engines,  being 
self-lubricating  and  enclosed. 

—Daily  Mail  Year  Book,  1904. 


UNITED    STATES   LIFE-SAVING   SERVICE. 


The  number  of  disasters  to  docu- 
mented vessels  within  the  scope  of  the 
Service  was  346  for  the  fiscal  year 
ending  June  30,  1903.  On  board  these 
vessels  were  3,682  persons,  of  whom 
20  were  lost.  The  estimated  value  of 
the  vessels  was  $7,101,605  and  that 
of  their  cargoes  $1,746,610,  making 
the  total  value  of  property  involved 
$8,848,215.  Of  this  amount  $7,683,- 
580  was  saved  and  $1,164,635  lost. 
The  number  of  vessels  totally  lost  was 
57.  In  addition  to  the  foregoing  there 
were  351  casualties  to  undocumented 
craft — sailboats,  rowboats,  etc. — car- 
rying 655  persons,  4  of  whom  per- 
ished. The  value  of  property  involved 
in  these  instances  is  estimated  at 
$202,935,  of  which  $198,465  was  saved 
and  $4,470  lost. 

The  results  of  disasters  to  vessels 
of  all  descriptions  within  the  scope  of 
the  Service,  therefore,  aggregate  as 
follows : 

Total  number  of  disasters 697 

Total  value  of  property  involved .  .    $9,051,150 
Total  value  of  property  saved  ....  *  $7,882,045 

Total  value  of  property  lost $1,169,105 

Total  number  of  persons  involved .  4,337 

Total  number  of  persons  lost 24 

Total  number  of  shipwrecked  per- 
sons succored  at  stations *  1,086 

Total  number  of  days'  succor  af- 
forded        '  *  2,414 

Number  of  vessels  totally  lost 57 


The  foregoing  summary  does  not  in- 
clude 56  persons  not  on  board  of  ves- 
sels who  were  rescued  from  various  po- 
sitions of  peril. 


VESSELS  ASSISTED. 

The  life-saving  crews  saved  and  as- 
sisted in  saving  438  imperiled  vessels, 
valued  with  their  cargoes  at  $4,598,- 
840.  Of  this  number  287,  valued  with 
their  cargoes  at  $793.670,  were  saved 
without  other  assistance.  In  the  re- 
maining instances,  151  in  number,  the 
life-saying  crews  co-operated  with 
wrecking  vessels,  tugs,  and  other 
agencies  in  saving  property  estimated 
at  $3,661,875,  out  of  a  total  of  $3,805,- 
170  imperiled.  Besides  this  the  crews 
afforded  assistance  of  greater  or  less 
importance  to  573  other  vessels,  ren- 
dering aid,  therefore,  altogether  to 
1,011  vessels  of  all  kinds,  including 
small  craft.  This  number  is  exclu- 
sive of  218  instances  in  which  vessels 
running  into  danger  were  warned  off 
by  station  patrolmen.  One  hundred 
and  ninety-eight  of  these  warnings 
were  given  at  night  by  Coston  lights. 

The  apportionment  of  the  foregoing 
statistics  to  the  Atlantic,  Lake  and 
Pacific  coasts,  respectively,  is  shown  in 
the  following  table : 


*  It  should  not  be  understood  that  the  entire  amount  represented  by  these  figures  was  saved 
by  the  Service.  A  considerable  portion  was  saved  by  salvage  companies,  wrecking  tugs,  and 
other  instrumentalities,  often  working  in  conjunction  with  the  surf  men.  It  is  manifestly  im- 
possible to  apportion  the  relative  results  accomplished.  It  is  equally  impossible  to  give  even 
an  approximate  estimate  of  the  number  of  lives  saved  by  the  station  crews.  It  would  be  pre- 
posterous to  assume  that  all  those  on  board  vessels  suffering  disaster  who  escape  would  have 
been  lost  but  for  the  aid  of  the  life-savers;  yet  the  number  of  persons  taken  ashore  by  the  life- 
boats and  other  appliances  by  no  means  indicates  the  sum  total  saved  by  the  Service. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


45 


APPORTIONMENT  TO  ATLANTIC,  LAKE  AND  PACIFIC  COASTS. 


Disasters  to  Vessels. 

Atlantic 
and  Gulf 
coasts. 

Lake 
coasts.* 

Pacific 
coast. 

Total. 

Total  number  of  disasters  

438 

226 

33 

697 

Total  value  of  vessels  dollars.  .  .  . 
Total  value  of  cargoes  do  
Total  amount  of  property  involved.  .  .do  
Total  amount  of  property  saved  do  
Total  amount  of  property  lost  do  
Total  number  of  persons  on  board 

3,501,520 
973,370 
4,474,890 
3,636,745 
838,145 
2  694 

2,888,860 
720,025 
3,608,885 
3,360,145 
248,740 
1  177 

910,575 
56,800 
967,375 
885,155 
82,220 
466 

7,300,955 
1,750,195 
9,051,150 
7,882,045 
1,169,105 
4  337 

Total  number  of  persons  lost  
Number  of  shipwrecked  persons  succored  at 
stations  •  

20 
t970 

3 

t!02 

1 
t!4 

24 

tl  086 

Total  number  of  days'  succor  afforded  
Number  of  disasters  involving     total     loss     of 
vessels  

f2,238 
46 

t!62 
10 

tl4 
1 

t2,414 
57 

GENERAL   SUMMARY 

Of  disasters  which  have  occurred  with- 
in the  scope  of  life-saving  operations 
from  November  1,  1871  (date  of  intro- 
duction of  present  system ) ,  to  close  of 
fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1903.$ 

Total  number  of  disasters 14,076 

Total  value  of  vessels $148,098,035 

Total  value  of  cargoes $62,253,644 

Total  value  of  property  involved .  $210,351,679 
Total  value  of  property  saved.  .  .$166,253,022 

Total  value  of  property  lost $44,098,657 

Total  number  of  persons  involved        §  102,474 

Total  number  of  lives  lost ||  1,027 

Total  number  of  persons  succored 

at  stations fl  17,747 

Total  number  of  days'  succor  af- 
forded   43,006 


The  Board  on  Life  Saving  Appli- 
ances was  constituted  by  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury,  January  3,  1882, 
and  meets  periodically  for  the  transac- 
tion of  such  business  as  may  come  be- 
fore it.  Inventors  and  exhibitors  are 
allowed  to  appear  before  the  court  to 
explain  the  methods  of  construction 
and  set  forth  the  merits  claimed  for 
their  devices.  Committees  are  then 
appointed  to  consider  the  various  de- 
vices submitted  to  the  Board,  and  each 
committee  reports  upon  each  device, 
and  the  results  are  published  in  the 
Report  of  the  Board  on  Life  Saving 
Appliances,  which  is  incorporated  in 
the  Annual  Report  of  the  United 
States  Life  Saving  Service. 


THE  LIGHTHOUSE  ESTABLISHMENT. 


There  are  under  the  control  of  the 
Lighthouse  Establishment,  Oct.  15, 
1903,  the  following  named  aids  to 
navigation : 

Light-houses  and  beacon  lights 1,425 

Light-vessels  in  position 45 

Light- vessels  for  relief 8 

Gas-lighted  buoys  in  position 119 

Fog-signals  operated  by  steam,  caloric, 

or  oil  engines,  about 200 

Fog-signals  operated  by  machinery.about    250 

Post  lights,  about 1,875 

Day  or  unlighted  beacons,  about 550 

Whistling  buoys  in  position,  about 90 


Bell  buoys  in  position,  about.  .........     130 

Other  buoys  in  position,  including  pile 
buoys  and  stakes  in  Fifth  district  and 
buoys  in  Alaskan  waters 5,500 

In  the  construction,  care  and  main- 
tenance of  these  aids  to  navigation 
there  are  employed : 

Steam  tenders 39 

Steam  launches 7 

Sailing  tenders 2 

Light-keepers,  about .' 1,550 

Officers  and  crews  of  light-vessels  and 

tenders,  about 1,225 

Laborers  in  charge  of  post  lights,  about.  1,600 


*  Including  the  river  station  at  Louisville,  Kentucky. 

t  These  figures  include  persons  to  whom  succor  was  given  who  were  not  on  board  vessels 
embraced  in  table  of  casualties. 

t  It  should  be  observed  that  the  operations  of  the  Service  during  this  period  have  been  limited 
as  follows:  Season  of  1871-72,  to  the  coasts  of  Long  Island  and  New  Jersey;  seasons  of  1872-74 
to  the  coasts  of  Cape  Cod,  Long  Island,  and  New  Jersey;  season  of  1874-75,  to  the  coasts  of  New 
England,  Long  Island,  New  Jersey,  and  the  coast  from  Cape  Henry  to  Cape  Hatteras;  season 
of  1875-76,  to  the  coasts  of  New  England,  Long  Island,  New  Jersey,  the  coast  from  Cape  Hen- 
lopen  to  Cape  Charles,  and  the  coast  from  Cape  Henry  to  Cape  Hatteras ;  season  of  1876-77  and 
since,  all  the  foregoing  with  the  addition  of  the  eastern  coast  of  Florida  and  portions  ot  the 
lake  coasts.  In  1877-78  the  Pacific  coast  was  added,  and  in  1880  the  coast  of  Texas. 

§  Including  persons  rescued  not  on  board  vessels. 

||  Eighty-five  of  these  were  lost  at  the  disaster  to  the  steamer  Metropolis  in  1877-78,  wnen 
service  was  impeded  by  distance,  and  14  others  in  the  same  year  owing  to  similar  causes. 

K  Including  castaways  not  on  board  vessels  embraced  in  Tables  of  Casualties. 


46 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


FROM  CRUISER  TO  RACING  MACHINE. 


What  might  be  called  the  scientific 
period  of  yacht  designing  in  this  coun- 
try begins  at  about  the  period  of  the 
races  of  "Puritan"  against  "Genesta," 
in  1885.  The  growth  to  the  exaggerat- 
ed proportions  of  hull  and  sail  plan 
shown  in  our  accompanying  diagram, 
is  the  logical  and  inevitable  outcome 


a  little  less  than  these  lengths,  their 
rating  will  be  diminished  accordingly. 
Outside  of  this  restriction  you  may  do 
just  anything  you  please  in  modeling 
your  hulls.  They  may  be  built  of  any 
material ;  they  may  be  broad  or  nar- 
row, shallow  or  deep ;  light  and  leak- 
able  as  a  wicker  basket,  or  tight  and 


GROWTH    OF    THE    AMERICAN    CUP    DEFENDER    FROM    CRUISER    TO 
RACING   MACHINE. 


of  a  rule  of  measurement  altogether 
too  broad  and  loose  in  its  specifica- 
tions. The  only  elements  taxed  in  this 
rule  are  length  on  the  water-line  when 
on  an  even  keel,  and  total  sail  area. 
To  the  competing  designers  the  rule 
has  said,  "When  your  yachts  are  placed 
under  the  measurer's  tape,  if  90-footers 
they  must  not  be  over  90  feet  long  on 
the  water-line,  or  if  70-footers  not  over 
70  feet.  If  you  choose  to  make  them 


heavy  as  an  ironclad.  As  to  the  spread 
of  sail,  you  may  crack  on  just  as  much 
as  you  please ;  always  with  the  under- 
standing, however,  that  the  more  you 
carry  the  greater  will  be  your  racing 
measurement." 

Now  at  the  time  of  the  "Puritan"- 
"Genesta"  races,  our  yacht  designers 
were  beginning  to  emerge  from  the 
rule-of-thumb  methods  that  character- 
ized the  days  of  the  center-board  sloop 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


47 


and  schooner,  and  were  beginning, 
thanks  to  the  victorious  career  of  one 
or  two  imported  deep-keel  English  cut-- 
ters,  to  appreciate  the  value  of  outside 
lead  as  an  element  of  sail-carrying 
power.  Hence,  the  "Puritan"  carried 
a  large  proportion  of  her  48  tons  of 
lead  ballast  on  the  keel,  and  although 
she  was  marked  by  the  shoalness  of 
body  and  limited  draft  of  the  prevail- 
ing centerboard  type,  she  was  an  ex- 
tremely able  sea  boat,  fast  and  com- 
fortable, a  wooden  vessel  of  first-class 
construction,  with  a  reasonable  spread 
of  sail  which  she  was  well  able  to  carry 
in  a  blow,  as  was  proved  in  that  me- 
morable race  of  twenty  miles  to  lee- 
ward and  back  in  half  a  gale  of  wind 
in  which  she  won  by  a  narrow  margin 
over  "Genesta."  At  the  close  of  her 
racing  career  "Puritan"  was  changed 
from  sloop  to  schooner  rig,  and  to-day 
she  is  doing  service  as  a  snug  and  corn- 


to  carry  it ;  and  like  her  predecessor 
she  was  changed  after  the  cup  races  to 
a  schooner,  and  is  to-day  in  service  as 
a  successful  cruiser.  After  a  lapse  of 
six  years  the  New  York  Yacht  Club 
was  called  upon  once  more  to  defend 
the  cup,  and  on  this  occasion  they  went 
to  Herreshoff,  from  whom  they  ob- 
tained two  yachts,  one  of  which,  the 
"Colonia,"  was  a  keel  boat,  drawing 
14  feet  of  water,  built  of  steel,  and  car- 
rying about  11,000  square  feet  of  sail. 
She  was  a  failure,  for  the  reason  that, 
like  the  "Navaho,  another  Herreshoff 
90-footer  of  the  same  year,  she  was 
a  poor  boat  on  the  wind. 

The  other  yacht  built  for  cup  de- 
fense by  Herreshoff  was  the  "Vigil- 
ant," and  in  her  we  see  the  engineer 
attacking  the  problem  of  yacht  design 
from  his  own  particular  point  of  view. 
Tobin  bronze  is  used  for  the  plating, 
hollow  spars  are  experimented  with,  and 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  90-FOOT  RACING  YACHT. 


Yachts. 

Water- 
line 
Length. 

Base  of 
Fore 
Triangle. 

Hoist 
from. 
Boom  t'o 
Topmast 
Sheave. 

Boom. 

Gaff. 

Spinna- 
ker 
Boom. 

Total 
Sail 
Area. 

Puritan 

ft.    in. 

81     1£ 

ft.     in. 
62       0 

ft.     in. 
104       0 

ft.     in. 
76       6 

ft.     in. 
47       0 

ft.     in. 
02       0 

sq.  ft. 
7,370 

Mayflower  
Volunteer  
Vigilant 

85     7 
85  10 
86    2 

67       0 
67       0 
69       0 

111       0 
111       0 

122       0 

80       0 
84       0 
98       0 

50       0 
51       6 
57      0 

67       0 
67       0 
69       0 

8,824 
9,107 
11,312 

Defender  
Columbia  
Constitution  
Reliance  

88    6f 

89    7i 
89    9 
90    0 

73      3 
73      3 

78      0 
84      0 

129       5 
138       5 
142       0 
155       0 

106       0 
107       0 
110       0 
115       0 

64     10 
64     10 

72      0 
72       0 

73       4 
73       4 

78       0 
84      0 

12,640 
13,211 
14,400 
16,247 

fortable  cruiser.  "Mayflower,"  the 
next  cup  defender,  was  an  improved 
"Puritan,"  with  5  feet  more  length  on 
the  water-line  and  8,824  square  feet  of 
sail ;  she  was  built  of  wood,  and  sub- 
sequently to  her  defense  of  the  cup  she 
was  turned  into  a  comfortable  cruiser. 
Her  sail  area  is  so  nearly  the  same  as 
that  of  her  successor,  "Volunteer,"  that 
to  avoid  crowding  our  drawing  her  sail- 
plan  does  not  appear.  "Volunteer"  was 
designed  by  Burgess,  the  designer  of 
"Puritan"  and  "Mayflower."  She  was 
the  first  of  our  large  sloops  to  be  built 
of  steel.  She  was  about  5  feet  longer 
on  the  water-line  than  "Puritan"  and 
carried  a  much  larger  sail-plan,  .the 
boom  being  84  feet  as  against  76  1-2 
feet  of  "Puritan,"  and  the  hoist  to  the 
topmast  sheave  being  111  feet  as 
against  104  feet  in  the  earlier  boat. 
"Volunteer"  also  was  a  perfectly  sound 
and  wholesome  vessel.  Although  her 
rig  was  a  large  one,  she  was  well  able 


high-grade  steel  wire  rope,  blocks  and 
other  gear  of  extreme  lightness,  make 
their  appearance  in  the  spar  and  sail- 
plans.  As  a  consequence,  although  the 
"Vigilant"  was  only  a  few  inches 
longer  on  the  water-line  than  the  "Vol- 
unteer," she  carried  over  2,000  square 
feet  more  sail.  The  boom  was  length- 
ened out  to  nigh  upon  100  feet,  while 


terboard  yachts ;  for  although  she  beat 
"Valkyrie  II."  in  the  series  of  races, 
she  was  beaten  badly  to  windward  by 
that  boat  in  a  stiff  breeze;  and  subse- 
quently, during  a  season  in  English 
waters,  was  beaten  eleven  times  out  of 
eighteen  by  the  deep-keel  cutter 
"Britannia,"  a  sister  boat  to  "Valky- 
rie II."  That  season's  experience 
sealed  the  fate  of  the  centerboard.  and 
when  the  next  challenge  came,  the  Her- 
reshoffs,  entrusted  with  the  contract  of 


48 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE  INTERNATIONAL 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


o-  V 


RACING    YACHT    FROM    1885   TO  1903. 


50 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


building  a  yacht  to  beat  her,  turned 
out  to  meet  her  the  deep-keel  cutter- 
sloop  "Defender."  "Vigilant"  was  the 
last  of  the  cup-defenders  that  was  good 
for  anything  but  cup  defense.  She  has 
been  changed  into  a  yawl,  and  has 
proved  to  be  an  excellent  cruiser  under 
her  reduced  rig.  In  "Defender"  we  see 
the  engineer  still  at  work,  reducing 
scantling  and  lightening  up  on  con- 
struction even  to  the  smallest  detail. 
"Defender"  was  built  of  manganese 
bronze  in  the  underbody,  and  alumi- 
nium in  the  topsides  and  framing.  She 
carried  a  hollow  steel  mast,  boom  and 
gaff.  As  a  consequence,  although  she 
was  a  smaller  boat  than  "Vigilant," 
having  some  3  feet  less  beam,  so  great 
was  the  lightening  of  her  weights,  and 
the  increase  in  stability  due  to  lower 
ballast,  that  she  carried  over  1,000 
feet  more  sail  than  the  larger  yacht, 
spreading  12,640  square  feet.  The  main 
boom  reached  far  over  the  taffrail,  be- 
ing 106  feet  in  length  over  all.  The 
hoist  was  7 1-2  feet  greater  and  the 
forward  measurement  from  mast  to 
end  of  bowsprit  had  increased  to  over 
73  feet. 

When  the  "Defender"  commenced 
her  trials  it  began  to  be  evident  that 
in  the  development  of  the  90-foot 
racing  yacht  the  limit,  not  merely  of 
convenience  but  of  actual  safety,  had 
been  passed.  The  draft  of  19  feet  was 
in  itself  prohibitive  of  the  use  of  the 
boat  as  a  cruiser,  since  it  shut  her  out 
from  many  of  the  harbors  and  desir- 
able anchorages,  while  the  experience 
of  the  boat  in  fresh  to  moderate  breezes 
was  marked,  by  breakdowns  which,  on 
one  occasion,  came  very  near  to  being 
disastrous.  In  some  races,  when  the 
wind  breezed  up,  rivets  were  sheared 
off  and  the  climax  came  when  in  a  bit 
of  a  squall  the  pull  of  the  weather 
shrouds  was  so  great  that  the  mast 
came  very  near  punching  a  hole  for 
itself  through  the  bottom  of  the  boat. 
Herreshoff  evidently  had  overlooked 
the  fact  that,  in  cutting  into  the  keel 
until  its  forward  edge  was  aft  of  the 
mast-step,  he  had  left  nothing  but  the 
light  floor-plates  and  the  frail  plating 
to  take  the  enormous  downward  thrust 
of  the  mast.  Emergency  repairs  were 
at  once  made  by  carrying  a  pair  of 
i/£>-jnch  by  8-inch  steel  straps  from 
the  toot  of  the  mast  up  to  a  junction 
with  the  chain-plates  at  the  deck. 
Trouble  was  also  experienced  in  keep- 
ing the  bowsprit  from  coming  inboard  ; 
several  of  the  frames  of  the  boat  broke 
at  the  turn  of  the  garboards ;  and  from 
first  to  last  the  extreme  lightness  of 


the  craft  was  a  source  of  unceasing 
anxiety  to  her  owners. 

Four  years,  later  the  Bristol  yard 
turned  out  "Columbia,"  a  yacht  that 
embodied  some  of  those  features  of 
hull  and  sail-plan  which  experience 
in  the  smaller  classes  had  shown  to  be 
conducive  to  high  speed.  She  had  a 
foot  more  depth,  or  20  feet ;  her  over- 
hangs, forward  and  aft,  were  carried 
out  until  on  a  water-line  length  of  89 
feet  7  1-8  inches  she  had  an  over-all 
length  of  about  50  per  cent  more,  or 
132  feet.  Although  a  90-footer  when 
at  anchor  she  was  a  115-footer  when 
heeled  to  her  sailing  lines,  the  great 
increase  in  the  overhangs  being  due 
to  the  effort  to  build  the  biggest  pos- 
sible boat  on  the  arbitrary  so-called 
90-foot  length.  The  enlargement  of 
the  sail-plan  was  chiefly  in  the  direc- 
tion of  greater  hoist,  the  distance  from 
main  boom  to  topmast  sheave  being 
1381-2  feet.  The  disastrous  experi- 
ence with  "Defender"  showed  the  ab- 
solute necessity  of  using  more  reliable 
materials  in  the  hull,  which  was  con- 
structed of  Tobin  bronze  plating  on 
steel  frames.  The  hull  structure  proved 
satisfactory,  but  the  lightening  up  of 
the  spars  and  standing  rigging  had 
been  carried  too  far,  as  shown  by  the 
fact  that  in  her  trial  races  she  car- 
ried away  her  mast. 

Two  years  later,  to  meet  "Sham- 
rock II.,"  Herreshoff  brought  out  the 
"Constitution,"  which  differed  in  form 
from  "Columbia"  merely  by  an  in- 
crease of  one  foot  in  the  beam.  The 
sail-plan  was  greater  than  that  of 
"Columbia"  by  about  1,200  square  feet. 
The  hoist  had  now  increased  to  142 
feet,  the  boom  to  110  feet,  and  the  base 
of  the  forward  triangle  to  78  feet. 
"Constitution's"  appearance  is  com- 
parable only  to  that  of  "Defender"  in 
the  constant  succession  of  breakdowns 
that  have  occurred ;  but  with  this  dis- 
tinction, however,  that  whereas  "De- 
fender's" trouble  was  in  the  hull,  "Con- 
stitution's" has  been  up  aloft.  At  dif- 
ferent times  she  has  carried  away  her 
mainmast,  her  topmast  and  her  gaff. 
Of  the  hull,  however,  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted that  the  system  of  belt-and-lon- 
gitudinal  framing  adopted  by  Herres- 
hoff has  been  eminently  successful. 
Although  it  is  probable  that  no  large 
amount  of  weight  is  saved  over  the  old 
system  of  framing,  it  is  certain  that 
weight  for  weight  it  is  considerably 
stronger.  "Constitution"  proved  so 
much  of  a  disappointment  that  it  was 
really  realized  that  to  defend  the 
cup  successfully  some  radical  depar- 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


51 


ture  must  be  taken,  and  Herreshoff 
struck  out  most  boldly  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  "scow"  type,  which  had 
proved  so  fast  in  the  smaller  classes  of 
yachts.  On  a  water-line  of  90  feet 
the  new  boat  has  a  beam  of  over  26 
feet,  a  draft  of  20  feet,  and  an 
over-all  length  of  close  upon  150  feet. 
Although  she  is  a  90-footer  at  anchor, 
she  is  fully  a  120-footer  when  heeled 
to  a  breeze ;  and  to  this  fact  is  to  be 
ascribed  the  astonishing  sail-carrying 
power  which  she  has  shown,  the  area 
under  the  New  York  Yacht  Club 
measurement  being  16,247  square  feet ; 
and  if  changes  are  made  they  will  be 
rather  in  the  direction  of  an  increase 
than  a  reduction  of  sail-plan.  The 
growth  of  sail  power  in  the  last  fifteen 
years  may  be  summed  up  in  the  state- 


ment that  on  an  increased  water-line 
length  of  only  10  feet  the  "Reliance" 
of  1903  spreads  over  twice  as  much 
sail  as  did  "Puritan"  in  1885.  In  her 
we  see,  unquestionably,  the  highest 
possible  development  under  the  exist- 
ing rule,  and  although  the  boat  is  an 
overgrown  monstrosity  as  a  sailing 
craft,  she  is  certainly  a  great  tribute 
to  her  builder,  both  as  a  naval  archi- 
tect and  as  a  wonderfully  resourceful 
and  ingenious  mechanic.  She  is  the 
biggest,  lightest  constructed,  most  pow- 
erful, and  probably  the  fastest  yacht 
of  her  water-line  length  that  ever  was 
or  ever  will  be  constructed,  and  she 
possesses  that  dual  quality,  never  be- 
fore found  in  one  and  the  same  yacht, 
of  being  relatively  just  as  fast  in  light 
as  she  is  in  strong  winds. 


CHAPTER    III. 


THE     KATIES     OF    THE     WORLD. 


The  subject  of  the  navies  of  the 
world  is  a  most  important  one. 
Schemes  of  classification  vary,  and  it 
is  difficult  to  obtain  any  figures  which 
agree.  The  three  English  authorities 
are  "The  Naval  Annual,"  by  T.  A. 
Brassey;  "The  Naval  Pocket  Book," 
by  Sir  W.  Laird  Clowes,  and  F.  T. 
Jane's  "All  the  World's  Fighting 
Ships"  (Munn  &  Co.,  publishers).  The 
latter  is  filled  with  illustrations,  dia- 
grams, etc.,  and  has  an  excellent 


thumb  index,  facilitating  easy  refer- 
ence. Our  comparison  of  naval 
strength  is  based  on  these  three  books. 
In  addition,  we  give  the  tables  of  the 
Hydrographic  Office,  and  for  those  who 
care  to  pursue  the  matter  further,  we 
give  an  abstract  of  the  section  of 
Hazell's  Annual  dealing  with  the  sub- 
ject. With  this  explanation  it  is  hoped 
that  the  dissimilar  figures  will  not  be 
as  confusing  as  they  otherwise  would 
be. 


THE   CONSTRUCTION  AND  CLASSIFICATION  OF  MODERN 
WARSHIPS. 


The  modern  warship  is  an  ever  pop- 
ular subject  with  the  readers  of  the  il- 
lustrated press.  This  is  proved  by  the 
tenacity  with  which  guns,  ships  and 
armor  hold  their  place  as  conspicuous 
subjects  for  the  pen  and  the  brush. 
It  is  a  question,  however,  in  spite  of 
the  familiarity  of  the  public  with  the 
technical  phraseology  of  the  warship, 
whether  the  average  reader  has  a  very 
accurate  idea  of  the  distinctions  be- 
tween the  various  classes  of  ships  and 
between  the  various  elements  from  the 
combination  of  which  these  ships  de- 
rive their  distinctive  class  character- 
istics. He  is  told  that  the  "Indiana" 
is  a  battleship,  the  "Brooklyn"  an  ar- 
mored cruiser,  the  "Columbia"  a  pro- 
tected cruiser,  and  the  "Puritan"  a 
monitor.  But  it  is  probable  that  he 
has  only  a  vague  idea  as  to  what  quali- 
ties they  are  that  mark  the  distinction, 
or  why  the  distinctions  should  need  to 
exist  at  all. 

With  a  view  to  answering  these 
questions  in  a  general  way,  we  have 
prepared  three  diagrams  and  a  per- 
spective drawing  which  show  the  con- 
structive features  of  the  several  types 
of  warship  to  which  we  have  referred 
above.  In  diagrams  I  to  III  the  armor 
is  indicated  by  full  black  lines  or  by 
shading,  the  approximate  thickness  of 
the  armor  being  shown  by  the  thick- 
ness of  the  lines  and  the  depth  of  the 


shading.  The  fine  lines  represent  the 
unarmored  portions  of  the  ordinary 
plating  of  the  ships.  In  the  end  view 
the  armor  is  shown  by  full  lines  and 
shading  and  the  ordinary  ship  plating 
by  dotted  lines. 

When  the  naval  architect  sits  down 
at  his  desk  to  design  a  warship  of  a 
certain  size,  he  knows  that  there  is 
one  element  of  the  vessel  which  io 
fixed  and  unalterable,  and  that  is  her 
displacement.  By  displacement  is 
meant  the  actual  weight  of  the  ship, 
which  is,  of  course,  exactly  equal  to 
the  weight  of  water  which  she  dis- 
places. This  total  weight  is  the  cap- 
ital with  which  the  architect  has  to 
work,  and  he  uses  his  judgment  in  dis- 
tributing it  among  the  various  ele- 
ments which  go  to  make  up  the  ship. 
Part  is  allotted  to  the  hull,  part  to 
the  motive  power,  part  to  the  armor 
protection,  part  to  the  guns,  and  part 
to  the  fuel,  stores,  furnishing  and  gen- 
eral equipment. 

It  is  evident  that  the  allotment  of 
weights  is  a  matter  of  compromise — 
whatever  excess  is  given  to  one  ele- 
ment must  be  taken  from  another ; 
else,  the  ship  will  exceed  the  given 
displacement.  Among  the  elements 
above  mentioned  there  are  some,  such 
as  weight  of  hull,  provisions,  stores, 
and  furnishings,  which  for  a  given 
size  of  ship  will  not  vary  greatly. 


53 


54 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


^8    >' 

EH  § 


O      O 


fcf-  1 

°s  I 


O  « 


ffl  O 


SSS    's 


S     PH 

ir 
si8 
|« 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


55 


56 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


There  are  other  elements,  such  as  guns, 
armor,  engines  and  fuel-supply,  which 
may  vary  considerably  in  different 
ships,  according  to  the  type  of  vessel 
that  is  produced.  If,  for  instance,  the 
architect  is  designing  an  extremely 
fast  ship  of  type  No.  1,  which  has  a 
speed  of  23  knots,  he  will  have  to  al- 
lot such  a  large  amount  of  weight  to 
the  motive  power  that  he  will  only  be 
able  to  give  the  ship  very  slight  armor- 
protection  and  a  comparatively  light 
battery  of  guns.  If  he  wishes  to  pro- 
duce a  fast  ship  that  shall  be  more 
heavily  armed  and  armored,  he  has  to 


besides  protecting  his  water  line  in  the 
region  of  the  engines  and  boilers  with 
a  belt  of  steel  of  the  same  dimensions. 

The  swift  and  lightly  armed  and  ar- 
mored ship  is  known  as  a  protected 
cruiser ;  the  less  speedy  but  more  heav- 
ily armed  and  armored  ship  belongs  to 
the  armored  cruiser  type,  and  the 
slowest  ship,  with  its  capacity  for  tak- 
ing and  giving  the  heaviest  blows  that 
modern  guns  can  inflict,  is  known  as 
a  battleship. 

In  the  construction  of  a  warship 
the  two  qualities  of  attack  and  de- 
fense have  to  be  supplied.  The  offep 


If.  AR*fOR£0   CXUfSER-81  KNOTS. 


III.  SATTZSSlflP- 17  KNOTS. 


COMPARATIVE  ARMOR  PROTECTION  IN  PRINCIPAL  TYPES  OF  MODERN 
WAR  VESSELS. 


be  content  with  less  speed,  say  20  or 
21  knots,  as  in  No.  2,  and  the  weight 
so  saved  on  the  motive  power  appears 
in  the  shape  of  a  side  belt  of  armor  at 
the  water  line,  more  complete  protec- 
tion for  the  guns  in  the  shape  of  bar- 
bettes and  turrets  and  considerably 
heavier  armament.  If,  again,  he  de- 
sires to  produce  a  ship  capable  of  con- 
tending with  the  most  powerful  ships 
in  line  of  battle,  as  in  No.  3,  he  is 
content  with  much  lower  speed,  say 
16  or  17  knots  an  hour,  and  he  in- 
creases the  power  of  his  guns  until 
they  weigh  over  60  tons  apiece,  and 
protects  them  with  great  redoubts 
and  turrets  of  steel  1 1-2  feet  thick, 


sive  powers  are  furnished  by  the  guns, 
the  torpedoes  and  the  ram ;  the  defen- 
sive powers  are  provided  by  giving  the 
ship  a  complete  double  .bottom  and  an 
abundance  of  watertight  compart- 
ments, and  by  providing  it  with  as 
much  armor  plating  as  it  will  carry  to 
keep  out  the  shells  of  the  enemy.  The 
greatest  danger  to  which  a  warship  is 
exposed  is  that  of  being  sunk  either 
by  under-water  attack  by  torpedoes  or 
the  ram,  or  by  beinf  penetrated  at  the 
water  line  by  hea  ihell  fire.  The 
destructive  force  Oi.  a  torpedo  is  so 
great  that  all  that  can  be  done  is  to 
localize  its  effects.  For  this  purpose, 
and  also  to  give  greater  structural 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


57 


strength,  the  hull  below  the  water  line 
is  built  double — a  hull  within  a  hull. 
The  longitudinal  and  transverse  plate 
framing  of  the  ship  is  built  in  between 
these  shells,  which  are  known  as  the 
inner  and  outer  bottoms,  and  the  space 
is  thus  divided  into  innumerable  wa- 
tertight compartments  or  cells.  There 
is  a  possibility  that  a  blow  that  would 
burst  in  the  outer  shell  might  not  rup- 
ture the  inner  shell ;  but  if  it  should, 
the  inflow  of  water  is  confined  to  a  lim- 
ited portion  of  the  hull  by  dividing 
the  latter  by  transverse  and  longitudi- 
nal walls  or  bulkheads  of  plating.  A 
blow  that  burst  in  both  outer  and  in- 
ner shells  would  only  admit  water  to 
one  of  many  compartments,  and  the 
ship  would  still  have  a  large  reserve 
of  buoyancy. 

In  protecting  warships  against  shell 
fire    it    is    recognized    that    there    are 


the  battleship  this  deck  is  generally 
flat  from  side  to  side  amidships  for 
about  two-thirds  of  the  ship's  length. 
At  the  sides  it  rests  upon  a  wall  of 
vertical  armor  from  15  to  18  inches  in 
thickness,  which  extends  in  the  wake 
of  the  magazines,  engines  and  boilers. 
This  side  armor  is  usually  about  7  1-2 
feet  in  height,  3  feet  of  it  being  above 
and  4 1-2  feet  below  the  water  line. 
At  each  end  of  the  side  armor  a  trans- 
verse wall  of  armor  extends  clear 
across  the  ship.  This  rectangular  wall 
with  its  roof  of  3-in.  steel  thus  forms  a 
kind  of  inverted  box,  snugly  sheltered 
below  which  are  the  before  mentioned 
"vitals"  of  the  ship.  At  each  end  of 
this  inverted  box  two  huge  barbettes, 
with  walls  15  to  17  inches  thick,  are 
built  up  to  a  few  feet  above  the  main 
deck,  and  just  within  and  above  them 
revolve  a  pair  of  turrets  with  walls  of 


(All  parts  above  the  water  lines  shown  by  dotted  lines  and  light  shading,  might  be  shot  away  without 
destroying  the  fighting  power  of  the  ship.) 

THE   INVULNERABLE,    FLOATING  FORT,    WITHIN    THE   OUTER  WALLS   OF   A 
MODERN    BATTLESHIP. 


certain  parts  of  the  ship  which  are  of 
paramount  importance,  inasmuch  as 
their  disablement  would  leave  it  at  the 
mercy  of  the  enemy.  These  are  the 
"vitals"  of  the  ship,  and  they  com- 
prise the  magazines,  the  boilers,  the 
engines  and  the  steering  gear.  If  a 
shell  penetrated  the  magazines,  it 
would  be  liable  to  result  in  the  blowing 
up  of  the  whole  ship,  and  if  it  entered 
thie  boiler,  engine  or  steering  rooms, 
it  would  probably  render  the  ship  un- 
manageable, in  which  event  she  would 
run  the  risk  of  being  rammed  and 
sunk  by  the  enemy. 

In  all  warships  the  vitals  are  cov- 
ered by  a  complete  protective  deck  of 
steel,  which  varies  in  thickness  from 
1 1-2  to  3  inches.  The  highest  part  of 
the  deck  is  generally  at  a  slightly 
higher  level  than  the  water  line  amid- 
ships, and  it  curves  down  at  each  end 
to  meet  the  bow  and  the  stern.  In 


15  to  17  inch  steel.  (See  perspective 
view.)  The  turrets  give  shelter  to  the 
big  guns,  of  which  there  are  a  pair  in 
each,  and  the  barbettes  protect  the 
turning  gear  by  which  the  turrets  are 
rotated.  There  is  thus  a  continuous 
wall  of  15  to  17  inch  steel  extend- 
ing from  4  feot  below  the  water  line 
to  the  roofs  of  the  turrets. 

With  this  description  in  mind  the 
reader  will  see,  on  looking  at  diagram 
No.  III.,  that  before  heavy  shells 
can  injure  the  engines,  boilers  or  guns, 
they  must  pass  through  from  15  to  18 
inches  of  solid  and,  in  the  case  of 
American  battleships,  face-hardened 
Harvey  steel.  The  6-inch  and  8-inch 
guns  are  protected  by  6  and  8  inches 
of  steel. 

Now  it  can  readily  be  understood 
that  all  this  amount  of  heavy  armor 
and  guns  adds  greatly  to  the  weight 
of  the  ship,  and  for  this  reason,  in 


58 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


spite  of  her  smaller  engine  power,  a 
firstclass  battleship  rarely  displaces 
less  than  10,000  tons,  and  in  some  for- 
eign navies  the  displacement  runs  up 
to  nearly  16,000  tons.  This  will  be 
understood  by  reference  to  the  perspec- 
.  tive  view,  where  the  armored  portions 
of  the  ship  are  indicated  by  full  lines 
and  shading.  It  will  be  seen  that  all 
that  part  of  the  ship  lying  below  the 
water  line  is  shut  in  by  a  continuous 
roof  of  steel  which  is  3  inches  in 
thickness  forward  and  aft  of  the  bulk- 
heads. Over  the  central  armored  cita- 
del it  is  23-4  inches  thick.  All  the 
plating  indicated  by  dotted  lines  might 
be  shot  away  without  the  "vitals"  suf- 
fering injury  or  the  ship  being  sunk. 
The  reader  will  see  that  it  is  the  bat- 
tleship's sides  and  the  extra  deck  and 
freeboard  which  they  provide  which 
constitute  practically  the  difference  be- 
tween a  battleship  and  a  monitor. 

This  brings  us  to  the  consideration 
of  the  monitor  type.  Take  away  from 
a  battleship  all  that  portion  which  is 
shown  in  our  drawing  in  shaded  lines 
above  the  water  line ;  lower  the  bar- 
bettes until  they  rise  only  a  few  feet 
above  the  steel  deck,  and  we  have  a 
ship  of  the  general  monitor  type.  The 
monitor  is  distinguished  by  very  low 
freeboard — only  a  few  inches  in  the  ex- 
treme type — the  absence  of  a  heavy 
secondary  battery  and  the  possession 
of  a  main  armament  of  heavy  guns. 
Such  a  ship  labors  heavily  in  bad 
weather  and  is  not  intended  for  ser- 
vice at  any  distance  from  the  coasts. 
To  make  a  seagoing  vessel  out  of  her 
it  would  be  necessary  to  add  one,  or 
even  two  decks,  placing  the  guns  well 
up  above  the  water,  after  which 
changes  she  would  be  no  longer  a  moni- 
tor, but  a  seagoing  battleship. 

In  the  cruiser  type  the  protective 
deck  does  not  extend  across  the  ship 
at  one  level,  but  curves  down  to  meet 
the  hull  at  a  point  several  feet  below 
the  water  line.  This  sloping  portion 
is  made  thicker  than  the  flat  portion, 
as  in  diagram  No.  II.,  where  the  deck 
is  3  inches  thick  on  the  flat  and  G 
inches  on  the  slopes.  In  the  case  of 
the  armored  cruisers,  a  belt  of  vertical 
armor  is  carried  at  the  water  line  and 
in  all  cruisers  the  V-shaped  space  be- 
tween belt  and  sloping  deck  is  filled 
in  with  coal  or  with  some  form  of  wa- 
ter-excluding material,  such  as  corn- 
pith  cellulose.  In  diagram  II.,  which 
represents  the  fine  armored  cruiser 


"Brooklyn,"  it  will  be  seen  that  before 
it  could  reach  the  engine  room  a  shell 
would  have  to  pass  through  3  inches 
of  vertical  steel,  about  0  feet  of  coal 
and  6  inches  of  inclined  armor — a  to- 
tal resistance  equal  to  14  or  15  inches 
of  solid  steel.  The  guns  and  turning 
gear  are  protected  by  5  1-2-inch  steel 
turrets  and  8-inch  barbettes.  The  bar- 
bettes, it  will  oe  seen,  do  not  extend 
continuously  down  to  the  armored 
deck,  as  in  the  battleship,  for  this 
would  require  a  greater  weight  of 
armor  than  can  be  allowed.  Conse- 
quently, the  architect  is  only  able  to 
furnish  the  guns  wi^h  a  small  armor- 
plated  tube  for  protecting  the  ammu- 
nition in  its  passage  from  the  maga- 
zines to  the  barbettes. 

In  the  protected  cruiser  the  side  arm- 
or at  the  water  line  disappears  alto- 
gether, and  dependence  is  placed  en- 
tirely upon  the  sloping  sides  of  the 
protective  deck,  the  water-excluding 
cellulose  and  the  6  or  8  feet  of  coal 
which  is  stowed  in  the  bunkers  in  the 
wake  of  the  engines  and  boilers.  The 
barbettes,  turrets  and  armored  am- 
munition tubes  of  the  armored  cruiser 
disappear,  and  their  place  is  taken 
by  'comparatively  light  shields  and 
casements  of  4-inch  steel  which  serve 
to  protect  the  gun  crews. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  de- 
scription that  each  class  of  vessel  is 
only  fitted  to  engage  ships  of  its  own 
type.  The  protected  cruiser  "Colum- 
bia" (No.  I.)  might,  with  her  light  0 
and  4  inch  guns,  hammer  away  all  day 
at  the  "Indiana"  (No.  III.)  without 
being  able  to  do  much  more  than 
knock  the  paint  off  the  latter's  18-inch 
armor,  whereas  one  well-directed  shot 
from  the  13-inch  guns  of  the  "Indiana" 
would  be  sufficient  to  sink  or  disable 
the  "Columbia."  The  "Brooklyn" 
would  fare  better,  and  at  close  range 
her  8-inch  guns  might  happen  to  pene- 
trate the  belt  or  turret  armor  of  the 
"Indiana,"  but  the  issue  of  the  duel 
would  never  be  in  doubt  for  an  in- 
stant. A  "Columbia"  or  a  "Brook- 
lyn" would  show  its  heels  to  an  "In- 
d'iana"  or  "Massachusetts,"  and  their 
great  speed  would  give  them  the  op- 
tion of  refusing  or  accepting  battle 
with  almost  any  craft  that  is  afloat 
upon  the  seas  to-day. 

It  should  be  mentioned,  in  con- 
clusion, that  the  dividing  lines  in  the 
classification  of  warships  are  some- 
what flexible. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


59 


RELATIVE    STRENGTH    IN   MATERIEL:    PRINCIPAL   NAVIES. 

A  Parliamentary  Return  dated  March  26th,  1903,  was  issued  in  May  of  that  year,  showing 
the  Fleets  of  Great  Britain,  France,  Russia,  Germany,  Italy,  the  United  States  of  America,  and 
Japan.  This  return  is  here  brought  up  to  date  Dec.  31st,  1903.  This  refers  to  the  text  matter.— 
Hazell's  Annual. 

The  figures  in  the  tables  show  the  condition  of  affairs  on  Jan.  1,  1904;  since  this  time  the 
Russo-Japanese  war  shows  great  changes.  The  severe  losses  of  the  Russians  and  the  slight 
losses  of  the  Japanese  have  been  taken  into  account  in  the  tables.  The  third,  fourth  and  fifth 
tables  are  issued  by  the  Office  of  Naval  Intelligence,  U.  S.  N.,  with  modifications,  according  to 
newspaper  reports,  occasioned  by  the  Russo-Japanese  War. 

BUILT. 


Type. 

Great 
Britain. 

France. 

Germany. 

Russia. 

Italy. 

United 
States. 

Japan. 

6 
1 

2 

8§ 

10 

7 
9 
1 
17 
63 

Battleships,  1st  class  
2nd  class  
3rd  class  

49 

4 
2 
2 
24 
21 
51t 
32| 
10 
34 
112 
85 
5 

20 
9 

1 
14 
10 

16 
17 
1 
16 
14 
247 
15 

14 
4 
12 
11 
2 
1 
8 
10 
20 
2 
32 
93 

12 
2 
1 
13 
6 
2 
4 

3 
8 
40 
150 

12 
5 
5 

5 
11 

14 
11 
145 
1 

12 
1 

15 
2 
3 
12 
2 
11 

20 
27 
3 

Coast  defence  vessels  

protected,  1st  class  .  .  . 
2nd  class  .  .  . 
3rd  class.  .  . 

Torpedo  vessels  
Torpedo-boat  destroyers  
Torpedo  boats  
Submarines  

BUILDING. 


Type. 

Great 
Britain. 

France. 

Russia. 

Germany. 

Italy. 

United 
States. 

Japan. 

Battleships   1st  class.    .  .           j 

7 

J6 

6 

6 

(7 

"             2nd  class 

6* 

6 

16* 

.       3* 

15* 

4* 

Coast  defence  vessels  
Cruisers  armored      .                   j 

13 

•J  12 

— 

3 

1 

1 

11 

— 

"         protected,  1st  class..  .  . 

"                "           2nd  class.  .  . 
3rd  class.  .  j 

Scouts                                           j 

4* 

2 
4 
3* 
4 

1    1* 

3* 
J2 
12* 
2 

1* 

5 

2* 

1* 

5 

6* 
2 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers  
Torpedo-boats  

4* 
19 
15* 
5 

4 

""  J19 
1    4* 
J18 
)25* 
j  25 

6 

7 
2 

6* 
1 

2* 
8 

2 

1* 

4 
5 

2 
18 

10* 

(18* 

RELATIVE    ORDER    OF   WAR    SHIP    STRENGTH. 


AT  PRESENT. 

AS    WOULD    BE    THE    CASE    WERE    VESSELS 
BUILDING  NOW  COMPLETED. 

Nation. 

Tonnage. 

Nation. 

Tonnage. 

Great  Britain.  .  .  

1,516,040 
576,108 
387,874 
346,458 
294,405 
258,838 
243,586 
93,913 

Great  Britain.  .           

1,867,250 
755,757 
616,275 
505,619 
458,432 
329,257 
253,681 
149,833 

France              

Germany  

United  States 

Germany  

United  States  .  .  . 
Italy 

Russia  
Italy  
Japan  

Japan  
Austria  

Austria  

Signifies  programme  1903-4  (ordered  or  projected). 

!  Including  three  partially  protected. 
Including  one  partially  protected. 
Including  two  vessels  purchased  from  the  Argentine  for  $7,500,000,  Dec.  dlst, 


1903. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


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£ 

THE  NAVIES  OF  THE  WORLD 
IN    DETAIL. 

ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC. 

PERSONNEL. — There  are  321  executive  offi- 
cers and  158  engineer  officers  on  the  active  list, 
and  from  5,000  to  6,000  men.  The  executive 
officers  are  divided  as  follows:  1  vice-admiral, 
2  rear-admirals,  3  commodores,  11  captains, 
42  commanders,  30  lieutenants,  91  sub-lieu- 
tenants, 81  midshipmen,  and  60  cadets. 

MATERIEL. — The  strength  in  ships  built  and 
building  on  Nov.  30th,  1903  was: — 


Battleships 1 

Coast  defence  vessels 4 

Armored  cruisers 4 

Protected  cruisers 5 

Torpedo  vessels 5 

Torpedo-boat  destroyeis 3 

Torpedo  boats 22 

BUILDING. 

*Armored  cruisers.  .  2 


DOCKYARDS. — The  principal  dockyards  are 
situated  as  follows: — 

San  Fernando. — Three  small  docks  take 
cruisers. 

Puerto  Belgrano.; — One  large  dock  takes 
battleships. 

Buenos  Ayres. — Very  limited  accommo- 
dation. 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

PERSONNEL. — The  number  of  all  ranks  in 
the  Austrian  Navy.including  reserves,  islO,841. 
The  officers  of  the  Austrian  Navy  are  distri- 
buted as  follows:  1  admiral,  2  vice-admirals, 
17  captains,  27  commanders,  37  lieutenant- 
commanders,  200  lieutenants,  191  sub-lieu- 
tenants, and  180  midshipmen. 

MATERIEL. — The  strength  in  ships  built, 
building,  and  projected  on  Nov.  30th,  1903, 
was: — 

BUILT. 

Battleships,  3rd  class 5 

Coast  defence  ships 3 

River  monitors 4 

Armored  cruisers 1 

Protected  cruisers,  2nd  class 2 

3rd  class 4 

Torpedo  vessels 15 

Torpedo  boats 37 


BUILDING. 

Battleships,  1st  class. 

Monitors 

Armored  cruisers.  .  .  . 
Torpedo  vessels 


DOCKYARD. — The  pr  ncipal  Government 
dockyard  of  Austria-Hungary  is  situated  at 
Pola.  There  are  three  small  docks  there. 

*  These  two  vessels  are  the  Bernadino 
Rivadavia  and  the  Mariano  Moreno,  which 
were  built  in  Italy,  and  were  sold  (Dec.  31st, 
1903)  to  the  Japanese  Government. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


63 


BRAZIL. 

PERSONNEL. — The  personnel  of  the  Brazil- 
ian navy  numbers  about  8,500  of  all  ranks. 
The  executive  officers  are  distributed  as  fol- 
lows: 1  admiral,  2  vice-admirals,  10  rear- 
admirals,  18  captains,  30  commanders,  60 
lieutenant-commanders,  175  lieutenants,  and 
160  sub-lieutenants. 

MATERIEL. — The  ships  built  for  the  Brazil- 
ian Navy  number  in  all  63.  There  are  no 
vessels  under  construction. 

BUILT. 

Coast  defence  ships 9 

Protected  cruisers 6 

Torpedo  vessels 18 

Torpedo  boats 28 

Submarines 2 

DOCKYARDS. — The  only  important  dock- 
yard is  situated  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  where  there 
are  three  docks  to  take  cruisers,  and  two 
smaller  ones.  Besides  this  there  are  naval 
bases  at  Para,  Bahia,  Pernambuco,  and 
Ladario  de  Matto  Grosso. 

CHILE. 

PERSONNEL. — The  numbers  of  officers  and 
men  on  the  active  list  are  variously  stated  to 
be  from  6,000  to  8,000.  The  executive  officers 
are  distributed  as  follows:  1  vice-admiral,  4 
rear-admirals,  11  captains,  18  commanders, 
16  lieutenant-commanders,  25  lieutenants, 
and  36  midshipmen. 

MATERIEL. — The  strength  in  ships  built  and 
building  on  Nov.  30th,  1903,  was:— 

BUILT. 

Battleships 2 

Armored  cruisers 2 

Protected  cruisers 6 

Torpedo  vessels 5 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 6 

Torpedo  boats 24 

DOCKYARDS. — The  principal  dockyards  are 
situated  as  follows: — 

Talcahuno. — One  dock  takes  any  \varship. 
Valparaiso. — Two  small  floating  docks  take 
cruisers. 

DENMARK: 

PERSONNEL. — The  personnel  numbers  about 
4,000  of  all  ranks.  The  executive  officers  are 
divided  as  follows:  1  vice-admiral,  2  rear- 
admirals,  16  captains,  38  commanders,  63 
lieutenants,  33  sub-lieutenants,  and  23  mid- 
shipmen. 

MATERIEL. — The  strength  in  ships  built  and 
building  on  Nov.  30th,  1903,  was: — 

BUILT. 

Battleships 4 

Coast  defence  vessels 4 

Protected  cruisers 5 

Torpedo  boats 25 

BUILDING. 

Coast  defence  vessel 1 

DOCKYARD. — At  Copenhagen  there  are  three 
small  docks. 


FRANCE. 

PERSONNEL. 

The  number  of  officers  and  men  on  the  active 
list  of  the  French  Navy  in  1903  was  53,247,  and 
in  the  Reserve  there  were  49,346  officers  and 
men.  The  number  of  men  effective  during 
1903  was  less  by  2,940  than  the  number  avail- 
able during  the  preceding  year. 

The  executive  officers  of  the  French  Navy 
are  divided  as  follows: — 15  vice-admirals,  30 
rear-admirals,  124  captains,  212  commanders, 
751  lieutenant-commanders,  574  lieutenants, 
146  sub-lieutenants,  100  midshipmen,  183 
cadets. 

MATERIEL. 

The  number  of  ships  built,  building,  and 
projected  for  the  French  Navy  on  Nov.  30th, 
1903.  was: — 

BUILT. 

Battleships,  1st  class 20 

2nd  class 9 

3rd  class* 1 

Coast  defence  vessels 14 

Armored  cruisers 10 

Protected    cruisers,     1st  class 7 

2nd  class 16 

3rd  class 17 

Unprotected  cruisers 1 

Torpedo  vessels 16 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 14 

Torpedo  boats 247 

Submarines 15 

BUILDING. 

Battleships,  1st  class 6 

Armored  cruisers 12 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 19 

Torpedc»-boats 18 

Submarines 25 

PROJECTED. 

Armored  cruiser* 1 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 4 

Torpedo  boats 25 

Submarines 18 

DOCKYARDS. 

The  Government  dockyards  in  France  are 
situated  as  follows: — 

Cherbourg. — One    dock    takes    battleships 

14,000  tons;  seven  smaller. 
Brest. — One  dock  takes  battleships;  others 

very  small. 
Lorient.— One  dock  takes  battleships  14,000 

tons;  one  takes  small  cruisers. 
Rochefort. — Three  docks,  take  small  vessels 

Toulon'.— Three     docks     take     battleships 
14,000  tons;  six  others  take  cruisers. 


GERMANY. 

PERSONNEL. 

The  number  of  officers  and  men  on  the  ac- 
tive list  is  35,685,  and  on  the  regular  reserve 
there  are  5,114.  The  total  number  of  able- 
bodied  men  liable  for  service  in  the  Reserve, 
however,  is  about  70,000. 

*  This  armored  cruiser  is  the  Ernest  Renan 
of  13,562  tons. 


64 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


The  executive  officers  of  the  German  Navy 
are  divided  as  follows: — 8  vice-admirals,  16 
rear-admirals,  58  captains,  125  commanders, 
245  lieutenant-commanders,  382  lieutenants, 
332  sub-lieutenants,  401  midshipmen,  200 
cadets. 

MATERIEL. 

The  strength  of  the  German  Navy  in  ships 
built  and  building  on  Nov.  30th,  1903,  was: — 

BUILT. 

Battleships,  1st  class 14 

2nd  class 4 

3rd  class 12 

Coast  defence  ships 11 

Armored  cruisers 2 

Protected  cruisers,  1st  class 1 

2nd  class 8 

3rd  class 10 

Unprotected  cruisers 20 

Torpedo  vessels 2 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 32 

Torpedo  boats 93 

Submarines ? 

BUILDING. 

Battleships,  1st  class 6 

Armored  cruisers 3 

Protected  cruisers,  3rd  class 5 

PROJECTED. 

Armored  cruiser* 1 

Protected  cruisers 2 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 6 

Torpedo  boats — 

Submarine 1 

DOCKYARDS. 

The  German  dockyards  are  situated  as 
follows : — 

Kiel. — Two  docks  take  any  ship.  Also  two 
floating  docks.  Four  docks  take  any 
ship  up  to  10,000  tons. 

Wilhelmshaven. — One  dock  takes  any  ship; 
one  takes  up  to  10,000  tons.  Three  float- 
ing docks ;  two  new  ones  building. 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 

PERSONNEL. 

The  number  of  officers,  seamen,  boys,  and 
marines  provided  for  sea  and  other  services  for 
the  year  1903-4  amounts  to  127,100,  being  an 
increase  of  4,600  on  the  previous  year.  The 
strength  of  the  Royal  Marines  on  Jan.  1st, 
1903,  was  19,579. 

The  passing  of  the  Naval  Forces  Act  during 
the  year  will  strengthen  the  Naval  Reserves  by 
increasing  its  numbers,  and  by  authorizing 
short-service  system  in  the  Navy,  on  condition 
that  those  accepting  such  employment  shall 
complete  a  term  of  seven  years  in  the  reserve. 
The  Royal  Naval  Volunteers  authorized  by 
the  Act  of  1902  have  commenced  enrolment, 
and  Divisions  have  been  formed  at  London 
and  Glasgow. 

MATERIEL. 

The  strength  of  the  British  Navy  in  ships 
built,  building,  and  projected  on  Nov.  30th, 
1903,  was:— 


BUILT. 

Battleships,  1st  class 49 

2nd  class 4 

3rd  class 2 

Coast  defence  ships 2 

Armored  crusiers 24 

Protected  cruisers,  1st  class 21 

2nd  class 51 

3rd  class 32 

Unprotected  cruisers 10 

Torpedo  vessels 34 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers. 112 

Torpedo  boats 85 

Submarines 5 

BUILDING. 

Battleships,  1st  class 7 

Armored  cruisers 13 

Protected  cruisers,  2nd  class 2 

3rd  class 4 

Scouts 4 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 19 

Torpedo  boats 5 

Submarines 4 

PROJECTED. 

Battleships,  1st  class 6 

Armored  cruisers 4 

Protected  cruisers 3 

Scouts 4 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 15 

Submarines 10 

Two  of  the  first-class  battleships  are  those 
purchased  from  Chile. 

DOCKYARDS. 

The  public  dockyards  in  Great  Britain  are 
situated  as  follows: — 

Portsmouth. — Six  docks  take  any  ship ;  three 
take  armored  cruisers,  10,000  tons  and 
smaller. 

Devonport. — Two  docks  take  battleships; 
two  smaller. 

Keyham. — One  dock  takes  small  battle- 
ships; three  smaller. 

Chatham. — Six  docks  take  battleships 
(four  small  ones  only) ;  four  smaller. 

Sheerness. — Five  small  docks. 

Pembroke. — One  dock  takes  small  battle- 
ships. 

Haulbowline. — Two  docks  take  any  ship. 


ITALY. 

PERSONNEL. 

There  are  26,948  officers  and  men  on  the 
active  list  for  the  current  financial  year,  and 
the  reserve  numbers  33,667  officers  and 
men.  This  latter  is,  however,  of  doubtful 
efficiency,  for  many  of  the  officers  are  over 
sixty-five  years  of  age,  and  the  men  have  but 
little  training. 

The  executive  officers  of  the  Italian  Navy  are 
divided  as  follows: — 1  admiral,  7  vice-admirals, 
14  rear-admirals,  58  captains,  70  commanders, 
75  lieutenant-commanders,  410  lieutenants, 
160  sub-lieutenants,  130  midshipmen. 

MATERIEL. 

The  strength  of  ships  built,  building  and 
projected  on  Nov.  30th,  1903.  was: — 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


65 


BUILT. 

Battleships,  1st  class 12 

3rd  class 5 

Armored  cruisers 5 

Protected  cruisers,  2nd  class 5 

3rd  class 11 

Torpedo  vessels 14 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 11 

Torpedo  boats 145 

Submarines 1 

BUILDING. 

Battleships,  1st  class 6 

Armored  cruisers 1 

Submarines 1 

PROJECTED. 

Battleships,  1st  class 3 

Protected  cruisers,  3rd  class 1 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 2 

Torpedo  boats 8 

Submarines 1 

DOCKYARDS. 

The   Government   dockyards   of   Italy   are 
situated  as  follows: — 

Spezia. — One  dock  takes  any  ship ;  one  takes 

all  Italian  ships;  four  smaller. 
Venice. — One     dock     takes     cruisers;    one 

smaller.     One  building  to  take  any  ship. 
Taranto. — One  dock  takes  any  ship. 


JAPAN. 

PERSONNEL. 

The  number  of  officers  and  men  available 
for  active  service  is  about  31,000.  There  is 
also  a  small  reserve  of  some  4,000. 

MATERIEL. 

The  strength  in  ships  built,  building,  and 
projected  on  Nov  30th,  1903,  less  loss,  was:  — 

BUILT. 

Battleships,  1st  class 6 

2nd  class 1 

Coast  defence  ships 2 

Armored  cruisers 8* 

Protected  cruisers,  2nd  class 10 

3rd  class 7 

Unprotected  cruisers 9 

Torpedo  vessels 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 17 

Torpedo  boats 63 

BUILDING. 

Protected  cruisers,  2nd  class 2 

3rd  class 1 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 2 

Torpedo  boats 18 

PROJECTED. 

Battleships.t  1st  class 4 

Armored  cruisers 6 

DOCKYARDS. 

The  Government  dockyards  in  Japan  are 
situated  as  follows: — 

Yokosuka. — One  dock  takes  any  ship ;  two 

smaller. 
Kure. — One  dock  takes  cruisers. 

*  Including  two  vessels,  each  of  7700  tons 
displacement  and  a  speed  of  20  knots,  pur- 
chased from  the  Argentine  Government  for 
$7,500,000  (Dec.  31st,  1903). 

t  The  projected  vessels  have  not  been 
named. 


NETHERLANDS. 

PERSONNEL. — The  total  of  officers  and  men 
enlisted  for  the  navy  reaches  11,000,  but  this 
figure  includes  the  marine  infantry.  The 
executive  officers  are  divided  as  follows:  1 
vice-admiral,  3  rear  admirals,  25  captains,  40 
commanders,  400  lieutenants  and  sub-lieu- 
tenants, and  200  midshipmen. 

MATERIEL. — The  strength  in  ships  built, 
building  and  projected  on  Nov.  30th,  1903, 


BUILT. 

Battleships,  3rd  class 2 

Coast  defence  ships 19 

Unprotected  cruisers 11 

Torpedo  vessels 12 

Torpedo  boats 29 


BUILDING. 

Coast  defence  ships 2 

Torpedo  boats 5 


PROJECTED. 

Coast  defence  ships 3 

Torpedo  vessels 7 

Torpedo  boats 2 

Submarine  (to  be  purchased) 1 

DOCKYARDS. — The  principal  dockyards  are 
situated  as  follows: 

Helder. — Two  docks  take  cruisers. 
Hellevoetsluis. — One     dock      takes     small 

battleships. 
Amsterdam. — Two     floating     docks     take 

cruisers. 
Rotterdam. — Three     floating     docks     take 

small  cruisers. 


NORWAY. 

PERSONNEL. — The  personnel  numbers  about 
2,000,  of  which  1,000  are  permanent,  and  the 
remainder  yearly  conscripts.  The  executive 
officers  are  divided  as  follows:  1  rear-admiral, 
4  captains,  14  commanders,  28  lieutenant- 
commanders,  37  lieutenants,  30  sub-lieuten- 
ants. 

MATERIEL. — The  strength  in  ships  built  and 
building  on  Nov.  30th,  1903,  was:— 


Coast  defence  vessels 4 

Torpedo  vessels 7 

Torpedo  boats 26 

BUILDING. 

Coast  defence  vessel 1 

Torpedo  boats 2 

Submarine 

DOCKYARDS. — The  principal  dockyards  of 
Norway  are  situated  as  follows: — 

Horten. — One  dry  dock  takes  small  battle- 

Christiansand. — One  dry  dock  takes  small 
battleships. 


66 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


PORTUGAL. 

PERSONNEL.  —  The  number  of  men  in  the 
Portuguese  Navy  is  about  5,000,  and,  in  addi- 
tion, there  are  2  vice-admirals,  5  rear-admirals, 
16  captains,  25  commanders,  25  lieutenant- 
commanders,  80  lieutenants,  110  sub-lieu- 
tenants, 37  midshipmen,  and  96  cadets.  The 
age  for  retirement  of  a  vice-admiral  is  70 
years,  rear-admiral  66  years,  and  other  officers 
64  years. 

MATERIEL.  —  The  strength  in  ships  built  and 
building  on  Nov.  30th,  1903,  was:  — 


Battleship  ........................  1 

Unprotected  cruisers  ...............  7 

Torpedo  vessels  ...................  14 

Torpedo  boats  .....................  11 

BUILDING. 

Torpedo  vessels  ...................  2 

DOCKYARD.  —  There  are  four  small  docks  at 
Lisbon. 


RUSSIA. 

PERSONNEL. 

There  are  2,900  officers  on  the  effective  list 
of  the  Russian  Navy,  and  the  number  of  men 
is  61,516.  In  the  Reserve  there  are  about 
30,000  of  all  ranks. 

The  executive  officers  of  the  Russian  Navy 
are  divided  as  follows: — 1  commander-in- 
chief  (admiral-general),  14  admirals,  24  vice- 
admirals,  33  rear-admirals,  92  captains,  212 
commanders,  850  lieutenants,  400  midshipmen. 

MATERIEL. 

The  strength  of  the  Russian  Navy  in  ships 
built,  building  and  projected,  on  Nov.  30th, 
1903,  less  losses,  was: — 

BUILT. 

Battleships,  1st  class 12 

2nd  class 2 

3rd  class 1 

Coast  defence  ships 13 

Armored  cruisers 6 

Protected  cruisers,  1st  class 2 

2nd  class 4 

3rd  class — 

Unprotected  cruisers 3 

Torpedo  vessels 8 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 40 

Torpedo  boats 150 

Submarines 0 

BUILDING. 

Battleships,  1st  class 6 

Armored  cruisers 0 

Protected  cruisers,  1st  class 2 

2nd  class 2 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 6 

Torpedo-boats 7 

Submarines 2 

PROJECTED. 

Battleships,  1st  class 6 

Armored  cruisers 3 

Protected  cruisers,  1st  class 2 


The  projected  battleships  are  the  Tchesma, 
Evstafi,  and  loann  Zlatoust,  all  of  which  are  re- 
ported to  have  been  laid  down  in  the  Black 
Sea  yards;  and  the  Imperator  Pavel,  the  Andrei 
Pervosvannui,  to  be  built  in  the  St.  Petersburg 
yards.  Of  the  sixth  vessel  nothing  is  yet 
known,  nor  have  the  names  of  the  armored 
cruisers  transpired.  The  protected  cruisers 
are  to  be  of  the  Kagul  type. 

[The  war  with  Japan  has  modified  all  figures 
of  present  strength.] 

DOCKYARDS. 

The  principal  Russian  dockyards  are  situ- 
ated as  follows: — 

Kronstadt. — One  dock  takes  any  ship ;  three 

smaller. 

Libau. — Two  docks  take  any  ship. 
Sevastopol. — Two  docks  take  any  ship. 


SPAIN. 

PERSONNEL. — There  are  16,700  of  all  ranks 
in  the  Spanish  Navy,  and  9,000  marines.  All 
these  are  conscripts.  The  officers  are  divided 
as  follows:  1  admiral,  4  vice-admirals,  11  rear- 
admirals,  22  captains,  47  commanders,  94 
lieutenant-commanders,  131  lieutenants,  340 
sub-lieutenants,  165  midshipmen,  and  100 
cadets. 

MATERIEL. — The  strength  in  ships  built  and 
building  on  Nov.  30th,  1903,  was: — 


BUILT. 

Battleship 1 

Armored  cruisers 2 

Protected  cruisers 6 

Torpedo  vessels 17 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 4 

Torpedo  boats 10 

BUILDING. 

Armored  cruisers 2 

Protected  cruisers. 2 

DOCKYARDS. — The  principal  dockyards  are 
situated  as  follows: — 

Cadiz. — Three  docks  take  cruisers. 

Cartagena. — One  floating  dock  takes  large 
cruisers. 

Bilboa. — One  dock  takes  any  Spanish  ship; 
two  smaller. 

SWEDEN. 

PERSONNEL. — The  personnel  of  the  Swedish 
Navy  in  1903  numbered  about  7,500  of  all 
ranks.  In  addition  there  are  about  20,000 
yearly  conscripts  available,  but  the  majority 
of  these  are  seldom  called  upon.  The  officers 
are  divided  as  follows:  1  vice-admiral,  4  rear- 
admirals,  6  commodores,  24  captains,  64  com- 
manders, 55  lieutenants,  30  sub-lieutenants. 

MATERIEL. — The  strength  of  ships  built  and 
building  on  Nov.  30th  was: — 

BUILT. 

Coast  defence  vessels 10 

Torpedo  vessels 14 

Torpedo-boat  destroyer 1 

Torpedo  boats 28 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


67 


BUILDING. 

Battleship 1 

Armored  cruiser 1 

Torpedo  boats 3 

Submarine 1 

DOCKYARDS. — The   principal   dockyards   in 
Sweden  are  situated  as  follows: — - 

Karlscrona. — Three  docks  take  any  Swedish 

ship;  three  smaller. 
Stockholm. — One  dock  takes  cruisers. 


TURKEY. 

PERSONNEL,. — There  are  31,000  officers  and 
men  in  the  Turkish  Navy  and  9,000  marines. 
The  officers  are  divided  as  follows :  2  admirals, 
9  vice-admirals,  16  rear-admirals,  30  captains, 

90  commanders,  300  lieutenant-command- 
ers, 250  lieutenants,  200  sub-lieutenants. 

MATERIEL. — The  strength  in  ships  built  and 
building  for  the  Turkish  Navy  on  Nov.  30th, 
1903,  was:— 

BUILT. 

Battleships — 

Protected  cruiser 1 

Torpedo  vessels 6 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 2 

Torpedo  boats 25 

Submarines 2 

BUILDING. 

Protected  cruisers 5 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 2 


UNITED  STATES. 

ADMINISTRATION. 

The  President  of  the  United  States  is  ex- 
ofjicio  Commander-in-chief  of  the  Navy.  As 
his  executive  he  appoints  a  Secretary  of  the 
Navy,  a  member  of  his  Cabinet,  on  a  four 
years'  term.  He  also  appoints  an  Assistant 
Secretary  of  the  Navy,  and  these  two  political 
officials,  who  are  usually  civilians,  exercise  a 
general  control  and  supervision  of  the  ten  de- 
partments or  bureaus  among  which  the  busi- 
ness is  distributed.  These  departments  are 
very  similar  to  those  in  the  British  Admiralty, 
and  they  are  almost  all  of  them  under  the 
direction  of  naval  officers.  There  are  also 
special  boards,  mostly  departmental,  who  ad- 
vise either  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  or  the 
chiefs  of  the  bureaus  on  technical  points. 


There  is  nothing  approximating  to  the  head- 
quarters staff  which  is  found  in  all  naval  ad- 
ministrations, based  on  the  precedent  of  the 
organization  of  land  forces.  In  this  respect 
the  naval  administration  of  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain  differ  from  almost  all  the 
rest.  With  regard  to  the  estimates,  the  chiefs 
of  the  various  bureaus  prepare  and  make 
annually  reports  which  are  published,  and  in 
these  reports  they  make  recommendations 
with  estimates  of  cost.  The  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  also  makes  an  annual  report,  summariz- 
ing the  reports  of  his  subordinates,  with  his 
own  recommendations,  which  are  submitted 
to  Congress  in  the  shape  of  Bills,  which,  being 
passed  by  the  House  of  Representatives  and 
the  Senate,  and  approved  by  the  President, 
become  law.  The  United  States  Navy  is 
manned  by  voluntary  enlistment. 

FINANCE. 

The  proposed  estimates  for  1904-5  total 
$102,866,449,  those  for  1903-4  having  been 
$79,039,331.  It  is  proposed  to  devote  to  new 
construction  the  sum  of  $28,826,860. 

PERSONNEL. 

The  number  of  officers  and  men  on  the 
effective  list  of  the  United  States  Navy  is 
29,838,  inclusive  of  7,000  marines.  There  is 
a  reserve  in  course  of  formation,  but  it  is  not 
yet  in  working  order. 

The  executive  officers  of  the  United  States 
Navy  are  distributed  as  follows:- — 1  admiral, 
1  vice-admiral,  21  rear-admirals,  73  captains, 
114  commanders,  172  lieutenant-commanders, 
350  lieutenants,  100  second-lieutenants,  130 
ensigns,  90  naval  cadets  at  sea. 

MATERIEL. 

The  strength  in  ships  of  the  United  States 
Navy  built,  building  and  projected,  is  sepa- 
rately treated. 

DOCKYARDS. 

The  Government  dockyards  in  the  United 
States  are  situated  as  follows: — 

Brooklyn. — One  dock  takes  any  ship;  two 

smaller. 
Norfolk,  Va. — One  dock  takes  any  ship ;  one 

smaller. 

Mare  Island,  Cal. — One  dock  takes  any  ship. 
Boston,  Mass. — One  small  dock. 
League  Island,  Pa. — One  large  wooden  dock, 
Portsmouth,  N.  H. — One  small  dock. 

—Hazell's  Annual,  1904. 


THE  UNITED 

On  January  1,  1904,  there  was  upon 
the  active  list  1  admiral,  27  rear  ad- 
mirals, 80  captains,  120  commanders, 
192  lieut.-commanders,  331  lieuten- 
ants, 24  lieutenants  (junior  grade), 
166  ensigns,  101  midshipmen,  16  med- 
ical directors,  15  medical  inspectors,  86 
surgeons,  35  passed  assistant  surgeons, 
68  assistant  surgeons,  14  pay  directors, 
15  pay  inspectors,  76  paymasters,  30 
passed  assistant  paymasters,  18  assist- 
ant paymasters,  23  chaplains,  12  pro- 


STATES  NAVY. 

fessors  of  mathematics,  1  secretary  to 
the  admiral,  20  naval  constructors,  30 
assistant  naval  constructors,  28  civil 
engineers,  5  assistant  civil  engineers, 
12  chief  boatswains,  116  boatswains, 
12  chief  gunners,  100  gunners,  14 
chief  carpenters,  73  carpenters,  7  chief 
sailmakers,  150  warrant  machinists,  25 
pharmacists,  and  16  mates.  There 
were  also  649  midshipmen  on  proba- 
tion at  the  Naval  Academy  at  Annap- 
olis, Md. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


REGULATIONS    GOVERNING    THE    ADMISSION    OF    CANDIDATES 
INTO  THE  NAVAL  ACADEMY  AS  MIDSHIPMEN. 


NOMINATION. 

The  students  of  the  Naval  Academy 
are  styled  Midshipmen.  Two  Mid- 
shipmen are  allowed  for  each  Senator, 
Representative,  and  Delegate  in  Con- 
gress, two  for  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia, and  five  each  year  from  the  United 
States  at  large.  The  appointments 
from  the  District  of  Columbia  and  five 
each  year  at  large  are  made  by  the 
President.  One  Midshipman  is  al- 
lowed from  Porto  Rico,  who  must  be  a 
native  of  that  island.  The  appoint- 
ment is  made  by  the  President,  on  the 
recommendation  of  the  Governor  of 
Porto  Rico.  The  Congressional  ap- 
pointments are  equitably  distributed, 
so  that  in  regular  course  each  Senator, 
Representative,  and  Delegate  in  Con- 
gress may  appoint  one  Midshipman 
during  each  Congress.  After  June 
30,  1913,  each  Senator,  Representa- 
tive, and  Delegate  in  Congress  will  be 
allowed  to  appoint  but  one  Midship- 
man instead  of  two.  The  course  for 
Midshipmen  is  six  years — four  years 
at  the  Academy,  when  the  succeeding 
appointment  is  made,  and  two  years  at 
sea,  at  the  expiration  of  which  time 
the  examination  for  final  graduation 
takes  place.  Midshipmen  who  pass 
the  examination  for  final  graduation 
are  appointed  to  fill  vacancies  in  the 
lower  grades  of  the  Line  of  the  Navy 
and  of  the  Marine  Corps,  in  the  order 
of  merit  as  determined  by  the  Academ- 
ic Board  of  the  Naval  Academy. 

"The  Secretary  of  the  Navy  shall,  as 
soon  as  practicable  after  the  fifth  day 
of  March  in  each  year,  notify  in  writ- 
ing each  Senator,  Representative,  and 
Delegate  in  Congress  of  any  vacancy 
which  may  be  regarded  as  existing  in 
the  State,  District,  or  Territory  which 
he  represents,  and  the  nomination  of  a 
candidate  to  fill  such  vacancy  shall  be 
made  upon  the  recommendation  of  the 
Senator,  Representative,  or  Delegate. 
Such  recommendation  shall  be  made  by 
the  first  day  of  June  of  that  year,  and 
if  not  so  made  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  shall  fill  the  vacancy  by  the  ap- 
pointment of  an  actual  resident  of  the 
State,  District,  or  Territory  in  which 
the  vacancy  exists,  who  shall  have 
been  for  at  least  two  years  immedi- 
ately preceding  his  appointment  an 
actual  bona  fide  resident  of  the  State, 
District,  or  Territory  in  which  the 
vacancy  exists,  and  shall  have  the 


qualifications   otherwise  prescribed   by 
law." 

(Act  approved  March  4,  1903.) 

Candidates  allowed  for  Congression- 
al Districts,  for  Territories,  and  for 
the  District  of  Columbia  must  be  act- 
ual residents  of  the  Districts  or  Ter- 
ritories, respectively,  from  which  they 
ar^  nominated. 

All  candidates  must,  at  the  time  of 
their  examination  for  admission,  be 
between  the  ages  of  sixteen  and  twenty 
years.  A  candidate  is  eligible  for  ap- 
pointment on  the  day  he  becomes  six- 
teen, and  is  ineligible  on  the  day  he 
becomes  twenty  years  of  age. 

EXAMINATION. 

"All  candidates  for  admission  into  the 
Academy  shall  be  examined  according 
to  such  regulations  and  at  such  stated 
times  as  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy 
may  prescribe.  Candidates  rejected  at 
such  examination  shall  not  have  the 
privilege  of  another  examination  for 
admission  to  the  same  class  unless  rec- 
ommended by  the  Board  of  Examin- 
ers^ (Rev.  Stat.,  Sec.  1515.) 

When  any  candidate,  who  has  been 
nominated  upon  the  recommendation 
of  a  Senator,  Member,  or  Delegate  of 
the  House  of  Representatives,  is  found, 
upon  examination,  to  be  physically  or 
mentally  disqualified  for  admission,  the 
Senator,  Member,  or  Delegate  shall  be 
notified  to  recommend  another  candi- 
date, who  shall  be  examined  according 
to  the  provisions  of  the  preceding  sec- 
tion. 

Beginning  with  the  year  nineteen 
hundred  and  four,  but  two  examina- 
tions for  admission  of  Midshipmen  to 
the  Academy  will  be  held  each  year,  as 
follows : 

1.  The  first  examination  to  be  held 
on  the  third  Tuesday  in  April,  under 
the  supervision  of  the  Civil  Service 
Commission,  at  points  given  in  a  list 
furnished  by  the  Bureau  of  Naviga- 
tion, Navy  Department,  Washington, 
D.  C.,  who  also  furnish  sample  exam- 
ination papers.  Candidates  are  exam- 
ined mentally  only  at  this  examination. 
All  those  qualifying  mentally  who  are 
entitled  to  appointment  in  order  of 
nomination  will  be  notified  by  the  Su- 
perintendent of  the  Naval  Academy  to 
report  at  the  Academy  for  physical  ex- 
amination on  or  about  June  10,  and  if 
physically  qualified  will  be  appointed. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


Candidates  nominated  for  the  April 
examination  may  be  examined  at 
Washington,  D.  C.,  if  so  desired,  or  at 
any  of  the  places  in  any  State  named 
in  the  above  schedule. 

Senators  and  Representatives  are  re- 
quested, when  designating  their  nomi- 
nees, to  give  the  place  at  which  it  is 
desired  they  should  be  examined  if 
nominated  for  the  April  examination. 

2.  The  second  and  last  examination 
will  be  held  at  Annapolis,  Md.,  only, 
on  the  third  Tuesday  in  June,  under 
the  supervision  of  the  Superintendent 
of  the  Naval  Academy.  Candidates 
are  examined  mentally  at  this  examin- 
ation, and  all  those  entitled  to  appoint- 
ment will  be  directed  to  report  for 
physical  examination,  as  soon  as  prac- 
ticable, at  the  Naval  Academy. 

Alternates  are  given  the  privilege  of 
reporting  for  examination  at  the  same 
time  with  the  principal. 

No  examination  will  be  held  later 
than  the  third  Tuesday  in  June. 

The  large  number  of  Midshipmen  to 
be  instructed  and  drilled  makes  this 
rule  necessary,  and  it  is  to  the  great 
advantage  of  the  new  Midshipmen 
themselves.  The  summer  months  are 
utilized  in  preliminary  instruction  in 
professional  branches  and  drills,  such 
as  handling  boats  under  oars  and  sails, 
and  in  seamanship,  gunnery,  and 
infantry  drills.  These  practical  exer- 
cises form  most  excellent  groundwork 
as  a  preparation  for  the  academic 
course. 

The  examination  papers  used  in  all 
examinations  are  prepared  at  the 
Naval  Academy  and  the  examination 
marks  made  by  candidates  finally 
passed  upon  by  the  officials  of  the 
Academy. 

Under  the  law,  candidates  failing  to 
pass  the  entrance  examination  will  not 
be  allowed  another  examination  for 
admission  to  the  same  class  unless 
recommended  for  re-examination  by  the 
Board  of  Examiners. 

The  Civil  Service  Commission  only 
conducts  the  examination  of  candidates 
whose  names  have  been  furnished  by 
the  Navy  Department.  It  is  requested 
that  all  correspondence  relative  to  the 
nomination  and  examination  of  candi- 


dates be  addressed  to  the  Bureau  of 
Navigation,  Navy  Department. 

Nominations  for  examination  on  the 
third  Tuesday  in  April  should  be  for- 
warded to  the  Bureau  ten  days  prior 
to  the  date  of  examination,  as  that  is 
the  latest  date  on  which  arrangements 
can  be  made  for  the.  examination. 

Candidates  will  be  required  to  enter 
the  Academy  immediately  after  passing 
the  prescribed  examination. 

No  leave  of  absence  will  be  granted 
to  Midshipmen  of  the  fourth  class. 

Candidates  will  be  examined  physic- 
ally at  the  Naval  Academy  by  a  board 
composed  of  three  medical  officers  of 
the  Navy. 

Attention  will  also  be  paid  to  the 
stature  of  the  candidate,  and  no  one 
manifestly  under  size  for  his  age  will 
be  received  at  the  Academy.  In  the 
case  of  doubt  about  the  physical  con- 
dition of  the  candidate,  any  marked 
deviation  from  the  usual  standard  of 
height  or  weight  will  add  materially 
to  the  consideration  for  rejection.  The 
height  of  candidates  for  admission 
shall  not  be  less  than  5  feet  2  inches 
between  the  ages  of  16  and  38  years, 
and  not  less  than  5  feet  4  inches  be- 
tween the  ages  of  18  and  20  years. 

Candidates  will  be  examined  men- 
tally in  punctuation,  spelling,  arith- 
metic, geography,  English  grammar, 
United  States  history,  world's  history, 
algebra  through  quadratic  equations, 
and  plane  geometry  (five  books  of 
Chauvenet's  Geometry,  or  an  equiva- 
lent). Deficiency  in  any  one  of  these 
subjects  may  be  sufficient  to  insure  the 
rejection  of  the  candidate. 

ADMISSION. 

Candidates  who  pass  the  physical 
and  mental  examinations  will  receive 
appointments  as  Midshipmen,  and  be- 
come students  of  the  Academy.  Each 
Midshipman  will  be  required  to  sign 
articles  by  which  he  binds  himself  to 
serve  in  the  United  States  Navy  eight 
years  (including  his  time  of  probation 
at  the  Naval  Academy),  unless  sooner 
discharged. 

The  pay  of  a  Midshipman  is  $500  a 
year,  commencing  at  the  date  of  his 
admission. 


The  cruisers  are  the  light  cavalry  of 
the  navy.  As  their  name  implies,  their 
duty  is  to  cruise  the  seas,  keeping  in 
touch  with  the  enemy's  fleets  and  act- 
ing as  the  "eyes"  of  the  line-of-battle 
ships.  They  are  also  intended  for  the 


double  duty  of  attacking  an  enemy's 
commerce  and  defending  that  of  the 
country  whose  flag  they  carry.  Fleets 
of  merchant  vessels  or  of  transport 
ships  will  be  "convoyed"  by  cruisers 
from  port  to  port. 


70 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


LIST   OF  SHIPS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  NAVY. 

[ABBREVIATIONS. — Hull:  S.,  steel;  S.  W.,  steel,  wood  sheathed;  I.,  iron;  W.,  wood.     Propulsion: 
S.,  screw;  T.  S.,  twin  screw;  Tr.  S.,  triple  screw;  P.,  paddle.] 

FIRST  RATE. 


Name. 

Dis- 
place- 
ment 
(tons). 

Type. 

Hull. 

I.H.P. 

Propul- 
sion. 

Guns 
(main 
bat- 
tery). 

12  500 

1st  class  battleship 

S 

16  000 

T  S 

20 

Missouri  

12,500 

.  .    do  

S. 

16,000 

T.S 

20 

11  525 

do 

S 

11  366 

T  S 

18 

Illinois   

11,525 

do  

S. 

11,366 

T.S. 

18 

Wisconsin.  .            

11,525 

do 

s 

10  000 

T  S 

18 

Kearsarge  

11,525 

do  

S. 

11,954 

T.S. 

22 

Kentucky  

11,525 

do     .  . 

s. 

12  318 

T  S 

22 

11  340 

do 

s 

12  105 

T  S 

18 

Indiana                 

10,288 

do 

s. 

9  738 

TS 

16 

Massachusetts  
Oregon  
Brooklyn  

10,288 
10,288 
9.215 

....do  
....do  
Armored  cruiser.  .  . 

s. 
s. 
s. 

10,403 
11,111 
18,769 

T.S. 

T.S. 
T.S. 

16 
16 
20 

New  York  

8,200 

.  ..  .do  

s. 

17,401 

T.S. 

18 

SECOND  RATE. 


Name. 

Dis- 
place- 
ment 

(tons). 

Type. 

Hull. 

I.H.P. 

Propul- 
sion. 

Guns 

(main 
bat- 
tery). 

Columbia                            .  . 

7,375 

Protected  cruiser 

s 

18  509 

Tr  S 

11 

Minneapolis  

7,375 

do  

S. 

20,862 

Tr.S. 

11 

Texas 

6,315 

2d  class  battleship 

S. 

8,610 

TS. 

8 

Puritan  

6,060 

Double-turret  mon- 

I. 

3,700 

T.S. 

10 

Olympia  

5,870 

itor. 
Protected  cruiser  .  . 

s. 

17,313 

T.S. 

14 

Chicago  .               

5,000 

do.   ... 

s. 

9,000 

T.S. 

18 

Yankee 

6888 

Cruiser  (converted) 

I 

3  800 

s 

10 

Prairie  
Buffalo 

6,872 
6  888 

....  do  
do 

s 

3,800 
3  600 

S. 

s 

10 
6 

Dixie  

6,145 

do  

s. 

3,800 

s. 

10 

Baltimore 

4,413 

Protected  cruiser 

s 

10  064 

TS 

12 

Philadelphia  

4,324 

.  .  do.  .  . 

s. 

8,815 

T.S. 

12 

Newark                       .  . 

4,098 

do.  .  . 

s. 

8  869 

TS. 

12 

San  Francisco  
Monterey.  .  .          

4,098 
4,084 

....  do  
Barbette  turret,  low 

s. 
s. 

9,913 
5,244 

T.S. 
T.S. 

12 
4 

4,005 

free-board      mon- 
itor. 
Double-turret  mon- 

I 

3  000 

TS 

6 

itor. 

THIRD  RATE. 


Name. 

Dis- 
place- 
ment 
(tons). 

Type. 

Hull. 

I.H.P. 

Propul- 
sion. 

Guns 
(main 
bat- 
tery). 

Ajax 

*7  500 

Collier 

S. 

3  000 

S. 

t2 

Glacier 

*7  000 

s 

4,000 

s 

Celtic                       

6  428 

do.  .  .  . 

s. 

1,890 

S. 

*6  300 

s 

fl  500 

Saturn  

*6,220 
6  206 

Collier  
Cruiser  (converted) 

I. 

s. 

1,500 
1,800 

s. 
s. 

t2 

Arethusa  
Alexander  

*6,200 
6,181 

Tank  steamer  
Collier  

s. 
s. 

1,026 

s. 
s. 

t2 

*  Estimated.         t  Secondary  battery. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


71 


THIRD    RATE— Continued. 


Name. 

Dis- 
place- 
ment 

(tons). 

Type. 

Hull. 

I.H.P. 

Propul- 
sion. 

Guns 
(main 
bat- 
tery). 

Iris  

Brutus  
Sterling  

6,100 

*6,000 
5,663 

Supply    and    repair 
ship. 
Collier  
.  .  .  do.  .  . 

S. 

S. 
I. 

1,300 

1,200 
*926 

S. 
S. 

s 

t2 
t2 

Cspsar                                   .... 

5,016 

do..  . 

s 

1  500 

s 

T4 

Nero  

4,925 

.  .  .do.  .. 

S. 

1,000 

s 

•j-4 

Nanshan                             .... 

*4,827 

do.  .. 

s 

Abarenda  
Supply                            .        .  . 

4,670 
4,460 

....do....  
Supply  ship.  . 

s. 
I 

,050 
,069 

s. 
s 

•4 
t2 

Marcellus  
Hannibal 

*4,400 
4,291 

couTery...p..::::: 

.  .    do  

I. 

s. 

,200 
,100 

s. 
s 

•  2 

f2 

Leonidas  
Solace                                    .  .  . 

4,242 
4,700 

.  .  .  .do  
Hospital  ship.  .  . 

s. 
s. 

,000 
3,200 

s. 
s 

••2 

Panther  
Miantonomoh  

Amphitrite     .                        .  . 

4,260 
3,990 

3,990 

Cruiser  (converted). 
Double-  turret  mon- 
itor. 
do  

I. 
I. 

I. 

1,426 

1,600 

s. 

T.S. 
T.S. 

8 
4 

6 

Terror  

3,990 

Double-turret  mon- 

I. 

1,600 

T.S. 

4 

Albany  
New  Orleans 

3,437 
3,437 

itor.  .  .  . 
Protected  cruiser  .  . 
do  

s.w. 
s.w. 

7,500 
7,500 

T.S. 

T.S. 

10 
10 

Arkansas  
Wyoming 

3,214 
3,214 

Monitor..  . 
do  

s. 
s. 

2,400 
2,400 

T.S. 
T.S. 

6 
6 

3  714 

do 

s 

2,400 

T.S. 

6 

Florida 

3,214 

do  

s. 

2,400 

T.S. 

6 

Cincinnati  
Raleigh 

3,213 
3,213 

Protected  cruiser  .  . 
..  .do.  .  . 

s. 
s. 

10,000 
10,000 

T.S. 
T.S. 

11 
11 

Cleveland 

3  100 

do     . 

s.w. 

4,700 

T.S. 

10 

Reina  Mercedes 

3,090 

..  .do.  .. 

s. 

3,700 

S. 

Atlanta 

3,000 

do  

s. 

4,000 

S. 

g 

3000 

s 

4,030 

s. 

8 

Hartford 

2,790 

Cruiser.  .  . 

w. 

2,000 

s. 

13 

Mayflower 

2,690 

Cruiser  (converted) 

s. 

4,700 

T.S. 

2 

Topeka  
Katahdin   . 

2,372 
2,155 

Gunboat  
Harbor  defence  ram 

I. 

s. 

2,000 
5,068 

T.S. 
T.S. 

8 
4 

Detroit  
Montgomery 

2,089 
2,089 

Unprotected  cruiser 
,  .  .do  

s. 
s. 

5,227 
5,580 

T.S. 
T.S. 

10 
10 

2,089 

do  

s. 

5,451 

T.S. 

10 

Mohican  
Manila  
Bennington  
Concord  
Yorktown.  .                           ... 

1,900 
1,800 
1,710 
1,710 
,710 

Cruiser  
Gunboat  
....do  
....do  
do  

w. 
I. 
I. 

s. 
s. 

1,100 
750 
3,436 
3,405 
3,392 

S. 
S. 
T.S. 
T.S. 
T.S 

6 
2 
6 
6 
6 

Dolphin.  

,486 

Dispatch  boat  

s. 

2,253 

S. 

3 

Wilmington  
Helena 

,392 
,392 

Light  draft  gunb't  . 
....  do  

s. 
s. 

1,894 
1,988 

T.S. 
T.S. 

8 
8 

375 

Cruiser  

w. 

800 

S. 

6 

Essex 

,375 

..  .do  

w. 

800 

S. 

6 

Enterprise  
Nashville. 

,375 
,371 

....do  
Light-draft  gunb't  . 

w. 

s. 

800 
2,536 

s. 

T.S. 

1 

8 

Castine  

,177 
177 

Gunboat  
do  

s. 
s. 

2,199 
2,046 

T.S. 
T.S. 

8 
8 

175 

do 

Sails. 

6 

Don  Juan  de  Austria  
Isla  de  Luzon  
Isla  de  Cuba.  . 

,159 
,030 
,030 

..  .do  
....do  
....do  

s. 
s. 

1,500 
2,627 
2,627 

S. 
T.S. 
T.S. 

4 
6 
6 

Alert 

,020 

Cruiser  

I. 

500 

S. 

3 

Ranger  
Annapolis 

,020 
,000 

....do  
Composite  gunboat 

I. 

Comp. 

500 
1,227 

S. 

s. 

6 
6 

Vicksburg  
Wheeling  
Marietta  
Newport  
Princeton  
Lawton  

,000 
,000 
,000 
,000 
,000 
*4,100 

....  do  
...do  
....do  
....do  
....do  
Transport  

Comp. 
Comp. 
Comp. 
Comp. 
Comp. 
S. 

1,118 
1,081 
1,054 
1,008 
800 
3,200 

s. 

T.S. 
T.S. 
S. 

S. 
S. 

6 
6 
6 
6 
6 

Relief  

*3,000 

Hospital  ship  

S. 

2,666 

s. 

*  Estimated.         t  Secondary  battery. 


72 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


FOURTH  RATE. 


Name. 

Dis- 
place- 
ment 
(tons.) 

Type. 

Hull. 

I.H.P. 

Propul- 
sion. 

Guns 
(main 
bat- 
tery). 

Lebanon  
Justin  . 

3,375 
*3  300 

Collier.  .  . 
do 

I. 

s 

S. 

S 

t4 
J2 

Southery  
Pompey.  .  . 

*3,100 
*3  085 

....do  
do  . 

I. 

s 

s. 
s 

fa 

+2 

Zafiro  

*2,000 

Transport  

s. 

General  Alava  . 

1  40 

do 

s 

770 

s 

t4 

Yankton  

975 

Gunboat  (conv't'd). 

s. 

750 

s 

|8 

Vesuvius  
Petrel.  .  . 

0929 
892 

Dynamite-gun    ves- 
sel. 
Gunboat 

s. 
s 

3,795 
1  095 

T.S. 

S 

t3 
4 

850 

s 

2  800 

TS 

•j-g 

Fern.  .  .  . 

840 

Tender 

w 

300 

s 

t3 

Bancroft 

839 

s 

1  213 

TS 

4 

Vixen  

806 

Gunboat  conv't'd). 

s. 

1  250 

s 

t4 

Gloucester  
Michigan  .    . 

786 
685 

.  .  .  .do  
Cruiser.  .  . 

s. 

I. 

2,000 
365 

s. 

p 

no 

t6 

Wasp 

630 

s 

1  800 

s 

t6 

Frolic  

607 

do  ... 

s 

550 

s 

f4 

Dorothea  . 

594 

do 

s 

1  558 

s 

tio 

Elcano  .  .  . 

560 

Gunboat.  ... 

s. 

600 

T.S 

Pinta.  . 

550 

do 

I 

310 

s 

t2 

Stranger  
Peoria.  .  .  . 

*546 

488 

Gunboat  (conv't'd). 
do 

I. 

s 

s. 
s 

B 

Hist  

472 

do.  .  . 

s. 

500 

s. 

TO 

Eagle.  . 

434 

do 

s 

850 

s 

t6 

Hornet  
Quiros.  .  . 

425 
400 

....do  
Gunboat  .  . 

s. 

Comp 

800 
208 

s. 
s 

t« 

1"2 

Villalobos  
Hawk  
Siren 

400 
375 
*315 

....do  
Gunboat  (conv't'd). 
do 

Comp. 

S. 

s 

208 
1,000 

s. 
s. 

s 

t2 

B 

Sylvia.  .  . 

*302 

do  

I. 

s. 

t6 

Callao.  . 

200 

Gunboat 

s 

250 

T  S 

t6 

Pampanga  

200 

do  

I. 

250 

T.S. 

t4 

Paragua.  .  . 

200 

do 

I 

250 

T  S 

+4 

Samar  

200 

.    do  

I. 

250 

T.S. 

+4 

Arayat.  .  .  . 

200 

do 

I 

260 

T  S 

t6 

Aileen  

192 

Gunboat  (conv't'd). 

s. 

500 

S. 

t« 

Mindanao  .  .  . 

174 

Gunboat 

I 

100 

TS 

-j-6 

Elfrida  
Sylph   .  .  . 

*173 
152 

Gunboat  (conv't'd). 
do 

s. 
s 

200 
550 

S. 

s 

t2 

!8 

Calamianes 

150 

I 

125 

T  S 

a 

Albay  

150 

do 

I. 

125 

TS. 

a 

Leyte  

150 

do  

I. 

125 

T.S. 

3 

Oneida  
Panay.  .  .  . 

150 
142 

Gunboat  (conv't'd). 

w. 

350 
125 

S. 
T  S 

t6 

+4 

Manileno  

142 

do  

125 

T.S. 

t4 

Mariveles.  . 

142 

do 

125 

T  S 

J4 

Mindoro.  

142 

.  .  do  

125 

T.S. 

f4 

Restless 

137 

Gunboat  (conv't'd) 

500 

S. 

t8 

Shearwater  
Inca  
Alvarado 

122 
*120 
100 

....  do  
....do  

s. 
w. 

s 

'466 
137 

S. 

s. 
s 

t3 
t2 
t2 

Sandoval  

100 

do     .  . 

s. 

137 

s. 

ff 

Huntress. 

82 

Comp 

s. 

t2 

Basco  
Gardoqui  

42 
42 

Gunboat  
....  do  

I. 

44 
44 

s. 
s. 

12 
+2 

Urdaneta  

42 

do  

I. 

44 

s. 

t2 

*  Estimated         t  Secondary  battery. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


TORPEDO  VESSELS. 


Name. 

Dis- 
place- 
ment 
(tons). 

Type. 

Hull. 

I.H.P. 

Propul- 
sion. 

Guns 
(main 
bat- 
tery). 

Decatur 

420 

g 

8  000 

T  9 

Bainbridge  
Barry 

420 
420 

....  do  !  . 
do 

S. 
g 

8,000 
8  000 

T.S. 

T  S 

*2 

*o 

Dale  
Chauncey 

420 
420 

....do  
do 

S. 
g 

8,000 
8  000 

T.S. 
T  S 

*2 
*o 

Whipple  
Stewart 

433 
420 

.  ...do  
do 

S. 
g 

8,300 
7  000 

T.S. 
T  S 

*2 

*'? 

Truxtun  
Worden. 

433 
433 

....do  
do 

I- 

8,300 
8  300 

T.S. 

T  S 

*2 

*••> 

Hopkins  
Lawrence 

408 
400 

....do  
do 

S. 

s 

7,200 
8  400 

T.S. 
T  S 

*2 

*2 

Hull  

408 

do 

s 

7  200 

T  S 

*2 

Macdonough 

400 

do 

g 

8  400 

T  S 

*2 

Preble 

420 

do 

g 

7  000 

T  S 

#0 

Paul  Jones  . 

420 

do 

g 

7*000 

T  S 

*2 

Perry  

420 

do  

g 

7  000 

T  S 

*2 

Bagley 

167 

g 

4200 

TS 

*3 

Barney.  .  . 

167 

do  ... 

g 

4  200 

TS 

*3 

Biddle  . 

167 

g 

4  200 

T  S 

*3 

120 

do 

g 

1  800 

T  S 

*3 

Foote 

142 

g 

2*000 

TS 

*3 

Gwin  

46 

do.  .  .  . 

s. 

850 

g 

*2 

Mackenzie 

65 

do 

s 

850 

g 

*2 

Somers 

145 

do 

g 

1  900 

T  S 

*3 

Gushing. 

105 

do 

g 

1  720 

T  S 

*3 

Thornton  

165 

...    do  

i: 

3  000 

T.S. 

*3 

Stockton.  

166 

....  do  

s. 

3,000 

T.S. 

*3 

De  Long  

165 

....  do.  .  .  . 

s. 

3,000 

T.S. 

*3 

Wilkes  

165 

Torpedo  b(  at 

s 

3  000 

TS. 

*3 

Rodgers 

142 

do 

g 

2000 

TS 

*3 

Tingey  
Bailey 

165 
235 

....do  
do 

s. 
g 

3,000 
5  600 

T.S. 

T  S 

*3 

*2 

Shubrick  

166 

do 

i: 

3000 

T.S. 

*3 

Dupont 

165 

do 

8 

3  400 

TS 

*3 

Porter  
Talbot  . 

165 

46i 

.  do.  .  ,  
do 

S. 

s 

3,400 
850 

T.S. 

s 

*3 

*2 

Manly  
Farragut.  . 

30 
273 

.  do.  .  . 
do 

s. 
s 

250 
5  600 

S. 

TS. 

*1 

*2 

Davis  
Fox.. 

132 
132 

.      .do  
do 

s. 
s 

1,750 
1  750 

T.S. 
T.S. 

*3 

*3 

T.A.M.  Craven  
Dahlgren 

146 
146 

.  ...do  
do 

s. 
s. 

4,200 
4  200 

T.S. 
T.S. 

*2 
*2 

McKee  

65 

do  

s. 

850 

S. 

*2 

Winslow. 

142 

do.  ... 

s. 

2000 

T.S. 

*3 

Morris 

105 

do 

s 

1  750 

T.S. 

*3 

Stiletto. 

31 

do.  .. 

w. 

359 

S. 

*2 

Rowan 

182 

do 

g 

3  200 

T.S. 

*3 

Plunger.  . 

120 

Submarine  tor.  boat. 

s. 

160 

S. 

*1 

Porpoise.  .  . 

120 

.  .  do.  .  . 

s. 

160 

S. 

*1 

Shark.  .  .  . 

120 

do  

s. 

160 

s. 

*1 

Adder 

120 

do 

s. 

160 

s. 

*1 

Moccasin. 

120 

do  

s. 

160 

s. 

*1 

Grampus.  . 

120 

...  do  

s. 

160 

s. 

*1 

Pike  
Holland                                       ! 

120 
73 

....do  
do 

s. 

s. 

160 
150 

s. 
s. 

*1 
*1 

'  Torpedo  tubes. 


74 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


UNDER  CONSTRUCTION. 


Name. 

Dis- 
place- 
ment 
(tons). 

Type. 

Hull. 

I.H.-P. 

Pro- 
pul- 
sion. 

Guns 
(main 
bat- 
tery). 

Place  where  building. 

Connecticut  

16,000 

1st     class 

S. 

16,500 

T.S. 

24 

Navy  Yard,  New  York. 

battleship 

Kansas  

16,000 

..do  

S. 

16,500 

T.S. 

24 

New   York    Ship    Building  Co., 

Louisiana 

16000 

do 

S. 

16,500 

T.S. 

24 

Camden,  N.  J. 
Newport  NBWS  Ship  Building  iincl 

Dry  Dock  Co.,  N'p't  News.Va. 

Minnesota 

16,000 

do 

s 

16,500 

T  S 

24 

Do. 

Vermont  

16,000 

..do  

S. 

16,500 

T.S. 

24 

Fore  River  S.  &  E.  Co.,  Quincy, 

Ma?s. 

Georgia  

15,000 

.  .do  

s.w. 

18,000 

T.S. 

24 

Bath  Iron  Works,  Bath,  Me. 

Nebraska  

15,000 

do.  .  . 

s  w. 

18  000 

T  S. 

24 

Moran  Bros.  Co.,  Seattle,  Wash. 

New  Jersey  

15,000 

..do  

s.w. 

18,000 

T.S. 

24 

Fore  River  S.  &  E.  Co.,  Quincy, 

Mass. 

Rhode  Island.  .  . 

14,600 

..do  

s. 

18,000 

T.S. 

24 

Do. 

Virginia 

14,600 

.  .do  

s. 

18,000 

T.S. 

24 

Newport  News  Ship  Building  and 

Dry  Dock  Co.,  N'p't  News.Va. 

Idaho  .  . 

13,000 

do.  .  . 

s. 

10  000 

T  S 

22 

Contract  not  yet  awarded 

Mississippi  

13,000 

..do  

s. 

10,000 

T.S. 

22 

Do. 

Ohio.  ...          .    . 

12,500 

.  .do  

s. 

16,000 

T.S. 

20 

Union  Iron  Works,  San  Francis- 

co, Cal. 

Tennessee  

14,500 

Armored 

s. 

25,000 

T.S. 

20 

Wm.  Cramp  &  Sons,  Philadel- 

cruiser. 

phia,  Pa. 

Washington  

14,500 

..do  

s. 

25,000 

T.S. 

20 

New    York    Ship  Building  Co., 

Camden,  N.  J. 

California  

14,000 

..do  

s.w. 

23,000 

T.S. 

22 

Union  Iron  Works,  San  Francis- 

co, Cal. 

Pennsylvania.  .  . 

14,000 

Armored 

s.w. 

23,000 

T.S. 

22 

Wm.  Cramp  &  Sons,  Philadel- 

cruiser. 

phia,  Pa. 

West  Virginia  .  .  . 

14,000 

..do  

s.w. 

23,000 

T.S. 

22 

Newport  News  Ship  Building  and 

Dry  Dock  Co.,  N'p't  News.Va. 

Colorado  

13,600 

..do  

s. 

23,000 

T.S. 

22 

Wm.  Cramp  &  Sons,  Philadel- 

phia, Pa. 

Maryland  

13,600 

..do  

s. 

23,000 

T.S. 

22 

Newport  News  Ship  Building  and 
Dry  Dock  Co.,  N'p't  News.Va. 

South  Dakota.  .  . 

13,600 

do  

s. 

23,000 

T.S. 

22 

Union  Iron  Works,  San  Francis- 

co, Cal. 

Charleston  

9,600 

Protected 
cruiser. 

s. 

21,000 

T.S. 

14 

Newport  News  Ship  Building  and 
Dry  Dock  Co.,  N'p't  News.Va. 

Milwaukee  

9,600 

..do  

s. 

21,000 

T.S. 

14 

Union  Iron  Works,  San  Francis- 

co, Cal. 

St.  Louis  

9,600 

..do  

s. 

21,000 

T.S. 

14 

Neafie  &  Levy,  Philadelphia.Pa. 

Chattanooga  .... 

3,100 

do.  .  .  . 

s.w. 

4,700 

T  S 

10 

Navy  Yard,  New  York. 

Denver  

3,100 

..do  

s.w. 

4,700 

T.S. 

10 

Neafie  &  Levy,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Des  Moines  

3,100 

..do  

s.w. 

4,700 

T.S. 

10 

Fore  River  S.  &  E.  Co.,  Quincy, 

Mass. 

Galveston  

3,100 

..do  

s.w. 

4,700 

T.S. 

10 

Navy  Yard,  Norfolk. 

Tacoma  

3,100 

..do  

s.w. 

4,700 

T.S. 

10 

Union  Iron  Works,  San  Francis- 

Dubuque   

1,085 

Gunboat  . 

s.w. 

1,050 

T.S. 

6 

co,  Cal. 
Gas  Engine  and  Power  Co.,  and 

Chas.  L.  Seabury  &  Co.,  con- 

solidated.Morris  Heights.N.Y. 

Paducah  

1,085 

..do  

s.w. 

1,050 

T.S. 

6 

Do. 

Gunboat  No.  16  . 

.  .do  

s. 

T.S. 

Contract  not  yet  awarded. 

Cumberland.  .  .  . 

1,800 

Training 

s. 

'o 

Navy  Yard,  Boston,  Mass. 

Intrepid  

1,800 

ship 
.  .  do  

s. 

6 

Navy  Yard,  Mare  Island,  Cal. 

Boxer  

345 

Training 

w. 

Navy  Yard,  Portsmouth,  N.  H. 

brigantine 

Stringham     (No. 

340 

Torpedo 

s. 

7,200 

T.S. 

*2 

Navy  Yard,  League  Island. 

19) 

boat 

Goldsborough 

247} 

..do  

s. 

6,000 

T.S. 

*2 

Navy  Yard,  Puget  Sound. 

(No.  20)  
Nicholson  

174 

..do  

s. 

3,500 

T.S. 

*3 

Navy  Yard,  New  York. 

(No.  30) 

O'Brien  (No.  31) 

174 

..do  

s. 

3,500 

T.S. 

*3 

Do. 

Blakely  (No.  28) 

165 

.  .  do  

s. 

3,000 

T.S. 

*3 

Geo.  Lawley  &  Sons,  South  Bos- 
ton, Mass. 

Sotoyomo  (No.  9) 

225 

..do  

s. 

450 

S. 

Navy  Yard,  Mare  Island,  Cal. 

*Torpedo  tubes. 


• 
UNI\ 


SCIENTIFIC    AM 


3RENCB    BOOK. 


SUMMARY  OP  VESSELS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  NAVY. 


VESSELS    FIT    FOR    SERVICE,    INCLUDING    THOSE 
UNDER    REPAIR. 

10 

1 

2 

1 

4 


First-class  battleships 

Second-class  battleship    

Armored  cruisers 

Armored  ram 

Single-turret  harbor-defense  monitors  .  . 

Double-turret  monitors 6 

Protected   cruisers 14 

Unprotected  cruisers 3 

Gunboats 12 

Light-draft  gunboats 3 

Composite  gunboats 6 

Training  ship  (Naval  Academy),  sheathed  1 

Special  class  (Dolphin-Vesuvius) 2 

Gunboats  under  500  tons 21 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 16 

Steel  torpedo  boats 29 

Submarine  torpedo  boats 8 

Wooden  torpedo  boat 1 

Iron  cruising  vessels,  steam 5 

Wooden  cruising  vessels,  steam 6 

Wooden  sailing  vessels 4 

Tugs 39 

Auxiliary  cruisers 5 

Converted  yachts 23 

Colliers 16 

Supply  ships  and  hospital  ships 14 

Total.  .                                                     .  252 


VESSELS    UNDER    CONSTRUCTION    OR    AUTHOR- 
IZED. 

First-class  battleships 14 

Armored  cruisers '. g 

Protected  cruisers 9 

Gunboat  for  great  Lakes  (not  begun)  ...        1 

Composite  gunboats 2 

Steel  torpedo  boats 

Training  ships 

Training  brig 

Tugs 


Total. 


6 
2 
1 
2 

45 


VESSELS    UNFIT    FOR    SEA    SERVICE. 

Iron  single-turret  monitors 

Wooden  cruising  vessels,  steam 

Wooden  sailing  vessels. 


Total. 


5 

in 
8 

23 


Grand  Total  ...  .  .   302 


THE    "  LAKE  "    SUBMARINE    BOAT    ON    THE    SURFACE. 


76 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


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78 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


THE    TORPEDO    BOAT    IN    MODERN    WARFARE. 


The  Russo-Japanese  war  has  proved 
the  wisdom  of  building  torpedo  boat 
destroyers  of  the  dimensions  and  pow- 
er that  characterize  the  latest  models. 
With  their  length  of  220  feet,  beam  of 
over  20  feet  and  draft  of  between  9 
and  10  feet,  giving  a  displacement  of 
between  300  and  400  tons,  the  mod- 
ern destroyer  is  a  very  serviceable  sea 
boat,  which  was  more  than  could  be 
said  for  the  torpedo  boat  of  an  earlier 
decade.  The  high  freeboard  and  the 
provision  of  a  raised  turtle-back  for- 
ward, render  these  boats  able  to  main- 
tain their  high  speed  in  fairly  rough 
water,  and  in  the  present  operations 
the  flotillas  of  Japanese  destroyers 
seem  to  have  been  perfectly  well  able 
to  keep  the  sea  iH  all  weather.  Evi- 
dently the  lessons  taught  by  the  dis- 
asters that  happened  to  some  of  the 
high-powered  British  torpedo  boat  de- 
stroyers, when  they  were  badly 
wrenched,  and  in  one  case  actually  bro- 
ken in  two  in  a  heavy  seaway,  have 
been  laid  to  heart,  and  the  Japanese 
destroyers  which  did  such  good  work 
around  Port  Arthur  are  evidently  sea- 
worthy vessels. 

A  surprising  feature  of  torpedo  boat 
service  in  the  Far  Eastern  struggle  is 


the  wide  range  of  duties  which  were 
assigned  to  the  destroyers.  Scouting 
work  which  ordinarily  would  be  given 
to  cruisers  from  3,000  to  6,000  tons 
displacement  was  satisfactorily  car- 
ried out  by  these  little  400-ton  craft. 

By  reference  to  the  section  dia- 
gram on  page  77  the  reader  can  obtain 
a  very  complete  idea  of  a  torpedo  boat 
interior.  Forward  in  the  bow  is  a 
collision  compartment  formed  by  a 
bulkhead,  located  several  feet  from  the 
bow.  Aft  of  that  is  the  chain  locker, 
and  then  the  torpedoes,  of  which  half 
a  dozen  are  carried  on  a  vessel  of  this 
character.  Since  the  torpedo  boat  car- 
ries no  armor  whatever,  the  torpedoes, 
the  war-heads,  and  the  magazines  are 
placed  below  the  water-line,  where  they 
are  safe  from  any  except  a  plunging 
shot.  The  torpedoes  are  stowed  with 
their  war-heads  containing  the  guncot- 
ton  charge  unscrewed,  the  latter  being 
stowed' separately,  as  shown  in  the  en- 
graving. Aft  of  the  war-heads  is  the 
forward  jnagazine  and  a  compartment 
given  up  to  the  general  ship's  stores. 
On  the  deck  above  are  the  quarters 
for  the  crew,  which  will  number  be- 
tween fifty  and  sixty  men  in  the  larger 
boats. 


THE   MODERN    TORPEDO. 


Commenting  during  the  late  Spanish 
war  upon  the  efficiency  of  the  torpedo, 
we  said :  "Although  torpedo  warfare 
has  not  yet  achieved  results  at  all  pro- 
portionate to  the  amount  of  thought 
and  skill  that  have  been  devoted  to 
it,  the  failure  has  probably  been  due 
more  to  a  lack  of  opportunity  or  of 
efficient  handling  than  to  any  defi- 
ciency in  the  torpedo  itself."  The 
startling  events  that  marked  the  open- 
ing of  the  Russo-Japan  war  have  es- 
tablished the  truth  of  that  statement, 
for  in  the  hands  of  an  alert,  intelligent 
and  daring  people,  this  deadly  weapon, 
in  the  first  half  hour  of  hostilities,  so 
badly  crippled  two  of  the  finest  battle- 
ships and  one  of  the  best  cruisers  of 
the  Russian  navy  that  they  had  to  be 
beached,  and  a  blow  was  struck  at  the 
naval  prestige  of  Russia  from  which 
that  country  will  take  many  years  to 
recover.  At  the  same  time,  the  Port 
Arthur  torpedo  attack  must  be  judged 
at  its  true  value;  and,  therefore,  we 
must  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that 
information  is  finding  its  way  to  the 
public  ear  which  makes  it  pretty  evi- 
dent that  the  Russian  ships  were  not 
looking  for,  and  were  totally  unpre- 


pared to  receive,  a  torpedo  attack.  If 
this  is  the  case,  what  has  been  proved 
is  that  if  the  torpedo  boat  can  get  un- 
molested within  easy  range,  the  tor- 
pedo is  fairly  sure  of  its  mark — and 
this  we  all  knew  well  enough  before 
the  war  began. 

The  Whitehead  torpedo  is  undergo- 
ing constant  development,  the  latest 
improvement  being  the  introduction  of 
the  gyroscope  for  the  purpose  of  keep- 
ing the  torpedo  more  accurately  upon 
its  true  course.  The  latest  patterns 
include  this  device  and  are  generally 
of  larger  diameter  and  greater  length 
than  the  earlier  types. 

We  show  on  the  preceding  page  an 
illustration  of  a  Schwartzkopff  tor- 
pedo, which  is  the  type  used  in  the 
Russian  navy.  It  is  merely  a  modifica- 
tion of  the  Whitehead  and  operates 
upon  the  same  principles. 

The  torpedo  here  shown  consists  of 
a  cigar-shaped  body  of  phosphor-bronze 
or  steel,  divided  into  six  separate 
compartments  as  follows:  (1)  The 
magazine,  (2)  the  secret  chamber,  (3) 
the  reservoir,  (4)  the  engine  compart- 
ment, (5)  the  buoyancy  compartment, 
(6)  the  bevel-gear  chamber. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


79 


The  magazine  contains  the  explosive 
charge,  which  consists  of  a  series  of 
disks  of  wet  guncotton  packed  snugly 
together.  The  cartridge  primer,  k,  for 
exploding  the  charge,  consists  of  sev- 
eral cylinders  of  dry  guncotton  packed 
in  a  tube  which  passes  through  per- 
forations in  the  guncotton  disks,  t. 
The  foremost  of  the  six  cylinders  con- 
tains a  detonating  primer  consisting  of 
fulminate  of  mercury.  The  small  pro- 
peller at  the  extreme  point  of  the  tor- 
pedo is  part  of  an  ingenious  safety  de- 
vice for  preventing  premature  explo- 
sion in  handling.  When  not  in  use, 
the  firing  pin  is  held  in  check  by  a 
sleeve ;  but  as  soon  as  the  torpedo 
strikes  the  water  the  rotation  of  the 
little  propellers  releases  the  sleeve  and 
leaves  the  firing  pin  ready  to  strike  the 
detonating  primer  the  moment  the  tor- 
pedo meets  an  obstruction. 

The  "secret  chamber"  is  the  most 
ingenious  part  of  this  most  ingenious 
piece  of  mechanism.  Its  piston,  pen- 
dulum and  springs  perform  the  impor- 
tant work  of  regulating  the  horizontal 
rudders  which  keep  the  torpedo  at  the 
proper  depth.  Immediately  in  front  of 
the  secret  chamber  is  a  narrow  com- 
partment perforated  on  its  walls  to 
allow  the  outside  water  to  enter.  The 
front  wall  of  the  secret  chamber  car- 
ries a  piston,  a,  which  can  move  in  the 
direction  of  the  axis  of  the  torpedo. 
The  pressure  of  the  water  is  resisted 
by  three  coiled  springs,  as  shown  in 
the  longitudinal  section.  At  a  certain 
predetermined  depth,  according  to  the 
tension  on  the  springs,  the  springs  and 
water  pressure  will  be  in  equilibrium ; 
below  that  depth  the  piston  will  be 
driven  in  by  the  water  pressure,  and 
above  it  the  springs  will  push  forward 
the  piston.  To  prevent  too  sudden  os- 
cillation in  this  action,  the  piston  is 
connected  to  the  rod,  e,  of  a  swinging 
pendulum,  d.  The  motion  of  the  pis- 
ton is  communicated  by  rods,  which 
pass  through  the  hollow  stay  rods  of 
the  air  chamber  to  the  horizontal  or 
diving  rudders.  If  the  torpedo  goes  too 
deep  the  piston  moves  back,  the  pendu- 
lum swings  forward  and  the  rudders 
are  elevated,  the  reverse  movements 
taking  place  if  the  immersion  is  not 
sufficient.  When  a  torpedo  dives  into 


the  water,  the  first  part  of  its  run  is 
made  on  a  wave  line  which  crosses  and 
recrosses  the  desired  and  ultimate  level 
of  immersion,  the  piston  and  the  pen- 
dulum gradually  bringing  the  torpedo 
to  a  true  course.  The  reservoir  forms 
the  central  body  of  the  "fish."  It  is 
made  of  forged  cast  steel  and  is  tested 
up  to  seventy  atmospheres.  A  tuyere 
at  its  after  end  feeds  the  air  to  the 
engine.  The  torpedo  is  driven  by  a 
three-cylinder  engine,  with  cylinders 
120  deg.  apart,  acting  on  a  common 
crank.  The  engine  is  started  by  means 
of  a  valve  which  is  opened  by  a  lever 
striking  a  projecting  lug  on  the  launch- 
ing tube,  when  the  torpedo  is  fired. 

The  buoyancy  chamber  is  an  air- 
tight compartment,  the  purpose  of 
which  is  to  afford  the  proper  buoyancy 
to  the  torpedo ;  it  carries  a  piece  of 
lead  ballast,  by  shifting  which  the  trim 
can  be  controlled.  The  two  tubes,  / 
and  g,  carry  the  connecting  rods  for 
controlling  the  horizontal  diving  rud- 
ders. 

Next  comes  the  bevel-gear  chamber, 
where  is  located  the  gear,  I,  for  caus- 
ing the  propellers,  m,  to  rotate  in  op- 
posite directions.  The  after  propeller 
is  keyed  to  the  main  shaft ;  the  forward 
propeller  is  keyed  to  a  sleeve  which 
rotates  freely  upon  the  main  shaft,  and 
the  motion  is  reversed  by  means  of  two 
bevel-wheel  gears  which  turn  on  a 
spindle  at  right  angles  to  the  main 
shaft.  The  "tail"  consists  of  a  stock 
with  vertical  vanes,  which  act  as  the 
vertical  rudder,  and  two  frames  which 
carry  the  horizontal  rudders. 

The  torpedo  is  fired  from  a  launch- 
ing tube  by  the  explosion  of  a  small 
charge  of  gunpowder  behind  it.  This 
compresses  the  air  which  surrounds 
the  rear  half  of  the  torpedo  and  thrusts 
it  out  of  the  tube  without  any  serious 
jar. 

The  range  and  speed  of  the  torpedoes 
vary  with  the  size.  The  weapon  here 
shown  is  14  inches  in  diameter,  15  feet 
in  length,  carries  90  pounds  of  guncot- 
ton and  has  a  speed  of  28  knots  for  a 
range  of  800  yards.  The  18-inch 
Whitehead  torpedo  is  16  feet  7l/2 
inches  in  length,  carries  a  charge  of 
220  pounds  of  guncotton  and  has  a 
speed  of  31  knots  for  1,000  yards. 


80 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


INTERIOR    OF   A    BATTLESHIP. 


The  story  of  the  complicated  char- 
acter of  the  interior  of  a  modern  bat- 
tleship is  one  that  has  grown  some- 
what stale  in  the  telling,  and  it  is  not 
the  fault  of  the  magazine  writer  and 
the  occasional  correspondent  of  Sun- 
day supplements,  if  the  general  public 
is  not  satisfied  that  a  great  battleship 
or  cruiser  is  complicated  beyond  the 
power  of  words  to  express. 

In  saying  that  the  battleship  is  com- 
plicated we  must  be  careful  to  remem- 
ber that  complication  does  not  imply 
confusion ;  and  that  in  all  the  practi- 


vessel,  but  will  leave  it  to  the  diagram 
to  tell  its  own  story. 

The  drawing  is  what  is  known  as  an 
inboard  profile;  that  is  to  say,  it  is  a 
vertical,  central,  longitudinal  section 
through  the  whole  length  of  the  ship. 
The  huge  structure  of  which  we  thus 
obtain  an  interior  view,  is  a  little  un- 
der 450  feet  in  length  from  the  extreme 
tip  of  the  ram  to  the  end  of  the  rud- 
der. The  foundation  of  the  whole  is 
the  keel,  which  is  nothing  more  nor 
less  than  a  deep  plate  girder,  3  feet  6 
inches  in  depth,  extending  from  the  in- 


SECTION   OF   A 


1.  Crew's  showers. 

2.  Paints  and  oils. 

3.  Cofferdam. 

4.  Trimming  tank. 

5.  Trimming  tank. 

6.  Seamen's  lavatory. 

7.  Bread  and  dry  provisions. 

8.  Construction  stores. 

9.  Torpedoes  and  submarine 


10.  Stores.  19.  Trunk  to  dynamos. 

11.  Hold  and  cable.    Tier  each    20.  Washrooms. 

side.  21.  Officers'  galley. 

12.  Blower  room.  22.  Firemen's  room. 

13.  Military  mast.  23.  Boiler  room. 

14.  Conning  tower.  24.  Firemen's  wash  room. 

15.  Pilot  house.  25.  Trunk      to     evaporating 

16.  Chart  room.  room. 

17.  Officers'  room.  26.  Armory. 

18.  Crew's  galley.  27.  Evaporator  room. 


cable  achievements  of  engineering,  it 
would  be  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to 
find  a  structure  which,  in  spite  of  the 
many  parts  of  which  it  is  made  up 
and  the  enormous  elaboration  of  detail 
that  it  manifests,  is  really  so  harmo- 
niously proportioned,  or  is  better  fitted 
to  the  ends  for  which  it  was  designed. 
There  are  some  subjects  of  which  an 
illustration  will  tell  more  in  five  min- 
utes than  tongue  or  pen  can  explain  in 
an  hour ;  and  in  presenting  the  accom- 
panying view  of  the  interior  of  one  of 
the  latest  battleships  of  the  United 
States  Navy,  we  shall  not  attempt  to 
give  any  elaborate  description  of  the 


board  end  of  the  ram  structure  to  the 
rudder  post.  Bisecting  it  at  every  3 
feet  of  its  length  occurs  one  of  the 
plate  girder  frames  or  ribs,  which  ex- 
tend athwartship,  and  run  up  to  the 
under  edge  of  the  armor  shelf,  where 
they  are  reduced  to  a  depth  of  say  from 
18  to  12  inches,  the  frames  extend- 
ing up  the  sides  of  the  ship  to  the 
level  of  the  upper  deck.  On  the  out- 
side of  these  frames  is  riveted  the 
outer  plating  of  the  ship,  and  upon  the 
inside  of  the  frames,  extending  as  high 
up  as  the  under  side  of  the  water-line 
belt,  say  4  or  5  feet  below  the  water- 
line,  is  riveted  an  inner  shell  of  plat- 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


81 


ing.  The  space  between  the  outer  and 
inner  plating  is  divided  up  by  the 
frames  into  transverse  water-tight 
chambers  3  feet  in  width,  and  every 
one  of  these  spaces  is  subdivided  by 
seven  or  eight  longitudinal  plate  gird- 
ers which  are  built  into  the  double 
bottom,  as  it  is  called,  parallel  with 
the  keel  and  extending,  most  of  them, 
the  entire  length  from  stem  to  stern. 
Consequently  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
space  between  the  outer  and  inner 
shells  of  the  ship's  bottom  is  divided 
into  an  innumerable  number  of  sep- 
arate compartments,  'measuring  3  feet 
in  depth  by  4  feet  in  length  by  about 


entrance  of  the  fragments  of  heavy, 
high-explosive  shells,  bursting  within 
the  ship  above  the  water-line,  a  steel 
deck,  2  to  3  inches  in  thickness,  known 
as  the  protective  deck,  extends  at 
about  the  level  of  the  water-line  over 
the  whole  of  the  vitals,  and  is  con- 
tinued in  a  gently  curving  slope  to  the 
ram  forward  and  to  the  stem  aft.  In 
the  vessel  here  shown  this  steel  deck 
is  iy2  inches  thick  on  the  flat  and  3 
inches  thick  on  the  slopes. 

Now,  the  space  below  the  protective 
deck  is  divided  up  by  a  large  number 
of  transverse,  water-tight  bulkheads 
of  steel  plating,  there  being  nineteen 


>.3RN    BATTLESHIP. 


28.  General  workshop. 

29.  Warrant  officers'  pantry. 

30.  Warrant     officers'     dining 

room. 

31.  Signal  tower. 

32.  Military  mast. 

33.  Crane. 

34.  Junior  officers'  stateroom. 

35.  Blower  room. 

36.  12-inch  handling  room. 


37.  Shaft  alley  and  6-inch  mag- 

azines. 

38.  Admiral's  office. 

39.  Junior  officers'  pantry. 

40.  Wardroom  pantry. 

41.  Skylight    trunk    to    ward- 

room. 

42.  Dining  room. 

43.  Stores. 

44.  Bread  and  dry  provisions. 


45.  Ward  room, 

46.  Steering  machinery  room. 

47.  Fresh  water. 

48.  Trimming  tank. 

49.  Admiral's  cabin. 

50.  Admiral's  stateroom. 

51.  Admiral's  lavatory. 

52.  Admiral's  after-cabin. 

53.  Cofferdam. 


6   feet   in   width.     The  plates  are   se- 
curely riveted  together. 

Above  the  inner  floor  or  platform  the 
central  portion  of  the  vessel  is  taken 
up  by  the  magazines,  boiler  rooms  and 
engine  rooms.  These  because  of  their 
vast  importance,  are  known  as  the 
ship's  vitals,  and  great  care  is  taken 
to  provide  them  against  the  entrance 
of  heavy  projectiles  of  the  enemy,  and, 
as  far  as  may  be,  against  the  attack 
of  the  still  more  deadly  torpedo.  The 
engines  and  boilers  are  so  proportioned 
as  to  height  that  they  do  not  extend 
above  the  water-line ;  and  to  protect 
them  from  plunging  shot,  or  from  the 


of  these  bulkheads  altogether.  They 
extend  from  the  inner  shell  of  the 
vessel  to  the  under  side  of  the  protec- 
tive deck.  They  are  riveted  perfectly 
water-tight,  communication  from  com- 
partment to  compartment  being  by  wa- 
ter-tight doors.  Forward  in  the  bow 
are  the  trimming  tanks,  used  to  assist 
in  bringing  the  vessel  to  an  even  keel. 
Then  abaft  of  the  collision  bulkhead 
are  bread  and  dry  provision  stores,  and 
the  construction  stores.  In  the  next 
compartment,  which  is  divided  into 
three  decks,  we  have  on  the  floor  of 
the  ship  a  storeroom  for  torpedo  gear, 
submarine  mines,  etc.  Above  this  is 


82 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


the  under-water  torpedo  room,  and  im- 
mediately below  the  protective  deck  are 
kept  the  paymaster's  stores  and  life 
preservers.  In  the  next  compartment, 
below  on  the  platform,  are  the  anchor 
gear  and  c'hain  lockers,  and  above  this 
the  navigator's  stores.  Passing  through 
the  next  bulkhead  we  come  to  the  vi- 
tals of  the  ship  proper,  with  the  6- 
inch  gun  magazines  on  the  floor,  the 
12-inc'h  magazines  and  handling  rooms 
on  the  deck  above,  and  above  this  the 
14-pounder  ammunition  and  blower 
rooms.  Above  the  magazines,  and  rest- 
ing on  the  protective  deck,  is  the  bar- 
bette of  the  forward  pair  of  12-inch 
guns,  the  armor  and  its  relative  thick- 
ness being  shown  by  heavy,  black  lines  ; 
while  in  front  of  the  barbette  the  heavy 
sloping  black  line  indicates  the 
athwartship  sloping  bulkhead,  placed 
there  to  prevent  raking  projectiles 
from  passing  through  the  entire  struc- 
ture of  the  ship.  Immediately  to  the 
rear  of  the  forward  barbette  is  seen 
the  coning  tower,  with  the  heavily  ar 
mored  tube  which  protects  the  tele- 
phones, electric  wires,  fuse  tubes,  etc., 
that  pass  from  the  tower  down  below 
the  protective  deck.  In  the  next  com 
partment,  aft  of  the  magazines,  are 
the  dynamo  rooms ;  and  then  between 
the  next  two  bulkheads  is  placed  an 
athwartship  coal  bunker.  A  similar 
athwartship  coal  bunker  extends 
athwartship  on  the  other  side  of  the 
boiler  rooms ;  and  it  must  be  under- 
stood that  at  the  side  of  the  boiler 
rooms  are  the  wing  bunkers  which  run 
aft  for  the  whole  length  of  the  boiler 
rooms  and  engine  rooms.  The  boiler 
installation  on  this  particular  ship  is 
entirely  of  the  water-tube  type,  and 
it  consists  of  twenty-four  units  ar- 
ranged in  six  separate  water-tight  com- 
partments, three  on  each  side  of  the 
center  line  of  the  vessel.  Aft  of  the 
boiler  rooms  comes  the  athwartship 
coal  bunker  above  referred  to,  and 
then  in  two  separate  water-tight  com- 
partments are  the  twin-screw  engines. 
Aft  of  the  engines  in  another  com- 
partment is  contained  a  complete  set 
of  magazines  similar  to  that  beneath 
the  forward  barbette,  and  above  them, 
resting  on  the  protective  deck  is  the 
after  barbette  and  turret,  with  its  pair 
of  12-inch  guns.  Aft  of  the  maga- 
zines come  more  compartments,  de- 
voted to  stores.  In  the  next  com- 
partment, down  on  the  platform,  are 
the  fresh-water  tanks  and  two  trim- 
ming  tanks,  and  on  the  deck  above,  be- 
low the  protective  deck  are,  first,  the 
steering-machinery  room,  and  then  the 


steering-gear  room,  each  being  in  a 
separate  water-tight  compartment. 
This  completes  the  description  of  the 
space  below  the  protective  deck. 

The  protective  deck  is  known  more 
generally  among  seamen  as  the  berth 
deck.  Above  that,  at  a  distance  of 
about  8l/2  feet,  comes  the  main  deck, 
and  Sl/2  feet  above  that  the  upper 
deck,  while  amidships,  between  the  two 
main  turrets,  is  the  superstructure,  the 
deck  of  which  is  known  as  the  super- 
structure or  boat  deck.  The  berth 
deck  and  main  deck  are  devoted  to  the 
living  accommodations  of  the  officers 
and  crew,  the  crew  being  amidships 
and  forward,  and  the  officers  aft.  The 
berth  deck,  as  its  name  would  indicate, 
is  largely  devoted  to  the  berthing  and 
general  living  accommodation  of  the 
crew.  Here  are  also  to  be  found,  in 
the  wake  of  the  forward  gun  turrets, 
on  one  side  the  sick  bay,  and  on  the 
other  side  the  refrigerating  room  and 
ice  machine.  Aft  of  that,  on  the  port 
side,  are  the  sick  bay,  lavatory,  dis- 
pensary, machinists'  quarters,  ord- 
nance workshop  and  blowers ;  while  on 
the  starboard  side  are  the  petty  offi- 
cers' quarters,  the  laundry,  and  the 
drying-room.  Then,  in  the  wake  of 
the  boiler-rooms,  on  each  side  of  the 
ship,  are  coal  bunkers  which  add  their 
protection  to  that  of  the  side  armor 
of  the  vessel.  In  the  center  of  the 
ship  are  washrooms  for  the  crew  and 
firemen.  Aft  of  the  coal  bunkers  on 
this  deck  come  the  officers'  quarters. 
On  both  sides  of  the  ship  are  the 
staterooms  of  the  junior  officers,  and 
the  wardroom  staterooms,  while  be- 
tween them  is  a  large  wardroom  and 
dining-room  with  its  pantry.  The  ex- 
treme aft  portion  of  the  berth  deck 
is  taken  up  by  officers'  lavatories,  etc. 

On  the  main  deck  above,  forward,  is 
more  berthing  accommodation  for  the 
crew,  also  shower  baths  and  lavatories, 
while  amidships  are  found  the  various 
galleys  for  the  crew  and  the  officers, 
arranged  between  the  basco  of  the 
smokestacks,  while  amidships  in  the 
wings  of  the  vessel  is  more  berthing 
space  for  the  crew.  Aft  on  the  main 
deck  the  space  is  given  up  largely  to 
accommodations  for  the  senior  officers 
and  for  the  admiral,  which,  by  the 
way,  give  one  an  impression  more  of 
commodiousness  than  of  rich  or  ex- 
travagant furnishing.  Forward,  above 
the  conning  tower,  are  the  pilothouse, 
chartroom  and  the  room  of  the  com- 
manding officer.  In  the  particular 
ship  shown,  the  heavier  guns  are 
mounted  on  the  upper  deck,  two  12- 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


83 


LONGITUDINAL     SECTION     THROUGH     A     UNITED    STATES     BATTLESHIP 
SHOWING     12-INCH     GUN     TURRET,    BARBETTE,   HANDLING 
ROOM,    AND     MAGAZINES. 


84 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


inch  guns  in  a  turret  forward  and  two 
aft,  and  eight  8-inch  guns  in  two  ar- 
niored  turrets,  two  on  each  broadside 
amidships.  The  intermediate  battery 
of  twelve  6-inch  guns  is  mounted  on 
the  main  deck,  the  guns  firing  through 
casemates.  On  this  deck  are  also 
eight  3-inch  guns,  four  forward  and 
four  aft ;  there  are  also  four  3-inch 
guns,  mounted  in  broadside  on  the 


upper  deck,  within  the  superstructure. 
The  new  method  of  emplacing  guns  on 
our  warships,  by  which  it  is  possible 
to  swing  the  guns  around  until  their 
muzzles  are  flush  with  the  side  of  the 
ship,  has  the  good  effect  of  leaving  the 
side  of  the  ship  free  from  projecting 
objects  when  the  vessel  is  in  harbor, 
and  of  leaving  the  living  spaces  of  the 
crew  but  very  slightly  obstructed. 


SECTION  THROUGH  THE  TURRET  AND  BARBETTE  OF  A 
MODERN  BATTLESHIP. 


In  the  foregoing  illustration,  show- 
ing the  interior  of  a  turret  and  bar- 
bette on  a  modern  American  battle 
ship,  the  section  has  been  carried 
down  through  the  structure  of  the  ship 
to  the  keel.  It  is  taken  on  a  vertical 
plane  in  the  line  of  the  keel  and  in- 
cludes enough  of  the  ship  in  the  fore 
and  aft  direction  to  take  in  the  am- 
munition and  handling  rooms,  and 
show  the  methods  of  storing  the  shot 
and  shell  and  powder  and  the  means 
for  bringing  it  up  to  the  breech  of  the 
gun.  Commencing  at  the  bottom  of 
the  section  we  have,  first,  the  outside 
plating  of  the  ship ;  then  about  four 
feet  above  that  is  the  inside  plating, 
or  inner  bottom,  as  it  is  called.  This 
space  is  divided  laterally  by  the  frames 
of  the  ship,  which  run  across  the  bot- 
tom and  up  the  sides  to  the  shelf,  upon 
which  the  side  armor  rests.  Upon  the 
double  bottom,  and  between  that  and 
the  first  deck  above,  is  a  magazine 
where  the  ammunition  is  stored  in 
racks  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  this 
particular  ammunition  being  for  the 
rapid-fire  guns  of  six-inch  calibre.  On 
the  deck  above  and  centrally  below  the 
turret,*  is  located  the  handling  room 
into  which  open  by  water-tight  doors 
the  magazines,  where  are  stored  the 
powder  charges  and  the  shells  for  the 
12-inch  guns  above.  Two  decks  above 
we  come  to  the  steel  protective  deck, 
2%  to  3  inches  in  thickness.  Upon 


this  deck  is  erected  a  great  circular 
structure  known  as  the  barbette, 
whose  walls  will  be  from  eight  to 
twelve  inches  in  thickness.  The  bar- 
bette is  actually  a  circular  steel  fort, 
and  it  is  thick  enough  and  its  steel 
protection  hard  enough,  to  break  up 
and  keep  out  the  heaviest  projectiles 
of  the  enemy,  except  when  they  are 
fired  at  close  ranges.  At  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  height  of  the  barbette  is 
a  heavy  circular  track  upon  which  runs 
a  massive  turntable.  The  framing  of 
this  turntable  extends  to  a  point 
slightly  above  the  top  edge  of  the  bar- 
bette, and  upon  it  is  imposed  the  mas- 
sive structure  of  the  turret,  which  is 
formed,  like  the  barbette,  of  heavy 
steel  armor  carried  upon  framing,  the 
form  of  the  turret  in  plan  being  ellip- 
tical. Its  front  face,  which  slopes 
at  an  angle  of  about  40  degrees,  is 
pierced  with  two  ports,  through  which 
project  the  two  heavy  12-inch  guns. 
The  mounting  of  these  guns  is  car- 
ried also  upon  the  turntable  and  re- 
volves with  the  turret.  From  the 
handling  room  below  a  steel  elevator 
track  extends  up  through  the  barbette 
and  curves  back  to  the  rear  of  the  gun ; 
and  upon  this  there  travel  two  ammu- 
nition cages  which  are  loaded  below 
upon  the  handling  room  floor  and  carry 
the  projectiles  and  powder  up  to  the 
breech  of  the  guns,  where  it  is  thrust 
into  the  gun  by  mechanical  rammers. 


THE    SUBMARINE    MINE. 


Broadly  speaking,  there  are  three 
different  kinds  of  submarine  mines. 
First,  observation  mines,  which  are 
fired  from  the  shore  when  a  ship  is 
known  to  be  in  range;  second,  auto- 
matic mines,  which  are  exploded  on 
being  struck  by  a  ship,  which  is  the 
kind  with  which  the  Russians  claim 


that  the  "Petropavlovsk"  was  sunk ; 
third,  electric-contact  mines,  which 
on  being  struck  by  a  passing  vessel 
give  notification  to  an  operator  on 
shore,  who  fires  the  mine  by  the  throw 
of  a  switch. 

The       accompanying       illustrations 
show     a     system     of     electric-contact 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


85 


ground  mines,  laid  across  a  channel, 
with  a  battery  of  rapid-fire  guns  on 
shore  so  placed  that  they  command  the 
whole  of  the  mine  field,  and  render  it 
impossible  for  the  small  boats  of  the 
enemy  to  attempt  to  explode  the  mines 
before  the  big  battleships  and  armored 
cruisers  pass  over  them.  The  battery 
is  placed  rather  low  down  near  the 
water,  and  above  it  is  a  battery  of 
heavy  8  and  10-inch  breech-loading 
rifles  mounted  either  en  barbette, 
or  on  disappearing  mounts,  while 
above  these,  carefully  masked  by 
shrubbery,  is  a  firing  station, 
which  is  connected  by  cables  with 
the  mines  in  the  channel.  Some- 
times, by  preference,  the  firing 
station  is  placed  in  a  massive  concrete 
casemate,  which  is  built  into  the  struc- 
ture of  the  fortification.  The  sub- 
marine mines  would  be  laid  out  in  a 
series  of  parallel  lines,  and  so.  spaced 
that  the  mines  in  each  line  would  cover 
the  spaces  left  in  the  adjacent  lines, 
with  the  result  that  on  whatever 
course  a  ship  might  be  steering,  she 
would  be  certain  to  strike  one  or  more 
of  the  mines  before  she  passes  over  the 
field.  The  ground  mine,  which,  as  we 
have  said,  is  usually  a  hemispherical 
metal  case,  contains  several  hundred 
pounds  of  high  explosive,  and  is  held 
in  place  on  the  bed  of  the  river  or 
channel  by  its  own  weight,  sometimes 
assisted  by  heavy  hooks  cast  upon  the 
outer  shell.  Anchored  to  the  mine, 
and  floating  above  it,  at  a  depth  below 
water  that  is  less  than  the  draft  of  the 
enemy's  vessels,  is  a  hollow  buoyant 
sphere  in  which  is  placed  the  electric 
circuit-closer.  The  second  .engraving 
of  the  two  herewith  shown  represents 
a  section  through  the  floating  sphere, 
and  shows  the  details  of  a  type  of 
circuit-closer  which  has  been  very 
widely  used.  It  consists  of  a  horse- 
shoe magnet,  If,  M,  within  which  is 
hung  by  a  coiled  wire  a  ball,  B.  A 
silken  cord  is  hung  from  the  top  of 
the  magnet,  passes  down  through  tha 
ball,  and  is  attached  to  an  armature, 
A.  When  the  vessel  strikes  the  buoy, 
the  ball  is  thrown  to  one  side,  draws 
aside  the  silken  cord  and  lifts  the 
armature.,  A.  To  the  poles,  N,  S,  of 
the  magnet  are  secured  two  small  mag- 
nets, (7,  C,  one  end  of  the  coii  wire  be- 
ing connected  to  line  and  the  other  to 
a  contact  point,  &.  The  armature  A 
is  secured  by  a  spring  to  an  insulated 
point,  P,  from  which  a  wire  passes 
through  the  firing  fuse  in  the  ground 
mine  to  earth.  The  other  end  of  the 
armature  carries  a  contact  point 


86 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


which,  when  the  buoy  is  struck,  en- 
gages with  a  contact  point,  6,  which  is 
connected  to  earth  through  the  inter- 
posed resistance  of  a  1,000-ohm  resist- 
ance coil. 

Our  second  engraving  shows  the  au- 
tomatic indicator  or  shutter,  which  is 
placed  in  the  firing  station  on  shore. 

Now  let  us  follow  more  closely  the 
operation  of  blowing  up  the  hostile 


magnets,  6,  6,  and  releases  the  pivoted 
shutter,  4,  ringing  the  bell  and  throw- 
ing the  signal  battery  line  L  into  cir- 
cuit with  the  line  to  the  firing  battery, 
F,  B.  The  operator  now  places  the 
plug,  P,  in  place,  and  sends  the  whole 
force  of  the  main  current  into  the  .Jine, 
and  as  this  has  sufficient  force  to  pass 
the  resistance  and  ignite  the  fuse,  the 
ground  mine  is  instantly  exploded.  In 


GROUND    MINE,    ELECTRIC-CONTACT,    BUOY,    AND    SHUTTER    AT 
FIRING    STATION. 


ship.  The  instant  the  vessel  strikes 
the  buoy,  the  suspended  ball,  B, 
swings  to  one  side,  draws  aside  the 
cord,  pulls  up  armature  A,  into  con- 
tact with  6,  and  causes  the  signal-bat- 
tery current  to  pass  by  way  of  the 
1,000-ohm  resistance-coil  down  through 
the  ground  fuse  to  earth.  This  cur- 
rent is  too  weak  to  ignite  the  fuse. 
At  the  same  time  the  armature  a  (in 
the  firing  station),  is  attracted  to  the 


the  case  of  an  automatic  mine  of  the 
kind  that  is  claimed  to  have  sunk  the 
"Petropavlovsk,"  the  instant  the  float- 
ing sphere  or  case  is  struck  by  the 
ship,  there  is  an  explosion  of  the 
charge,  which  is  carried  in  the  float- 
ing case,  if  the  water  is  very  deep,  or 
in  the  ground  mine  at  the  bottom  if 
the  water  is  sufficiently  shallow  to 
bring  the  mine  within  striking  distance 
of  the  ship's  bottom. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


87 


A  GROUP  OF  NAVY  PROJECTILES. 

The  projectiles  in  use  by  our  navy 
may  be  classed  as  solid  shot,  shell  and 
shrapnel.  Although  some  excellent 
solid  shot  is  still  manufactured,  such 
as  the  Johnson  fluid  compressed  shot, 
solid  shot  have  given  place  to  shell  as 
the  standard  projectiles  of  the  navy. 


instant  of  striking;  the  latter  is  set 
to  explode  the  shell  a  certain  length 
of  time  after  the  shell  has  left  the 
muzzle  of  the  gun. 

Shrapnel  is  the  modern  form  of  the 
old  case  shot,  which  consisted  of  a  large 
number  of  balls  put  up  in  a  case  or 


8-inch 


10-inch 


12-inch 


13-inch 
4-inch  5-inch  6-inch 

GROUP  OF  COMMON  SHELL  AT  THE  WASHINGTON  NAVY  YARD. 


Shell  is  formed  with  an  interior  cav- 
ity of  considerable  dimensions,  in 
which  is  placed  a  charge  of  powder 
or  high  explosive.  It  is  provided  with 
a  fuse  for  the  ignition  of  the  charge, 
which  is  of  the  percussion  or  time- 
fuse type.  The  former  acts  at  the 


envelope,  which  merely  served  to  hold 
them  together  until  they  left  the  muz- 
zle of  the  gun.  In  the  case  of  shrap- 
nel the  envelope  is  made  sufficiently 
strong  to  bear  the  shock  of  discharge, 
and  a  time-fuse  is  provided. 

The   best  armor-piercing  projectiles 


88 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


are  now  made  of  chrome  steel,  the 
small  admixture  of  chromium  serving 
to  impart  to  the  steel  a  remarkable 
amount  of  toughness.  The  projectiles 
are  cast,  forged,  and  carefully  an- 
nealed and  tempered,  the  hardening 
being  confined  to  the  point  or  nose. 
The  latter  is  ogival  in  form,  the  point 
being  struck  with  a  radius  which  is 
two  or  three  times  the  diameter  of  the 
shell.  The  point  has  to  be  sharply 
pointed  to  insure  its  penetration  of 
the  hard  face  of  the  armor,  but  if  it 
is  made  too  fine,  it  will  lack  the  neces- 
sary resisting  power  and  will  be  frac- 
tured before  it  can  get  through.  The 
best  proportion  of  radius  is  found  to 
lie  between  two  and  three  times  the 
diameter. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  armor-pierc- 
ing projectiles.  The  first  is  made  solid, 
or  practically  so,  a  small  core  being 
formed  to  give  the  best  results  in  the 
forging  process ;  the  other  type  is 
known  as  semi-armor-piercing.  It  is 
formed  hollow,  with  a  core  of  moder- 
ate dimensions,  large  enough  to  hold 
an  explosive  charge  that  will  insure 
the  bursting  of  the  thick  walls  of  the 
projectile.  It  is  made  of  chrome  steel, 
and  requires  in  its  manufacture  to  be 
treated  with  great  care  to  secure  the 
combined  hardness  and  toughness  to 
enable  it  to  pierce  solid  armor  without 
fracturing  and  carry  its  explosive 
charge  intact  into  the  interior  of  the 
ship.  When  such  shell  is  filled  with 
common  powder  the  heat  engendered 
by  passing  through  the  armor  is  de- 
pended on  to  explode  the  shell  just 
within  the  ship ;  no  fuse  is  used. 

The  object  at  which  projectile  mak- 
ers are  aiming  just  now  is  to  make  a 
shell  which  can  carry  a  charge  through 
the  best  armor  and  burst  on  the  inner 
side  of  the  armor.  It  is  already  pos- 
sible to  put  solid  shot  through  plate 
that  is  as  much  as  one  and  one-half 
the  diameter  of  the  shot  in  thickness, 
and  the  success  of  the  projectile  mak- 
ers is  such  as  to  make  it  likely  that 
before  long  a  bursting  shell  can  be 
made  to  perform  the  same  feat. 

It  will  be  evident  that  penetration 
of  the  armor  belt  by  a  shell  will  be 
vastly  more  destructive  to  the  ship 
than  penetration  by  solid  shot.  The 
damage  wrought  by  the  latter  will  be 
confined  to  its  direct  path,  where  the 
zone  of  destruction  of  a  shell  will  be 
almost  as  extensive,  if  it  is  of  the 
larger  calibres,  as  the  whole  area  of  the 
deck  on  which  it  strikes.  The  effects, 
moreover,  will  be  greatly  augmented 
if  a  high-explosive,  bursting  charge  be 


substituted  for  common  powder,  al- 
though the  sensitiveness  of  such 
charges  renders  it  very  difficult  to 
carry  them  through  armor  plate  and 
burst  them  011  the  inside.  Excellent 
results,  however,  have  been  achieved 
in  this  direction  against  armor  of  mod- 
erate thickness. 

The  group  of  shells  shown  in  our 
engraving  includes  one  of  each  of  the 
sizes  used  on  our  warships,  from  the 
4-inch  33-pound  shell  up  to  the  13- 
inch  1,100-pound  shell  of  our  largest 
guns.  They  are  all  of  the  class  known 
as  "common  shell,"  and  are  used 
against  fortifications  and  earthworks 
and  against  the  unarmored  or  lightly 
armored  portions  of  warships.  Thay  are 
usually  formed  of  cast-iron,  though 
sometimes  of  cast-steel,  and  the  in- 
terior cavity  is  large,  enabling  a  big 
bursting  charge  to  be  carried.  Unlike 
the  forged  chrome  steel  shell,  they  are 
unfit  for  armor-piercing,  not  having 
the  necessary  strength  to  carry  them 
through  the  plates. 

The  particulars  of  these  shells  are 
given  in  the  following  table  : 


Diameter. 

Length. 

Bursting 
Charge. 

4-in 
5 
6 
8 
10 
12 
13 

ch.  .. 

He 
1 
1 
2 
3 
3 
4 

ot  4  inc 
3 
9 
6 
0 
8 
0 

hes. 

2  poi 
3 
4 
JO 
22 
42 
70 

inds, 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  point  of 
the  shell  is  cut  off.  It  is  here  that 
the  percussion  fuse  is  inserted.  The 
fuse  consists  of  a  hollow  threaded  brass 
case,  which  is  screwed  into  a  hole 
bored  through  into  the  interior  of  the 
shell.  Inside  the  case  is  a  cylindrical 
lead  plunger,  in  the  center  of  which 
is  a  fulminate  and  a  priming  charge. 
When  the  gun  is  fired,  the  plunger 
moves  to  the  rear  of  the  fuse,  and  at 
the  moment  when  the  shell  strikes  an 
obstruction  it  flies  forward,  the  ful- 
minate striking  a  small  anvil  on  the 
fuse  cap.  This  ignites  the  primer,  the 
flame  of  which  enters  the  shell  and 
explodes  it. 


Turkestan  is  a  general  government  of 
Central  Asia.  It  comprises  the  khan- 
ates and  deserts  annexed  by  Generals 
Tchernaieff  and  Kaufmann  between 
18(>0  and  1875,  and  now  known  as  the 
provinces  of  Samarcand,  Ferghana, 
and  Syr  Daria.  Area  about  257,134 
square  miles,  with  3,900,000  inhabi- 
tants. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


89 


OUR  NAVY   GUNS   IN  THE  CIVIL  WAR  AND   TO-DAY. 


Naval  ordnance  has  made  greater 
strides  in  the  forty  years  that  have 
intervened  since  the  Civil  AVar  than 
in  several  centuries  preceding.  As 
proof  of  this  it  is  enough  to  look  at 
the  striking  comparison  shown  in  the 
accompanying  cut.  The  smaller  illus- 
tration represents  a  Parrott  100 
pounder  of  1862,  superimposed  upon  a 
modern  100-pounder,  or  to  be  correct, 
a  6-inch  50-calibre  rapid-fire  rifle  of 
the  year  1900;  the  lower  diagram 
represents  a  15-inch  smooth-bore  of  the 
Civil  War,  superimposed  upon  a  12- 
inch  breech-loading  45-calibre  rifle  of 
to-day.  The  comparison  might  be  car- 
ried out  to  greater  length  throughout 
all  the  various  calibres  that  constitute 
the  batteries  of  naval  ships ;  but  we 
have  chosen  to  compare  the  main  bat- 
tery of  the  monitor  with  the  main  bat- 
tery of  the  modern  battleship,  and  what 
might  be  called  the  secondary  batterv 
of  the  frigates  of  1862  with  the  stand- 
ard secondary  battery  gun  of  the  bat- 
tleship of  to-day. 

The  heaviest  piece  carried  in  the 
Civil  War  was  the  15-inch  smooth- 
bore. This  gun  weighed  42,000 
pounds ;  its  length  over  all  was 
15  feet  1  inch;  its  maximum  diam- 
eter at  the  breech  was  4  feet,  and  with 
an  ordinary  charge  of  35  pounds  of 
black  cannon  powder,  it  fired  a  spheri- 
cal shell  weighing  350  pounds.  Ac- 
cording to  the  ordnance  regulations, 
under  extraordinary  conditions,  these 
guns  might  be  fired  20  rounds  "at 
ironclads  at  close  quarters,"  using  100 
pounds  of  hexagonal  or  cubical  powder 
and  a  solid  shot  weighing  450  pounds. 
Under  these  conditions  the  most  re- 
spectable muzzle  velocity  of  1,600  foot- 
seconds  was  obtained,  with  a  corre- 
sponding muzzle  energy  of  7,997  foot- 
tons.  It  would  be  interesting  to  know 
what  the  powder  pressure  was  under 
these  conditions,  for  the  velocity  and 
energy  are  something  truly  remark- 
able for  a  cast-iron  gun.  It  is  little 
wonder  that  only  20  rounds  were  al- 
lowed under  the  severe  stresses  im- 
posed by  these  ballistics. 

Now,  compare  these  results  with  the 
most  powerful  gun  in  our  navy  to-day, 
namely,  the  12-inch  45-calibre  rifle, 
which  weighs  53.4  tons,  has  a  total 
length  of  45  feet,  and  with  a  charge 
of  360  pounds  of  smokeless  powder 
fires  an  850-pound  shell  with  a  muz- 
zle velocity  of  2,800-foot  seconds  and 
a  muzzle  energy  of  46,246  foot-tons. 
The  true  basis  of  comparison  of  the 


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90 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


relative  efficiency  of  the  two  guns  is 
the  amount  of  energy  developed  per 
ton  of  the  weight  of  the  gun,  and  on 
this  basis  we  find  that  the  old  15-inch 
smooth-bore  gun  when  fired  with  100 
pounds  of  powder  developed  427  foot- 
tons  of  energy  per  ton  of  gun,  as 
against  872  foot-tons  of  energy  de- 
veloped by  the  modern  12-inch  rifle. 

'  If  we  take  account  of  the  durability 
of  a  gun  the  advantage  will  be  stronger 
on  the  side  of  the  modern  piece,  for 
whereas  the  15-inch  smooth-bore  was 
limited  to  twenty  rounds  under  the 
given  conditions,  the  modern  12-inch 
rifles,  judging  from  the  small  amount 
of  erosion  developed  with  nitro-cellu- 
lose  powders,  should  have  a  useful  life 
of  at  least  half  a  thousand  rounds. 
Moreover,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  modern  elongated  shell  will  hold  its 
velocity  much  longer  than  the  old 
spherical  shell  of  the  smooth-bore,  and, 
consequently,  the  respective  muzzle  ve- 
locities and  energies  are  no  criterion 
of  the  respective  efficiencies  of  the 
guns. 


The  gun  of  1862  that  answers  to  the 
modern  secondary  battery,  6-inch  rifle, 
is  the  Parrott  muzzle-loading  rifle,  a 
cast-iron  gun  which  was  strengthened 
at  the  breech  over  the  powder  cham- 
ber by  shrinking  thereon  an  iron  hoop. 
The  bore  of  the  gun  was  6.4  inches. 
It  weighed  4.35  tons,  was  12  feet  4 
inches  in  length  and  with  a  charge  of 
ten  pounds  of  powder  it  fired  a  100- 
pound  shell  with  an  initial  velocity  of 
1,080  foot-seconds  and  a  muzzle  energy 
of  810  foot-tons.  Compare  this  with 
the  modern  6-inch  rifle,  which  weighs 
8.5  tons,  is  25  feet  in  length,  and  with 
a  charge  of  40  pounds  of  smokeless 
powder  fires  a  100-pound  shell  with  an 
initial  velocity  of  2,900  feet  per  sec- 
ond and  an  initial  energy  of  5,838  foot- 
tons. 

Compared  on  the  basis  of  energy  per 
ton  of  gun,  we  find  that  the  100-pound- 
er  Parrott  muzzle  loader  developed  18C> 
foot-tons  of  energy  per  ton  of  gun, 
whereas  the  modern  6-inch  breech- 
loading  rifle  develops  784^  foot-tons 
of  energy  per  ton  of  gun. 


THE  PAY  OF  NAVAL  AND  MARINE  CORPS. 


An  Admiral  receives  $13,500  wheth- 
er on  sea  duty  or  on  shore  duty.  The 
first  nine  Rear-Admirals  receive  $7,- 
500  while  on  sea  duty,  and  $6,375  on 
shore  duty.  The  second  nine  receives 
$5,500  on  sea  duty  and  $4,675  on  shore 
duty.  A  Brigadier-General  Command- 
ant of  Marine  Corps,  receives  $5,500. 
The  Chiefs  of  the  various  Naval  Bu- 
reaus receive  $5,500.  Captains  of  the 
Navy  receive  $3,500  while  on  sea  duty 
and  $2,975  while  on  shore  duty.  The 
Judge  Advocate  General  and  Colonels, 
Marine  Corps,  line  and  staff,  receive 
$3,500.  Commanders  of  the  Navy  re- 
ceive $3,000  while  on  sea  duty,  and 
$2,550  while  on  shore  duty.  Lieut.- 
Colonels,  Marine  Corps,  line  and  staff, 
receive  $3,000.  Lieut.-Commanders  of 
the  Navy  while  on  sea  duty  receive 
$2,500,  and  while  on  shore  duty  $2,125. 
Majors  of  the  Marine  Corps,  line  and 
staff,  receive  $2,500.  Lieutenants  of 
the  Navy  receive  $1,800  while  on  sea 
duty  and  $1,530  while  on  shore  duty. 
Captains  of  the  Marine  Corps,  if  they 
are  of  the  line,  receive  $1,800,  and  if 
they  are  of  the  staff,  $2,000.  Lieu- 
tenants of  the  junior  grade  receive 
$1,500  while  on  sea  duty  and  $1.275 
while  on  shore  duty.  First  Lieutenant 
and  leader  of  the  band  of  the  Marine 
Corps  receive  $1,500.  Ensigns  of  the 
Navy  receive  $1,400  on  sea  duty  and 
$1,190  on  shore  duty.  Second  Lieu-. 


tenants  of  the  Marine  Corps,  Chief 
Boatswains,  Chief  Gunners,  Chief  Car- 
penters and  Chief  Sailmakers  receive 
$1,400.  Midshipmen  in  other  than 
practice  ships  receives  $950.  At  the 
Naval  Academy  and  elsewhere  $500. 
Chaplains  receive  $2,500  on  sea  duty, 
$2,000  on  shore,  and  $1,900  on  leave  or 
waiting  orders.  Professors  of  Mathe- 
matics and  Civil  Engineers  receive' 
$2,400  and  $1,500  when  on  leave  of 
absence  or  waiting  orders.  Naval  Con- 
structors receive  $3,200,  and  while  on 
leave  of  absence  or  waiting  orders, 
$2,200.  Assistant  Naval  Constructors 
receive  $2,000,  and  $1,500  while  on 
leave  or  waiting  orders.  The  warrant 
officers,  boatswains,  gunners,  carpen- 
ters, sailmakers,  pharmacists  and  war- 
rant machinists  receive  $1,200  while  on 
sea  duty  and  $900  while  on  shore,  $700 
on  leave  of  absence  or  waiting  orders. 
Mates  who  were  in  service  August  1, 
1904,  receive  $1,200  for  sea  duty,  $900 
for  shore  duty,  $700  on  leave.  Those 
appointed  since  receive  $900,  $700  and 
$500  respectively.  The  monthly  pay 
of  petty  officers  and  enlisted  men  is : 
Chief  petty  officers,  $50  to  $70;  petty 
officers,  first-class,  $36  to  $65;  petty 
officers,  second-class,  $35  to  $40 ;  third- 
class  petty  officers,  $30 ;  first-class  sea- 
men, $21  to  $35 ;  second-class  seamen. 
$15  to  $30;  third-class  seamen,  $9  to 
$22. 


CHAPTER    IT. 


THE     ARMY     OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


Twice  in  the  history  of  the  world 
we  have  had  an  example  of  large  bod- 
ies of  men  who  were  not  producers  who 
disturbed  economic  conditions  by  liv- 
ing at  the  public,  expense.  We  refer 
to  the  enormous  monasteries  in  the 
middle  ages  and  to  the  standing  armies 
in  Europe  to-day.  It  seems  to  be  es- 
sential to  the  maintenance  of  the  in- 
tegrity of  a  number  of  the  countries 
of  Europe  to  keep  a  large  standing 
army — an  army  which  takes  some 
of  the  best  years  of  the  life  of  its  citi- 
zens, as  service  is  obligatory  to  all. 
These  armies  are  supported  at  an 
enormous  expense  by  systems  of  tax- 
ation which  affect  the  poorest  as  well 
as  the  richest. 

The  question  of  the  standing  ar- 
mies of  Europe  is  a  problem  which  is 
rapidly  increasing  in  seriousness,  and 
there  does  not  appear  as  yet  to  be  any 
solution  of  the  difficulty. 

For  our  protection  we  have  to  re- 
ly upon  : 

1.  The    Regular   Army,    which    rep- 
resents  and   is  under  the   pay  of  the 
federal  government,  and  which  is  offi- 
cered:  1.  By  graduates  of  the  United 
States  Military  Academy,  who  at  pres- 
ent are  largely  in  the  minority.     2.  By 
the  promotion  of  meritorious  enlisted 
men  of  the  Army.     3.  By  the  appoint- 
ment of  civilians,  six  of  whom  are  an- 
nually   selected    from  the  best  cadet- 
schools  of  the  country.     The  last  class 
is  at  present  most  largely  represented. 

The  officers  receive  commissions  at 
the  hands  of  the  President. 

2.  The    organized    militia     or    Na- 
tional  Guard,   which   is  composed  ex- 
clusively of  State  troops,  and,  except 
when    called    into    the    service    of   the 
United  States,  is  under  the  -command 
of  the    Governors    of    the    respective 
States.     The   officers   of   higher  grade 
are  appointed  by  the  Governors,    but 
the  other  officers,  from  Colonel  down, 
are  generally  selected  by  ballot  by  the 
troops      themselves.        The      National 
Guard  is  intended  primarily  for  home 
defense. 


3.  The  Volunteers,  which  form  a 
branch  of  the  service  only  to  be  found 
in  time  of  war.  They  are  such  as 
offer  their  services  upon  the  call  of 
the  President,  and  are  officered  either 
by  West  Point  graduates,  by  officers  of 
the  National  Guard,  or  civilian  ap- 
pointees. 

Under  the  conditions  existing  in  the 
late  war  with  Spain,  members  of  the 
National  Guard  were  not  called  upon 
to  serve  in  their  capacity  as  State 
troops,  but  were  invited  to  enlist  in 
the  volunteer  service. 

The  term  of  enlistment  in  the  regu- 
lar service  is  for  a  period  of  three 
years,  which  term  is  fixed  and  not 
terminable  by  the  ending  of  the  war. 
In  the  volunteer  service  the  period  of 
enlistment  is  two  years,  but  this  term 
may  be  shortened  by  the  ending  of  hos- 
tilities. 

A  certain  proportion  of  the  officers 
of  the  regular  army  are  graduates  of 
the  United  States  Military  Academy 
at  West  Point,  New  York. 

By  Acts  of  Congress  approved  June 
6,  1900,  June  28,  1902,  and  March  3, 
1903,  the  Corps  of  Cadets  as  now  con- 
stituted consists  of  one  from  each  Con- 
gressional district,  one  from  each  Ter- 
ritory, one  from  the  District  of  Col- 
umbia, one  from  Porto  Rico,  two  from 
each  State  at  large,  and  forty  from  the 
United  States,  at  large,  all  to  be  ap- 
pointed by  the  President  and,  with  the 
exception  of  the  forty  appointed  from 
the  United  States  at  large,  to  be  actual 
residents  of  the  Congressional  or  Ter- 
ritorial districts,  or  of  the  District  of 
Columbia,  or  of  the  States,  respective- 
ly, from  which  they  are  appointed.  Un- 
der these  Acts,  and  under  the  appor- 
tionment of  Members  of  Congress  ac- 
cording to  the  12th  Census,  the  maxi- 
mum number  of  cadets  is  522. 

The  total  number  of  graduates  from 
1802  to  1903,  inclusive,  is  4,214;  124 
members  graduated  June  15,  1904. 

Foreign  governments  can  have  ca- 
dets educated  at  the  academy  by  au- 
thorization of  Congress. 


91 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


GROUP   OF    OFFICERS   AND   MEN    SHOWING   UNIFORMS   WORN   IN 
UNITED   STATES   ARMY. 


1.  Major  of  Engineers  in  olive-drab  uniform. 

2.  Captain  of  Ordnance  in  olive-drab  uniform. 

3.  Private  of  Cavalry  in  olive-drab  uniform. 

4.  First  Sergeant  of  Artillery  in  olive-drab 

uniform. 

">.  Private  of  Infantry  in  olive-drab  uniform 
and  clothing  roll. 

6.  First  Sergeant  of  Cavalry  in  olive-drab 

uniform. 

7.  Corporal  of  Post  Artillery  in  olive-drab 

uniform  and  overcoat. 

8.  Post    Quartermaster-Sergeant    in    olive- 

drab  uniform. 

9.  Trumpeter  of  Cavalry,  mounted,  in  full- 

dress  uniform. 

10.  Colonel  of  Infantry,  mounted,  in  full-dress 

uniform. 

11.  Major-General,     mounted,     in     full-dress 

uniform. 

12.  Lieutenant-Colonel  of  Artillery,  Aide-de- 

Camp,  mounted,  in  full-dress  uniform. 


13.  First  Sergeant  of  Infantry,  in  full-dress 

uniform. 

14.  Captain  of  Cavalry,  dismounted,  in  full- 

dress  uniform. 

15.  Brigadier-General,   dismounted,   in   dress 

uniform. 

16.  Major,  Medical  Department,  dismounted, 

dress  uniform  and  cape. 

17.  Corporal  of  Engineers,  full-dress  uniform. 

18.  Private  of  Cavalry,  full-dress  uniform. 

19.  Sergeant  of  Artillery  in  full-dress  uniform. 

20.  Post  Commissary-Sergeant,  dress  uniform. 

21.  Lieutenant  of  Cadets,  U.  S.  Military  Acad- 

emy, full-dress  uniform. 

22.  Major,    Quartermaster's   Department,   in 

full-dress  uniform. 

23.  First-class  Sergeant,  Signal  Corps,  in  full- 

dress  uniform. 

24.  Captain  Coast  Artillery,  in  dress  uniform 

and  overcoat. 


The  commander-in-chief  is,,  ex-officio, 
of  course,  the  President  of  the  United 
States. 

Like  the  grades  of  Admiral  and 
Vice- Admiral,  the  army  also  has  two 
grades — General  and  Lieutenant-Gen- 
eral. We  have  had  only  four  Gen- 
erals, Washington,  Grant,  Sherman 
and  Sheridan.  A  general  is  supposed 
to  command  an  army.  An  army  is  a 
large  and  organized  body  of  soldiers 
generally  composed  of  infantry,  artil- 
lery and  cavalry,  completely  armed  and 
provided  with  necessary  stores,  etc., 
and  the  entire  force  is  under  the  direc- 
tion of  one  general,  who  is  called  the 
"general-in-chief."  The  army  is  sub- 
divided as  follows ;  the  grades  of  rank 
and  commands  appropriate  to  each 
grade  are  given. 

An  "army"  is  divided  into  two  or 
more  corps  commanded  by  a  Major- 
General.  A  "corps"  is  "the  largest 
tactical  unit  of  a  large  army.  A  corps 
is  usually  organized  with  separate 
staff,  infantry,  cavalry,  and  artillery 
regiments,  as  well  as  auxiliary  servi- 
ces, so  that  it  is  really  a  small  army 
complete  in  itself.  A  corps  is  usually 
composed  of  three  divisions,  each  com- 
manded by  a  Major-General  or  a  Brig- 
adier-General. A  "corps"  is  also  any 
body  or  department  of  an  army  which 
is  not  detached,  but  has  its  own  or- 
ganization and  head,  as  the  "Corps  of 
Engineers."  Each  "division"  is  com- 
posed of  three  brigades,  and  there  may 
be  an  independent  brigade  of  cavalry 


or  artillery  called  the  divisional  cav- 
alry or  artillery. 

A  "brigade"  consists  of  three  regi- 
ments, though  there  may  be  more,  and 
it  is  commanded  by  a  Brigadier-Gen- 
eral, and  sometimes  by  a  Colonel.  A 
"regiment,"  which  is  the  administra- 
tive unit,  is  commanded  by  a  Colonel, 
and  it  is  divided  into  twelve  compa- 
nies, each  composed,  under  the  pres- 
ent law,  of  a  maximum  of  150  men  for 
the  infantry,  100  men  for  the  cavalry, 
a  total  of*  18,920  for  the  artillery 
corps,  and  150  men  for  the  engineers. 
A  "company"  is  commanded  by  a  Cap- 
tain. Two  or  more  companies  form 
a  "battalion,"  and  the  battalion  is 
commanded  by  a  Major. 

The  relative  rank  between  the  offi- 
cers of  the  army  and  navy  is  as  fol- 
lows :  General  with  Admiral :  Lieu- 
tenant-General  with  Vice-Admiral ; 
Major-General  with  Rear-Admiral ; 
Brigadier-General  with  Commodore ; 
Colonel  with  Captain  ;  Lieutenant-Col- 
onel with  Commander ;  Major  with 
Lieutenant-Commander;  Captain  with 
Lieutenant ;  First  Lieutenant  with 
Lieutenant  (junior  grade)  ;  Second 
Lieutenant  with  Ensign. 

The  pay  of  the  officers  in  active  ser- 
vice is  as  follows:  Lieutenant-Genera  1, 
$11,000;  Major-General,  $7,500  ;  Brig- 
adier-General, $5,500  ;  Colonel,  $3,500  ; 
Lieutenant-Colonel,  $3,000 ;  Major. 
$2,500;  Mounted  Captain,  $2,000; 
Captain  on  foot,  $1,800;  regimental 
Adjutant,  $1,800;  regimental  Quar- 


94 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


termaster,  $1,800;  First  Lieutenant, 
mounted,  $1,600 ;  First  Lieutenant  on 
foot,  $1,500;  Second  Lieutenant, 
mounted,  $1,500;  Second  Lieutenant 
on  foot,  $1,400.  All  of  the  officers 
from  the  Colonel  down  receive  addi- 
tional amounts  after  five,  ten,  fifteen 
and  twenty  years'  service,  but  there  is 
a  limit  to  this  amount ;  thus  the  maxi- 
mum pay  of  a  Colonel  is  $4,500  per 
annum.  The  pay  of  a  private,  wheth- 
er artillery,  cavalry  or  infantry,  is  $13 
per  month  for  the  first  and  second 
years,  $14  for  the  third  year,  $15  for 
the  fourth  year,  $16  for  the  fifth  year. 
After  five  years'  continuous  service 
they  receive  $2  per  month  extra.  For 
service  in  the  insular  possessions  20 
per  cent,  is  added  to  the  pay  of  officers 
and  enlisted  men. 

The  present  strength  of  the  regular 
army  is  about  3,800  officers  and  60,000 
enlisted  men ;  13,000  of  them  are  in 
the  Philippines.  This  does  not  include 
4,800  scouts,  who  are  paid  from  the 
Philippine  treasury  proper. 

The  policy  of  the  United  States  in 
having  a  small  military  establishment 
has  led  to  the  organization  of  a  large 
body  of  reserves,  which  are  known  as 
the  organized  militia  or  "National 
Guard."  According  to  the  latest  ac- 
counts received  at  the  office  of  the  Ad- 
jutant-General in  1903  there  were  in 
the  National  Guard  of  the  various 
States  and  Territories  9,184  commis- 
sioned officers  and  107,422  non-com- 
missioned officers,  privates,  musicians, 
etc.,  making  a  total  of  116,606. 

Under  the  Act  of  Congress  approved 
January  31,  1903,  the  militia  consists 
of  every  able-bodied  male  citizen  of  the 
United  States  who  is  more  than  eight- 
een and  less  than  forty-five  years  of 
age,  and  is  divided  into  two  classes — 
the  organized  militia  or  National 
Guard,  and  the  remainder  to  be  known 
as  the  reserve  militia.  It  is  entirely 
optional  whether  eligible  citizens 
join  the  National  Guard  or  not, 
and  they  elect  their  own  officers,  but  it 
is  safe  to  say  that  this  body  of  reserves 
is  recruited  from  the  best  and  most 
patriotic  element  of  the  population  of 
the  United  States.  Congress  makes 
an  appropriation  each  year  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  militia  in  the  various 
States,  and  the  States  also  contribute, 
help  and  build  armories,  as  the  regi- 
ments are  really  intended  to  defend 
their  own  States  primarily,  although 
in  time  of  war  they  furnish  an  excel- 
lently drilled  body  of  volunteers.  In 
nearly  every  city  of  any  great  size 


there  is  one  or  more  armories,  and  in 
the  smaller  cities  and  towns  there  are 
separate  companies  which  have  armo- 
ries or  drill  halls.  The  militia  in  each 
State  is  divided  into  brigades,  regi- 
ments and  companies.  Under  the  act 
of  Congress  above  named  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  has  the  pow- 
er to  call  upon  any  of  the  military  or- 
ganizations of  the  States  for  national 
defense,  but  the  troops  are  usually 
utilized  by  the  Governor  of  the  State 
for  enforcing  the  State  laws. 

The  experience  of  the  Spanish-Amer- 
ican war  demonstrated  the  need  of 
what  is  known  in  foreign  armies  as  a 
General  Staff  Corps.  Accordingly, 
under  the  Act  of  Congress  approved 
February  14,  1903,  a  Chief  of  Staff 
was  authorized,  to  take  the  place  of 
the  commanding  general  of  the  army, 
and  a  General  Staff  Corps  whose  du- 
ties are  defined  as  follows :  To  prepare 
plans  for  the  national  defense  and  for 
the  mobilization  of  the  military  forces 
in  time  of  war ;  to  investigate  and  re- 
port upon  all  questions  affecting  the 
efficiency  of  the  army  and  its  state  of 
preparation  for  military  operations ; 
to  render  professional  aid  and  assist- 
ance to  the  Secretary  of  War  and  to 
general  officers  and  other  superior 
commanders,  and  to  act  as  their  agents 
in  informing  and  co-ordinating  the  ac- 
tion of  the  different  officers  who,  un- 
der the  terms  of  the  act,  are  subject 
to  the  supervision  of  the  Chief  of 
Staff ;  and  to  perform  such  other  mili- 
tary duties  not  otherwise  assigned  by 
law,  as  may  from  time  to  time  be  pre- 
scribed by  the  President. 

Under  this  act  a  number  of  officers 
were  detailed  in  the  General  Staff  for 
a  period  of  four  years,  and  the  corps 
was  organized  into  three  divisions, 
each  under  a  superior  officer,  with  the 
following  duties :  The  first  division  has 
charge  of  army  administration,  disci- 
pline, dril^  and  equipment ;  the  sec- 
ond division  is  the  division  of  military 
information,  and  in  addition  has 
charge  of  military  maps,  military  at- 
taches and  the  War  Department  li- 
brary :  the  third  division  is  termed  the 
technical  division,  and  includes  the 
devising  of  plans  for  defense  and  of- 
fense, the  matter  of  sites  for  fortifica- 
tions, the  question  of  military  edu- 
cation, and  the  Army  War  College. 

This  article  has  been  revised  by 
Captain  C.  D.  Rhodes,  U.  S.  A.,  of 
the  General  Staff  Corps,  under  the  di- 
rection of  Major  W.  D.  Beach,  U.  S.  A., 
Chief  of  Staff,  Second  Division. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


95 


INFORMATION  RELATIVE  TO  THE  APPOINTMENT  AND  ADMISSION 

OF  CADETS  TO  THE  UNITED  STATES 

MILITARY  ACADEMY. 


APPOINTMENTS. 

How  Made. — Each  Congressional 
District  and  Territory — the  District  of 
Columbia  and  also  Porto  Rico— is  en- 
titled to  have  one  Cadet  at  the  Acade- 
my. Each  State  is  also  entitled  to 
have  two  Cadets  from  the  State  at 
large,  and  forty  are  allowed  from  the 
United  States  at  large.  The  ap- 
pointment from  a  Congressional  Dis- 
trict is  made  upon  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  Congressman 
from  that  district,  and  those  from  a 
State. at  large  upon  the  recommenda- 
tions of  the  Senators  of  the  State. 
Similarly  the  appointment  from  a  Ter- 
ritory is  made  upon  the  recommenda- 
tion of  the  Delegate  in  Congress.  Each 
person  appointed  must  be  an  actual 
resident  of  the  State,  District  or  Ter- 
ritory from  which  the  appointment  is 
made. 

The  appointments  from  the  United 
States  at  large,  from  the  District  of 
Columbia  and  from  Porto  Rico  are 
made  by  the  President  of  the  United 
States  upon  his  own  selection.  The 
appointment  of  the  Cadet  from  Porto 
Rico  is  made  by  the  President  on  the 
recommendation  of  the  Resident  Com- 
missioner. 

Manner  of  Making  Applications. — 
Applications  may  be  made  at  any 
time,  by  letter  to  the  Adjutant  Gen- 
eral, U.  S.  Army,  Washington,  D.  C., 
to  have  the  name  of  the  applicant 
placed  upon  the  register  that  it  may 
be  furnished  to  the  proper  Senator, 
Representative,  or  Delegate,  when  a 
vacancy  occurs.  The  application  must 
exhibit  the  full  name,  date  of  birth, 
and  permanent  abode  of  the  applicant, 
with  the  number  of  the  Congressional 
District  in  which  his  residence  is  sit- 
uated. 

Date  of  Appointments. — Appoint- 
ments are  required  by  law  to  be  made 
one  year  in  advance  of  the  date  of  ad- 
mission, except  in  cases  where,  by  rea- 
son of  death  or  other  cause,  a  vacancy 
occurs  which  cannot  be  provided  for 
by  such  appointment  in  advance. 
Thes.e-  vacancies  are  filled  in  time  for 
the  next  examination. 

Alternates. — For  each  candidate  ap- 
pointed there  may  be  nominated  two 
alternates.  The  principal  and  each  al- 
ternate will  receive  from  the  War  De- 
partment a  letter  of  appointment,  and 


must  appear  for  examination  at  the 
time  and  place  therein  designated- 
those  previously  accepted  by  Academic 
Board  on  certificate  or  mentally  quali- 
fied, appearing  for  physical  examina- 
tion only. 

The  fitness  for  admission  to  the 
Academy  of  the  principal  and  the  al- 
ternates will  be  determined  as  pre- 
scribed in  paragraphs  19,  20  and  21 
Regulations  U.  S.  Military  Academy! 

Should  the  principal  and  alternates 
not  qualify  for  admission  under 
the  provisions  of  paragraph  21,  they 
will  still  be  entitled  to  appear  for 
the  examination  prescribed  in  para- 
graph 19;  but  if  the  principal  fails 
to  appear  for  that  examination 
or,  appearing,  fails  to  qualify, 
then  the  qualifications  of  the  al- 
ternates will  be  considered  and  if  only 
one  has  met  the  requirements  he  will 
be  admitted ;  if  both  alternates  have 
met  the  requirements  the  better  quali- 
fied will  be  admitted. 

The  alternates,  like  the  principal, 
should  be  designated  as  nearly  one 
year  in  advance  of  the  date  of  admis- 
sion as  possible. 


ADMISSION   OF   CANDIDATES. 

The  following  are  extracts  from  the 
regulations  of  the  .  Military  Academy 
relating  to  the  examination  of  candi- 
dates for  admission  and  will  be  strict- 
ly adhered  to : 

19.  Candidates  selected  for  appoint- 
ment,  unless  accepted  under  the  pro- 
visions of  paragraph  21,  shall  appear 
for  mental  and   physical  examination 
before   boards  of  army   officers   to  be 
convened  at  such   places  as  the  War 
Department  may  select,  on  the  first  of 
May,  annually,  except  when  that  day 
comes  on   Sunday,   in   which  case  the 
examination    shall    commence    on    the 
following  Tuesday.       Candidates  who 
pass  successfully  will  be  admitted   to 
the  Academy  without  further  examina- 
tion  upon   reporting  in   person   to  the 
Superintendent  at  West  Point  before 
12   o'clock   noon   on   the  15th   day   of 
June  of  the  same  year. 

20.  Each  candidate  before  he  shall 
be  admitted  to  the  Academy  as  a  Ca- 
det  must  show,  by    the    examination 
provided  for  in  paragraph  19  or  by  the 
methods   prescribed   in   paragraph   21, 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


that  he  is  well  versed  in  the  following 
prescribed  subjects,  viz. :  Reading, 
writing,  spelling,  English  grammar, 
English  composition,  English  litera- 
ture, arithmetic,  algebra  through 
quadratic  equations,  plane  geometry, 
descriptive  geography,  and  the  ele- 
ments of  physical  geography,  espec- 
ially tho  geography  of  the  United 
States,  United  States  history,  the  out- 
lines of  general  history,  and  the  gen- 
eral principles  of  physiology  and 
hygiene. 

21.  The  Academic  Board  will  con- 
sider and  may  accept  in  lieu  of  the 
regular  mental  entrance  examination  : 

1st.  The  properly  attested  exami- 
nation papers  of  a  candidate  who  re- 
ceives his  appointment  through  a  pub- 
lic competitive  written  examination 
covering  the  range  of  subjects  pre- 
scribed in  paragraph  20. 

2d.  The  properly  attested  certificate 
of  graduation  from  a  public  high 
school  or  a  State  normal  school  in 
which  the  .course  of  study,  together 
with  the  requirements  for  entrance, 
shall  coyer  the  range  of  subjects  pre- 
scribed in  paragraph  20. 

3d.  A  properly  attested  certificate 
that  the  candidate  is  a  regular  student 
of  any  incorporated  college  or  uni- 
versity, without  condition  as  to  any 
subject  mentioned  in  paragraph  20. 

Application  for  consideration  of  pa- 
pers or  certificates  shall  be  made  by 
each  candidate  and  alternate  immedi- 
ately after  he  receives  his  appoint- 
ment. No  application  will  be  re- 
ceived after  March  15  preceding  the 
regular  examination  prescribed  in 
paragraph  19. 

Candidates  accepted  as  qualified 
mentally  under  the  provisions  of  this 
paragraph  shall  appear  for  physical  ex- 
amination at  the  time  and  place  desig- 
nated in  their  letters  of  appointment. 

Immediately  after  reporting  to  the 
Superintendent  for  admission,  and  be- 
fore receiving  his  warrant  of  appoint- 
ment, the  candidate  is  required  to  sign 
an  engagement  for  service  in  the  fol- 
lowing form,  and  in  the  presence  of  the 
Superintendent,  or  of  some  officer 
deputed  by  him  : 

t  "I,  -  — ,  of  the  State  (or  Ter- 

ritory)     of        — ,    aged    -        -    years 

months,  do  hereby  engage    (with 

the  consent  of  my  parent  or  guardian) 
that,  from  the  date  of  my  admission 
as  a  Cadet  of  the  United  States  Mili- 


tary Academy,  I  will  serve  in  the 
Array  of  the  United  States  for  eight 
years,  unless  sooner  discharged  by  com- 
petent authority. 

"In  the  presence  of  —  — ." 

The  candidate  is  then  required  to 
take  and  subscribe  an  oath  er  affirma- 
tion in  the  following  form : 

"I. —  — ,  do  solemnly  swear 

that  I  will  support  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States,  and  bear  true  alle- 
giance to  the  National  Government ; 
that  I  will  maintain  and  defend  the 
sovereignty  of  the  United  States,  para- 
mount to  any  and  all  allegiance,  sov- 
ereignty, or  fealty  I  may  owe  to  any 
•State  or  country  whatsoever;  and  that 
I  will  at  all  times  obey  the  legal  or- 
ders of  my  superior  officers,  and  the 
rules  and  articles  governing  the  Ar- 
mies of  the  United  States. 

"Sworn  and  subscribed,  at ,  this 

day  of  -  -  nineteen  hundred 

and before  me. 


Qualifications. — No  candidate  shall 
be  admitted  who  is  under  seventeen, 
or  over  twenty-two  years  of  age,  or 
who  is  deformed,  or  afflicted  with  any 
disease  or  infirmity  which  would  ren- 
der him  unfit  for  the  military  service, 
or  who  has,  at  the  time  of  presenting 
himself,  any  disorder  of  an  infectious 
or  immoral  character.  Accepted  can- 
didates if  between  seventeen  and 
eighteen  years  of  age  should  not  fall 
below  five  feet  three  inches  in  height 
and  one  hundred  pounds  in  weight ;  if 
between  eighteen  and  nineteen  years, 
five  feet  three  and  one-half  inches  in 
height  and  one  hundred  and  five 
pounds  in  weight ;  if  over  nineteen, 
five  feet  four  inches  in  height  and  one 
hundred  and  ten  pounds  in  weight. 
Candidates  must  be  unmarried. 

Each  candidate  must  on  reporting 
at  West  Point  present  a  certificate 
showing  successful  vaccination  with- 
in one  year ;  or  a  certificate  of  two 
vaccinations,  made  at  least  a  month 
apart,  within  three  months. 

A  circular  of  information  as  to  the 
physical  and  mental  examination  can 
be  had  by  addressing  the  Secretary  of 
War,  Washington,  D.  C. 


ACADEMIC    DUTIES. 

The  academic  duties  and  exercises 
commence  on  the  first  of  September 
and  continue  until  the  first  of  June. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


97 


Examinations  of  the  several  classes 
are  held  in  December  and  June,  and, 
at  the  former,  such  of  the  new  Cadets 
as  are  found  proficient  in  studies  and 
have  been  correct  in  conduct  are  given 
the  particular  standing  in  their  class 
to  which  their  merits  entitle  them.  Af- 
ter each  examination,  Cadets  found  de- 
ficient in  conduct  or  studies  are  dis- 
charged from  the  Academy,  unless  the 
Academic  Board  for  special  reasons  in 
each  case  should  otherwise  recommend. 
Similar  examinations  are  held  every 
December  and  June  during  the  four 
years  comprising  the  course  of  study. 

Military  Instruction. — From  the  ter- 
mination of  the  examination  in  June 
to  the  end  of  August  the  Cadets  live  in 
camp,  engaged  only  in  military  duties 
and  exercises  and  receiving  practical 
military  instruction. 

Except  in  extreme  cases,  Cadets  are 
allowed  but  one  leave  of  absence  dur- 
ing the  four  years'  course ;  as  a  rule 
the  leave  is  granted  at  the  end  of  the 
first  two  j'ears'  course  of  study. 


PAY   OF   CADETS. 

The  pay  of  a  Cadet  is  $500  per 
year  and  one  ration  per  day,  or  com- 
mutation therefor  at  thirty  cents  per 
day.  The  total  is  $609.50,  to  com- 
mence with  his  admijision  to  the 
Academy.  The  actual  and  necessary 
traveling  expenses  of  candidates  from 
their  homes  to  the  Military  Academy 
are  credited  to  their  accounts  after 
their  admission  as  Cadets.  There  is 
no  provision  for  paying  the  expenses  of 
candidates  who  fail  to  enter  and  they 
must  be  prepared  to  defray  all  their 
own  expenses. 

No  Cadet  is  permitted  to  receive 
money,  or  any  other  supplies,  from  his 
parents,  or  from  any  person  whomso- 
ever, without  the  sanction  of  the 
Superintendent.  A  most  rigid  observ- 
ance of  this  regulation  is  urged  upon 
all  parents  and  guardians,  as  its  vio- 
lations would  make  distinctions  be- 
tween Cadets  which  it  is  the  especial 
desire  to  avoid ;  the  pay  of  a  Cadet  is 
sufficient,  with  proper  economy,  for  his 
support. 

Each  Cadet  must  keep  himself  sup- 
plied with  the  following  mentioned  ar- 
ticles, viz. : 

Two  pairs  of  uniform  shoes:  six 
pairs  of  uniform  white  gloves ;  two 
sets  of  white  belts ;  *eight  white 
shirts ;  *four  night  shirts :  twelve 
white  linen  collars;  twelve  pairs  of 
white  linen  cuffs ;  *eight  pairs  of 


socks;  *eight  pairs  of  summer  draw- 
ers: *six  pairs  of  winter  drawers; 
*twelve  pocket  handkerchiefs ;  *twelve 
towels ;  two  clothes  bags,  made  of  tick- 
ing ;  *one  clothes  brush ;  *one  hair- 
brush ;  *one  tooth  brush  ;  *one  comb ; 
one  mattress  ;  one  pillow  ;  four  pillow- 
cases ;  eight  sheets,  two  blankets,  and 
one  quilted  bed  cover ;  one  chair ;  one 
tumbler ;  *one  trunk ;  one  account 
book ;  one  wash  basin. 

Candidates  are  authorized  to  bring 
with  them  the  articles  marked  *. 

Cadets  are  required  to  wear  the  pre- 
scribed uniform.  All  articles  of  their 
uniform  are  of  a  designated  pattern, 
and  are  sold  to  Cadets  at  West  Point 
at  regulated  prices. 


DEPOSIT    PRIOR    TO    ADMISSION. 

Immediately  after  being  admitted  to 
the  Institution,  Cadets  must  be  provid- 
ed with  an  outfit  of  uniform,  the  cost 
of  which  will  be  about  $100,  which 
sum  must  be  deposited  with  the  Treas- 
urer of  the  Academy  before  the  candi- 
date is  admitted.  It  is  best  for  a  can- 
didate to  take  with  him  no  more 
money  than  will  defray  his  traveling 
expenses,  and  for  the  parent  or  guar- 
dian to  send  to  "The  Treasurer  of  the 
U.  S.  Military  Academy"  the  re- 
quired deposit  of  $100.  This  amount 
is  sufficient  to  equip  a  new  Cadet  with 
uniform  and  to  supply  him  with  all 
articles  and  books. 


PROMOTION    AFTER    GRADUATION. 

The  attention  of  applicants  and  can- 
didates is  called  to  the  following  pro- 
visions of  an  Act  of  Congress  ap- 
proved May  17,  1886,  to  regulate  the 
promotion  of  graduates  of  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  : — 

"That  when  any  Cadet  of  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  has  gone 
through  all  its  classes  and  received  a 
regular  diploma  from  the  Academic- 
Staff,  he  may  be  promoted  and  com- 
missioned as  a  second  lieutenant  in  any 
arm  or  corps  of  the  army  in  which 
there  may  be  a  vacancy  and  the  duties 
of  which  he  may  have  been  judged 
competent  to  perform ;  and  in  case 
there  shall  not  at  the  time  be  a  va- 
cancy in  such  arm  or  corps,  he  may, 
at  the  discretion  of  the  President,  be 
promoted  and  commissioned  in  it  as  an 
additional  second  lieutenant,  with  the 
usual  pay  and  allowances  of  a  second 
lieutenant,  until  a  vacancy  shall  hap- 
pen." 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


THE  NEW  SPRINGFIELD  MAGAZINE  RIFLE. 


The  new  Springfield  magazine  rifle, 
which  has  undergone  its  preliminary 
tests  with  very  gratifying  results,  will 
take  the  place  of  the  Krag-Jorgensen, 
which  now,  for  several  years,  has  been 
doing  excellent  service  in  the  United. 
States  Army.  We  present  a  photo- 
graph of  the  gun,  which  will  be  known 
as  Springfield  Magazine  Rifle  Model 
1902,  and  also  a  line-drawing  which 
shows  several  sectional  views  of  the 
gun.  By  means  of  the  carefully  let- 
tered parts  a  good  idea  is  obtained  of 
the  details  of  the  gun.  The  weapon  is 
supplied  with  a  cleaning  rod,  which 
can  be  partially  pulled  from  its  place 
below  the  barrel,  and  held  with  a  catch 
so  as  to  form  a  bayonet.  The  great 
advantage  of  the  rod  bayonet  is  that 
it  lightens  the  weight  made  up  of  the 
gun,  bayonet  and  bayonet's  scabbard, 
and,  by  dispensing  with  the  latter  two 
as  separate  articles  to  carry,  permits 
the  soldier  to  carry  with  him  an  en- 
trenching tool  of  sufficient  size  and 
weight  to  be  serviceable.  While  there 
is  some  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the 
value  of  the  rod  bayonet,  which  is  con- 
sidered to  be  less  effective  than  the 
type  now  in  use,  it  still  is  of  value 
as  converting  the  musket  into  a  pike. 
Moreover,  in  view  of  the  growing  value 
of  the  entrenching  tool  and  the  ever- 
decreasing  opportunities  for  the  use  of 
the  bayonet,  the  substitution  of  an  en- 
trenching tool  for  the  latter  is  certain- 
ly in  line  with  the  recent  development 
of  field  operations.  The  piece  is  cen- 
trally fed  by  means  of  clips,  each  of 
which  holds  five  cartridges;  and  it  will 
be  noticed  that  the  bolt  has  two  lugs 
instead  of  one  as  in  the  old  gun.  In 
a  recent  report  of  the  Chief  of  Ord- 
nance the  trials  of  the  piece  are  spoken 
of  as  having  given  "very  satisfactory 
results."  The  chief  points  of  difference 
from  the  Krag-Jorgensen  are  this  use 
of  two  lugs  in  place  of  one  for  holding 
the  bolt  against  the  rearward  pressure 
of  the  powder — the  increased  strength 
so  obtained  being  sufficient  to  allow 
of  an  increase  of  velocity  with  the 
same  weight  of  bullet,  from  2,000  feet 
per  second  in  the  Krag-Jorgensen  to 
2,300  feet  per  second  in  the  new  piece, 
the  resulting  increase  in  muzzle  energy 
being  from  1,952  foot-pounds  to  2,582 
foot-pounds.  The  Krag-Jorgensen  is 
capable  of  penetrating  45.8  inches  of 
white  pine  at  a  distance  of  53  feet, 
whereas  the  new  weapon  penetrates 
54.7  inches  at  the  same  distance.  The 
striking  energy  at  1,000  yards  has  been 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


100 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


raised  from  390  foot-pounds  to  448. 
Other  data  regarding  the  new  piece  are 
as  follows:  The  caliber  is  ().:>();  the 
rifling  is  made  up  of  four  grooves  of  a 
depth  of  0.004  inch,  the  twist  being 
one  turn  in  10  inches.  The  bullet 
weighs  220  grains,  which  is  the  same 
as  that  of  the  Krag-Jorgensen,  but  the 
powder  charge  has  been  raised  from 
37.6  to  43.3  grains.  In  spite  of  the 
considerable  increase  in  its  power  the 
weapon  has  been  greatly  reduced  in 
weight ;  for  while  the  present  service 
magazine  rifle  weighs  10.64  pounds, 
and  the  Mauser  10.5  pounds,  and  the 
German  military  rifle  11.54  pounds,  the 
new  weapon  weighs  only  9.47  pounds. 
It  follows,  as  a  matter  of  course,  that, 
with  such  high  velocity  and  fairly 
heavy  bullet,  the  trajectory  is  corre- 


spondingly flat,  the  maximum  prdinate 
of  the  1,000  yard  trajectory  being  only 
20.67  feet  as  against  25.8  feet  for  the 
Krag-Jorgensen,  24.47  for  the  Mauser 
and  23.73  for  the  German  military 
rifle. 

In  addition  to  those  mentioned  above 
there  are  other  improvements,  such  as 
housing  of  the  magazine  in  the  stock 
directly  below  the  chamber,  instead  of 
having  it  project  at  the  side  of  the 
gun,  and  there  are  many  changes  of 
detail  which  both  improve  the  rifle 
and  cheapen  and  accelerate  its  pro- 
duction. 

In  closing  it  should  be  mentioned 
that  the  new  gun  is  considerably  short- 
er than  any  existing  rifle,  and  is  only 
slightly  longer  than  the  military  car- 
bine. 


NEW    SPRINGFIELD     MAGAZINE    RIFLE    COMPARED     WITH    THE 

KRAG-JORGENSEN,     THE     MAUSER     AND     THE 

GERMAN     MILITARY     RIFLE. 


Data. 

Springfield 
Magazine 
Rifle. 

Service 
Magazine 
Rifle. 

Mauser 
7  Mm. 
Rifle. 

German 
Military 
Rifle. 

Caliber  inch  .  . 

0.30 

0.30 

0.275 

0.311 

Rifling: 
Number  of  grooves  
Depth  of  grooves  inch  .  . 
Twist,  one  turn  in  inches  .  . 
Weight  of  bullet.  .  .                                   grains 

4 
0.004 
10 
220 

4 

0.004 
10 
220 

4 
0.0049 
8.66 
173 

4 
0.004 
9.45 
226.82 

Weight  of  charge  .                                    grains 

43  3 

37  6 

38  58 

41.2 

Weight  of  complete  cartridge  grains  .  . 
Initial  velocity,  feet  per  second  
Remaining  velocity  at  1,000  yards  
Muzzle  energy  foot-pounds  .  . 
Striking  energy  at  1,000  yards,  .foot-pounds.  . 
Penetration  in  white  pine  at  53  feet,  .inches.  . 
Weight  of  rifle,  including  bayonet  and  scab- 
bard.                 .  .                                   pounds 

451  .  15 
2300 
958 
2581  .  6 
447.9 
54.7 

9.47 

438.85 
2000 
901 
1952 
396.2 
45.8 

10.64 

385.63 
2200 
895 
1857.4 
307.4 
50.8 

10.5 

430.24 
2145 
906 
2135 
413 

11.54 

Weight  of  rifle,  including  bayonet,  scabbard, 
and  100  cartridges.  .  .  .                       pounds 

15.91 

16.91 

16.18 

17.68 

Capacity  of  magazine  rounds.  . 
Maximum  ordinate  of  1000  yd.  trajectory,  feet.  . 

5 
20.67 

5 

25.8 

5 

24.47 

5 
23.73 

THE   SIXTEEN-INCH  GUN. 


The  great  16-inch  126-ton  gun.  built 
for  the  United  States  at  the  Water- 
vliet  arsenal,  is  49*4  feet  long,  over  6 
feet  in  diameter  at  the  breech,  and  it 
has  an  extreme  range  of  over  twenty 
miles.  Its  projectile  weighs  2,370 
pounds,  and  costs  $865  to  fire  the  gun 
once.  The  map  on  page  102  will 
give  graphic  illustration  of  the  range 
of  this  gun.  If  fired  at  its  maximum 
elevation  from  the  battery  at  the  south 
end  of  New  York  in  a  northerly  direc- 
tion, its  projectile  would  pass  over  the 
city  of  New  York,  over  Grant's  Tomb, 
Spuyten  Duyvil,  Riverdale,  Mount  St. 


Vincent,  Ludlow,  Yonkers,  and  would 
land  near  Hastings-on-the-Hudson, 
nearly  twenty  miles  away,  as  shown  in 
our  map.  The  extreme  height  of  its 
trajectory  would  be  30,516  feet,  or 
nearly  six  miles.  This  means  that  if 
Pike's  Peak,  of  the  Western  Hemi- 
sphere, had  piled  on  top  of  it  Mont 
Blanc,  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere,  this 
gun  would  hurl  its  enormous  projectile 
so  high  above  them  both  as  to  still 
leave  space  below  its  curve  to  build 
Washington's  Monument  on  top  of 
Mont  Blanc,  as  shown.  The  model, 
page  101,  was  exhibited  at  St.  Loufe. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


101 


102 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


Hf/GMT  Of    f>*ffA80tA,S%Mlt£S 
/SMT-ffffM^fCr/ef  Z.31Q  POS. 
POWOCB  CHAH61  576   fOS. 


:'>«*.  ••"•*,». 

-  -  •   -2O.  978  MILES 

RANGE    OF    SIXTEEN-INCH    GUN. 

Height  of  parabola,  5f  miles.      Weight  of  projectile,  2,370  pounds. 
Powder  charge,  576  pounds. 


RADIUS   OF   ACTION   OF   SIXTEEN-INCH   GUN. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


103 


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104 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


FOREIGN   ARMIES. 

The  latest  particulars  relating  to  the  military  power  of  the  countries  of  Europe,  Abyssin 
China,  Egypt,  Japan,  Mexico,  etc.,  from  Hazell's  Annual  for  1904,  will  be  found  below. 


ABYSSINIA. 

The  organization  is  feudal  in  character,  and 
the  constitution  is  by  provinces,  each  governor 
or  Ras  having  a  standing  force  as  garrison 
and  at  call  in  case  of  war,  and  a  considerable 
number  of  retainers  not  embodied.  The  garri- 
son forces  united  constitute  the  new  army  of 
Menelik,  and  are  estimated  at  70,000  men. 
The  central  control  is  weak,  and  there  are  no 
organized  divisions  into  the  three  arms,  as  in 
Europe;  but  the  forces  are  readily  grouped,  the 
mounted  men  forming  an  irregular  cavalry, 
and  have  great  mobility.  Practically  every 
man  has  a  sword  and  a  rifle,  but  the  firearms 
are  extraordinarily  varied,  and  the  mounted 
troops  also  carry  a  javelin  or  spear.  They  do 
not  exceed  5,000  altogether.  The  guns  are 
mostly  adapted  for  mountain  work,  there  being 
about  50  modern  and  30  old  ones.  The  un- 
embodied  retainers,  who  may  be  likened  to  a 
militia,  number  about  140,000  men. 

ARGENTINA. 

The  army  is  sanctioned  by  an  annual  vote, 
as  in  Great  Britain.  The  standing  force  and 
reserve  consist  of  120,000  men  (18  battalions 
of  Infantry,  12  regiments  of  cavalry,  8  of 
artillery,  and  4  battalions  of  engineers).  Out- 
side these  are  the  National  and  Territorial 
Guard,  which  have  little  training.  Compul- 
sory military  service  (25  years  in  all)  \iras 
adopted  in  1901,  and  it  is  believed  that  500,000 
men  could  be  mobilized  in  case  of  war. 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

The  active  army  of  the  Dual  Monarchy  is  an 
organization  common  to  both  kingdoms,  and 
has  its  Ersatz,  or  supplementary  Reserve, 
with  local  forces  for  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina 
attached.  There  are  fifteen  army  corps,  and 
certain  troops  in  the  military  districts  of  Zara 
in  Dalmatia.  In  addition  are  the  Austrian 
Landwehr  and  Landsturm  and  the  Hungarian 
(or  Transleithan)  Landwehr  and  Landsturm, 
known  as  the  Honved. 

During  1903  the  army  question  rose  to  great 
prominence  between  the  national  parties  in 
Austria  and  Hungary,  and  certain  concessions 
were  made  to  the  latter  in  regard  to  the 
language  of  command,  regimental  colors,  and 
other  matters,  but  these  do  not  affect  the 
unity  of  the  army. 

The  fifteen  army  corps  comprise  5  cavalry 
divisions  and  31  infantry  divisions  of  the  act- 
ive army,  and  on  mobilization  a  Landwehr 
division  would  be  attached  to  each.  There  are 
466  battalions  of  infantry  (102  regiments  of 
the  line,  4  of  Tyrolese  rifles  and  4  Bosnian,  and 
26  battalions  regular  rifles.  The  cavalry  on  a 
peace  footing  comprises  252  squadrons  (15 
regiments  of  Dragoons,  11  of  Uhlans,  and  16 
of  Hussars),  and  the  artillery  251  batteries, 


exclusive  of  18  battalions  of  fortress  artillery 
and  15  of  pioneers.  The  field  artillery  is 
formed  in  14  brigades,  and  a  group  of  3 
mountain  batteries  in  the  .Tyrol.  On  a  peace 
footing  there  are  224  field  batteries,  16  horse 
batteries,  11  mountain  batteries,  56  ammu- 
nition columns  (in  skeleton),  and  56  depots. 
The  war  strength  would  give  a  total  of  328 
batteries  (exclusive  of  fortress  units),  with  a 
total  of  2,464  guns.  The  Austrian  and  Hun- 
garian cavalry  have  won  the  admiration  of 
European  soldiers,  and  the  Empire  unquestion- 
ably possesses  a  thoroughly  practical  mounted 
arm  fit  for  service  at  a  moment's  notice. 

The  following  table  shows  the  total  strength 
of  the  forces  in  1903;  but  it  is  believed  that  by 
embodying  all  classes  of  the  Landsturm  the 
dual  monarchy  could  put  3,000,000  men  in  the 
field. 


Forces. 

Peace. 

War. 

Field  Army 

266,000 

687  000 

Landwehr  and  Honved  . 
Reserve  troops 

51,000 
6  000 

237,000 
192  000 

Fortress  troops  
Transport  Staff,  etc  ... 

7,000 
16,000 

31,000 
393  000 

346,000 

1,540,000 

The  Honved  (national  Hungarian  army)  is 
subject  in  war  time  only  to  the  commander- 
in-chief,  and  in  peace  time  only  to  the  Royal 
Hungarian  jurisdiction. 

BELGIUM. 

The  Belgian  army  was  recently  reorganized 
as  the  outcome  of  a  popular  agitation,  leading 
to  the  appointment  of  a  mixed  commission 
which  prepared  a  scheme.  The  main  feature 
was  the  adoption  of  volunteer  enlistment,  with 
the  purpose  of  bringing  about  a  progressive 
decrease  in  the  annular  levy  by  subscription. 
Special  advantages  were  offered,  but  the  re- 
sult has  been  very  disappointing. 

The  establishment  on  Oct.  1st,  1903,  when 
the  recruits  were  embodied,  was  42,000  men, 
but  there  was  a  deficiency  of  7,000,  owing  to 
substitutes  not  having  been  found  for  men  who 
had  been  absolved  from  service.  The  regi- 
ments were  in  some  places  so  weak  that  train- 
ing  was  impossible.  The  nominal  liability 
is  eight  years  with  the  colors  and  five  in  the 
reserve,  and  the  recruit  contingent  is  13,300, 
the  volunteers  being  in  addition. 

The  composition  is  as  follows:  Cavalry — 
2  regiments  of  chasseurs,  2  of  guides,  and  4 
of  lancers.  Each  regiment  consists  of  4 
squadrons  active  and  1  reserve.  To  the  above 
have  to  be  added  the  gendarmerie  (over  1,700 


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S31V.LSa3J.INn 


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SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


men).  Artillery — 4  field  and  4  fortress 
regiments  (in  all  204  guns).  Engineers — 1 
regiment  of  3  battalions,  a  reserve  battalion, 
and  5  special  technical  companies.  Infantry — 
14  regiments  of  the  line,  of  4  battalions  of  4 
companies  each,  3  active  and  1  reserve  bat- 
talion; 1  regiment  of  grenadiers,  similarly 
organized;  1  regiment  of  carbineers  of  6  bat- 
talions (4  active  and  2  reserve),  and  3  regi- 
ments of  chasseurs-a-pied. 

The  Civic  or  National  Guard  is  xmder  the 
Minister  of  the  Interior  in  peace  time,  and 
numbers  approximately  45,000  men  reckoned 
as  "active,"  and  100,000  "non-active."  The 
effect  of  the  new  law  cannot  yet  be  estimated 
fully. 

BRAZIL. 

Gradual  progress  is  being  made  in  the  re- 
organization of  the  army,  but  much  remains 
yet  to  be  done.  The  strength  and  organiza- 
tion, given  in  the  official  Revista  Militar,  is  as 
follows:  staff,  28;  engineer  corps,  66;  general 
staff  corps,  124;  medical  staff,  163;  artillery 
staff,  62;  6  regiments  of  artillery,  2,562;  6 
battalions  of  artillery,  2,100;  2  battalions  of 
engineers,  862;  14  cavalry  regiments,  6,020; 
1  transport  corps,  292;  40  infantry  battalions, 
17,840;  total,  30,1 19.  The  troops  are  divided 
into  seven  military  districts,  the  most  import- 
ant being  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  (11,226  men). 

BULGARIA. 

Military  service  is  popular,  and  the  peasantry 
have  a  great  deal  of  excellent  military  spirit. 
The  officer  is  also  efficient,  and  the  Govern- 
ment has  taken  very  great  care  in  selection 
and  training,  the  Russian  army  being  the 
pattern. 

The  forces  are  divided  into  three  categories: 
the  regular  army,  the  reserve  and  the  militia, 
and  all  Bulgarians  are  liable  for  personal 
service,  with  few  exceptions,  from  the  age  of 
20  to  45,  substitution  not  being  permitted. 
The  country  is  divided  into  six  divisional 
districts,  and  the  annual  contingent  is  about 
18,000  men. 

The  peace  strength  is:  infantry,  1,300  officers 
and  28,550  men;  cavalry,  200  officers  and  3,850 
men;  field  artillery,  280  officers  and  5,020  men ; 
mountain  artillery,  45  officers  and  900  men; 
fortress  artillery,  65  officers  and  950  men; 
engineers,  18  officers  and  1,900  men;  transport, 
20  officers  and  160  men:  total,  1900  officers  and 
41,330  men. 

The  total  war  strength  is  3,810  officers,  202,- 
500  men,  and  29,200  horses.  In  addition 
Bulgaria  can  count  upon  at  least  20,000  Komi- 
tajis,  a  force  of  semi-trained  and  experienced 
guerillas.  The  infantry  arm  is  the  8  mm. 
Mannlicher  rifle. 

CHILE. 

The  army  does  not  exceed  6,000  men,  in 
accordance  with  the  law  of  Feb.  2d,  1892, 
and  the  formations  are:  7  regiments  of  in- 


fantry, 4  of  cavalry,  3  of  artillery,  and  a  corps 
of  engineers.  The  National  Guard  numbers 
over  50,000  men. 

CHINA. 

The  Chinese  army  came  under  close  ob- 
servation during  the  Boxer  Rebellion,  and, 
although  in  many  ways  it  gave  proof  of  want 
of  organization,  it  was  recognized  that  in  ar- 
mament, training,  and  the  things  that  go  to 
make  up  the  efficiency  of  the  army,  remark- 
able progress  had  been  made.  General  Frey 
who  commanded  the  French  forces  in  China, 
says  it  is  a  mistake  to  hold  that  the  Chinese 
Government  has  any  repugnance  to  the  crea- 
tion of  military  forces.  The  Emperor  is  said 
to  have  issued  an  order  extolling  military 
discipline  and  disavowing  any  purpose  of  dis- 
armament, and  training  is  going  on  under 
Japanese  officers.  The  Black  Flags  are  now 
a  force  of  real  value. 

It  was  never  easy  to  ascertain  facts  concern- 
ing the  Chinese  forces.  They  may  be  divided 
into  the  old  armies,  comprising  the  Imperial 
or  Banner  troops;  the  new  armies,  composed 
of  troops  of  comparatively  recent  formation 
(since  the  war  with  Japan) ;  and  the  Mongolian 
and  Thibetan  Militias,  which  in  peace  time 
only  exist  on  paper. 

The  elite  of  the  old  armies  is  composed  of 
the  Shen-Che-Ying  or  Black  Flag  troops,  and 
the  Pa-Ki  or  Eight-Banner  men.  The  former 
are  said  to  number  50,000  men  with  the  colors. 
Next  in  importance  to  the  Black  Flags  come  the 
Banner  men  of  the  army  of  Manchuria,  com- 
posed of  soldier-like  troops,  but  some  of  them 
still  armed  with  bows  and  arrows,  or  with  the 
old  jingal.  The  Banner  men  have  been 
estimated  at  something  like  300,000.  Service 
with  the  Manchus  is  hereditary,  and  the  Banner 
men  are  still  the  chief  support  of  the  Ta-tsing 
dynasty.  The  army  of  Manchuria  must  be 
profoundly  affected  by  the  Russian  occupa- 
tion of  the  country.  The  Luh-Ying  or  Green 
Flags,  with  a  paper  strength  of  500,000  men, 
scattered  through  the  empire,  possess  little 
military  value,  and  as  now  organized  can  be 
of  no  real  service. 

The  new  armies  consist  of  enrolled  or  con- 
script armies  (irregulars),  strength  about 
100,000  men,  raised  at  the  initiative  of  the 
viceroys  and  governors  of  provinces  in  the 
event  of  revolution  or  of  war  with  Europeans ; 
and  the  active  armies,  dressed  like  Europeans, 
and  formed  of  the  best  men  drawn  from  the 
Green  Flag  Army — strength  210,000  men. 
These  troops  occupy  important  strategic 
points,  and  are  under  the  orders  of  the  pro- 
vincial authorities.  The  best  of  them  are  in 
the  province  of  Chi- Li,  where  the  army  was 
reorganized  by  Yun-Hu  and  Lu-Chang. 

Before  the  Boxer  troubles,  Major  A.  E.  J. 
Marshall,  of  the  British  Army,  one  of  the  best 
authorities,  summed  up  the  number  and  dis- 
position of  the  whole  available  force  of  China 
thus: 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


107 


FIGHTING    TROOPS. 

Manchurian  Field  Force 50,000 

Manchurian  Irregulars 50,000 

Fighting  Braves 125,000 

Chien-Chun,  or  Disciplined  Troops.  .  .     10,000 

205,000 


RESERVES    UNDER    ARMS. 

Peking  Field  Force. '. .  .     13,000 

Banner  Troops  in  Peking 75,000 

Banner  Troops  in  Provinces 95,000 

Luh-Ying,  or  Green  Flags 506,000 

689,000 


DENMARK. 

Service  is  obligatory  on  all  able-bodied  men 
who  have  reached  the  age  of  22.  Terms  of 
service,  eight  years  with  the  colors  and  eight 
in  the  extra  reserve.  A  reorganization  of  the 
Danish  army  was  introduced  in  1894,  and  the 
late  War  Minister,  General  Bahnson,  calculated 
that  the  contingent  brought  under  training 
7,947  men  yearly.  The  service  in  the  various 
branches  of  the  army  is  16  yeafs;  but,  reckon- 
ing 14  years  only,  and  allowing  for  waste,  the 
General  concludes  that  by  the  year  1910  Den- 
mark will  be  able  to  mobilize  83,000  men,  of 
whom  58,500  will  be  infantry,  5,000  cavalry, 
6,800  field  artillery,  and  8,600  fortress  artillery. 
The  really  effective  force  would  be  about  70,- 
000.  At  present  the  peace  strength  (31  bat- 
talions, 16  squadrons,  and  12  field  batteries, 
with  fortress  artillery  and  engineers)  is  13,750, 
increased  on  mobilization  to  50,000. 

EGYPT. 

The  Egyptian  army,  under  strong  leader- 
ship and  the  command  of  British  officers,  has 
shown  excellent  quality.  All  the  inhabitants 
are  liable  for  service — six  years  in  the  army, 
five  in  the  police,  and  four  in  the  reserve,  and 
there  are  always  about  150,000  young  men  on 
the  rolls  for  conscription;  but  the  burden  is 
very  light,  and  the  men  are  all  selected.  The 
cavalry  are  recruited  from  the  fellaheen  of 
the  Delta.  The  infantry  battalions  are  drawn 
mostly  from  the  fellaheen,  but  several  are 
Soudanese  blacks.  The  first  are  filled  by 
conscription,  and  have  about  800  men  each, 
mostly  fellaheen,  in  6  companies.  The  in- 
terior economy  and  drill  of  the  recruits  is  ex- 
cellent, and  the  musketry  good.  The  arm  is 
the  Martini-Henry.  In  the  Soudanese  bat- 
talions the  service  is  voluntary.  This  force 
was  raised  largely  from  the  Khalifa's  black 
riflemen,  but  men  from  Lower  Egypt  have  been 
enlisted. 

The  artillery  is  the  force  that  shows  most 
markedly  the  impress  of  the  European  train- 
ing. The  horse  battery  has  Syrian  horses  and 
light  Krupp  guns.  The  field  batteries  have 
Krupp  mountain  guns  carried  by  mules,  with 
a  second  line  of  camels.  There  is  also  a  bat- 
talion of  garrison  artillery,  organized  as  in  our 


The  Egyptian  Army  has  been  reduced  re- 
cently, owing  to  the  smaller  demand  for  its 
services,  and  some  of  the  Soudanese  have  been 
disbanded.  About  8,000  men  have  left  the 
colors.  The  command  is  vested  in  Major- 
Gen.  Sir  Reginald  Wingate,  with  the  title  of 
Sirdar. 

The  British  forces  in  Egypt  are  4  regiments 
of  infantry,  1  of  cavalry,  2  field  batteries,  and 
detachments  of  fortress  artillery  and  engineers, 
with  a  strength  of  5,482  in  1903-4. 


The  French  army  is  administered  by  the 
War  Departments,  or  Ministry  of  War,  with 
General  Andre  at  its  head,  assisted  by  a  mili- 
tary cabinet  and  the  chiefs  of  various  bureaux. 
The  chief  of  the  general  staff  of  the  army  is 
responsible  to  the  Minister,  and  controls  the 
directorates  of  infantry,  cavalry,  engineers, 
artillery,  finance,  etc. 

In  1904  the  effectives  with  the  colors  are 
estimated  as  follows:  29,000  officers,  520,831 
men,  and  142,474  horses,  being  a  diminution  of 
76  officers  and  6,228  men  as  compared  with 
1903.  The  establishment  will  be  515,600 
men.  The  smaller  number  embodied  results 
from  the  contingent  being  less  than  in  previous 
years. 

The  Active  Army  is  constituted  as  follows: 
652  battalions  of  infantry,  30  battalions  of 
chasseurs,  10  foreign,  20  zouaves,  24  Algerian 
tirailleurs,  1  Saharan  tirailleurs,  and  5 
African  light  infantry:  total,  742  battalions, 
13,370  officers,  24,432  non-commissioned 
officers,  342,068  men:  total,  379,890.  The 
cavalry  form  31  regiments  of  dragoons,  21  of 
chasseurs,  14  of  hussars,  13  of  cuirassiers, 

6  of  chasseurs  d'Afrique  (all  of  5  squadrons), 
and  4  of  Spahis,  variously  constituted,  num- 
bering  in   all   448   squadrons,    3,891    officers, 
4,552  non-commissioned  officers,  64,756  men: 
total,  73,199,  and  61,028  horses.     The  organi- 
zation of  the  artillery  is  as  follows:  field  bat- 
teries, 434;  horse  batteries,  52;  mountain  bat- 
teries,   22;  foot    (or  fortress)    batteries,    112: 
in   all,    620;  officers   and   men,   77,213.     The 
engineers  (including  railway  troops)  number 

7  regiments,  20  battalions  and  3  railway  com- 
panies) with  telegraphists,  ballooning  troops, 
etc.,  officers  and  men,  13,426;  and  the  military 
train  has  20  squadrons  (comprising  72  com- 
panies), officers  and  men,  8,167. 

In  relation  to  the  organization  given  above, 
it  must  be  noted  that  owing  to  the  class  em- 
bodied in  November,  1903,  consisting  only  of 
196,000  men,  as  compared  with  238,000  en- 
rolled in  the  previous  year,  it  has  been  decided 
to  abolish  68  companies  of  the  fourth  battal- 
ions of  regiments  which  had  not  been  com- 
pletely formed.  These  fourth  battalions 
were  raised  in  1897,  and  could  only  be  proper- 
ly organized  in  93  out  of  145  subdivisional 
regiments.  In  consequence  of  the  latest 
abolition  there  remain  only  65  fourth  battal- 


108 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


ions,  not  including  the  18  belonging  to  dis- 
trict regiments,  which  are  all  up  to  strength. 

The  forces  are  organized  in  20  army  corps, 
exclusive  of  the  Paris  garrison;  their 
headquarters  being  at  Lille,  Amiens,  Rouen, 
Le  Mans,  Orleans,  Chalons-sur-Marne,  Besan- 
con,  Bourges,  Tours,  Rennes,  Nantes,  Limoges 
Clermont-Ferrand,  Lyons,  Marseilles,  Mont- 
pelier,  Toulouse,  Bordeaux,  Algiers,  Nancy. 

A  proposal  is  before  the  French  parliament 
for  reducing  the  period  of  service  with  the 
colors  to  two  years,  and  it  is  the  general  opin- 
ion that  the  measure  will  become  law.  It  is 
proposed  to  embody  a  considerable  number  of 
re-enlisted  men  in  order  to  make  good  .the 
deficiency  that  will  arise. 

Under  the  existing  rules  every  Frenchman 
should  serve  three  years  in  the  active  army, 
ten  years  in  the  reserve  of  the  active  army,  six 
years  in  the  territorial  army  and  six  years  in 
the  reserve  of  the  territorial  army.  For 
administration,  training  and  mobilization,  the 
units  of  the  territorial  army,  as  well  as  the 
active  reserve,  are  attached  to  the  correspond- 
ing units  of  the  active  army.  The  reserve 
troops  are:  145  infantry  regiments,  30 
chasseur  battalions,  38  cavalry  regiments 
formed  with  the  line  and  light  cavalry  regi- 
ments of  the  corps  cavalry  brigades,  41  other 
squadrons  formed  with  the  divisional  cavalry 
regiments,  and  216  batteries  of  field  artillery. 
12  to  each  artillery  brigade.  The  territorial 
forces  are  145  battalions  of  infantry,  7  of  rifles, 
10  of  zouaves,  40  battery  groups  of  field 
artillery  and  16  of  foot  artillery,  21  battalions 
of  engineers,  and  19  squadrons  of  train.  There 
are  special  dispositions  in  regard  to  some  army 
corps,  and  a  large  number  of  battalions  and 
independent  companies  are  employed  in  the 
customs  and  forest  service.  In  regard  to  the 
localization  of  the  troops,  it  should  be  noted 
that  a  large  force  is  quartered  on  the  German 
frontier,  where  the  6th  corps  has  been  divided 
into  two,  and  a  new  corps  thus  created.  The 
reserve  of  the  active  army  includes  about 
1,320,000  men,  and  the  Territorial  Army  and 
its  reserve  about  2,270,000. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  the  French  army, 
with  its  various  reserve  and  territorial  forces, 
includes  3,500,000  trained  men  on  a  war  foot- 
ing, and  that  4,000,000  untrained  men  might 
be  embodied. 

The  French  colonial  army  has  been  brought 
under  the  authority  of  the  Ministry  of  War, 
and  comprises  6  brigades  of  infantry,  12  bat- 
talions of  field  artillery,  6  mountain  batteries, 
and  12  garrison  batteries. 

In  Madagascar  and  Indo-China  are  10  bat- 
talions of  French  and  18  battalions  of  native 
infantry,  and  4  field,  6  mountain,  and  5  garri- 
son batteries;  in  West  Africa,  2  French  and  8 
native  battalions,  2  mountain  and  3  garrison 
batteries;  in  Martinique,  7  French  and  10 
native  battalions,  and  2  field,  3  mountain  and 
3  garrison  batteries;  and  in  various  other  sta- 


tions some  6  French  and  3  native  battalions, 
with  1  mountain  and  5  garrison  batteries. 
For  some  time  past  France  has  been  strength- 
ening her  military  forces  in  French  Indo- 
China,  where  there  are  now  at  disposal  3 
brigades  of  troops  in  actual  existence,  with  a 
reserve  brigade.  The  approximate  strength 
of  the  native  forces  in  the  colony  is  as  follows: 

French  infantry,  3  regiments.  .  .  .  3,000  men 
Foreign  Legion,  4  battalions  ....  3,000    " 
Native  infantry,  6  regiments  ....  18,000    " 
"Milice    indigene"    (native    con- 
stabulary)    10,000    " 


Total  of  infantry 34,000    " 

GERMANY. 

The  administration  and  command  of  the 
army  is  exercised  through  the  great  general 
staff,  a  most  powerful  and  efficient  organiza- 
tion, by  which  the  work  of  t^ie  army  is  pre- 
pared for  in  peace  and  molded  in  war.  It  is 
at  once  a  close  and  yet  flexible  organization, 
which  permeates  the  whole  structure  of  the 
army,  consisting  for  Prussia  of  about  200  offi- 
cers. Nearly  100  of  these  are  detached  on 
service  with  the  staffs  of  corps  or  divisions, 
while  the  remainder  constitute  the  great  gen- 
eral staff  in  Berlin.  There  is  constant  inter- 
change between  regimental  work  and  staff 
work,  and  between  the  latter  locally  and  with 
the  headquarters  staff  in  Berlin.  Scarcely 
any  regimental  officer  rises  high  in  his  corps 
without  having  been  called  to  staff  service; 
so  that  the  ideas  of  the  staff  are  based  upon 
practical  experience,  and  react  upon  the  whole 
army,  to  which  they  come  as  a  kind  of  tradition 
of  duty  and  policy,  sharpening  and  directing 
the  life  and  work  of  the  army.  Recently  the 
inspection  of  the  cavalry  and  artillery  has 
been  improved. 

The  forces  are  organized  in  22  army  corps, 
and  comprise  625  battalions  of  infantry,  482 
squadrons  of  cavalry,  754  batteries  of  artil- 
lery, 38  battalions  of  foot  artillery,  25  bat- 
talions of  pioneers,  11  battalions  of  Army 
Service  troops,  and  23  battalions  of  train, 
with  a  peace  strength  of  495,500  rank  and  file, 
exclusive  of  one-year  volunteers.  The  estab- 
lishment is  given  as  620,918.  The  contingent 
annually  embodied  approaches  275,000  men. 
The  service  in  the  standing  army  is  of  six 
years,  two  of  these  with  the  colors  in  the  in- 
fantry and  three  in  the  cavalry  and  horse  ar- 
tillery, and  the  rest  in  the  reserve.  After 
quitting  the  reserve  of  the  Active  Army  the 
soldier  passes  five  years  in  the  Landwehr  and 
seven  in  its  reserve.  The  recruiting  service  of 
the  Guard,  conisting  of  the  tallest  and  finest- 
looking  men,  is  carried  out  by  a  committee, 
consisting  of  officers  specially  nominated  for 
the  purpose.  Under  the  system  of  recruiting 
there  are  always  more  men  than  are  necessary 
to  keep  up  the  army  strength,  the  surplus 
constituting  the  Ersatz  Reserve. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


109 


The  strength  upon  mobilization  is  estimated 
at  2,310,000  infantry,  151,000  cavalry,  329,000 
artillery,  78,000  technical  troops,  168,000  oth- 
er formations,  making  a  total  of  3,036,000 
trained  men. 

GREAT    BRITAIN. 

Under  the  new  system,  the  British  Army 
has  been  organized  in  Army  Corps.  It  was 
designed  to  form  six  of  these,  but  up  to  the 
present  time  only  four  have  been  constituted. 

The  organization  of  a  British  Army  Corps  is 
as  follows: — Infantry,  25  battalions;  artillery, 
150  guns — viz.,  18  batteries  of  field  artillery, 
two  batteries  horse  artillery,  three  batteries  of 
howitzers,  and  three  batteries  of  4.7-in.  guns. 
These  last  batteries  have  only  four  guns  each, 
all  the  others  six.  The  cavalry  of  an  Army 
Corps  includes  two  regiments,  one  immediate- 
ly attached  to  the  Divisions,  the  other  to  the 
Special  Corps  troops,  and,  in  addition,  for 
purposes  of  peace  organization,  there  is  a 
cavalry  brigade  of  three  regiments  in  each 
Army  Corps  command. 

The  local  organization  of  the  Army  Corps 
districts  does  not  supersede  that  of  the  older 
regimental  districts,  of  which  there  are  67, 
each  under  the  command  of  a  colonel.  The 
regimental  district  is  the  recruiting  ground  of 
a  territorial  regiment,  with  which  are  linked, 
as  junior  battalions,  the  militia  and  volunteer 
corps  within  the  area;  and  the  reserve  men  are 
pensioners  of  their  respective  territorial  regi- 
ments. The  Royal  Artillery,  through  9  re- 
cruiting areas,  and  the  Royal  Engineers, 
through  the  commanding  Royal  Engineer  in 
each  district,  have  also  a  territorial  organiza- 
tion ;  but  this  is  not  the  case  with  the  Cavalry, 
which  has  special  recruiters  or  staff  officers 
located  in  various  districts.  In  theory,  one 
battalion  of  each  Infantry  regiment  is  at 
home,  as  a  feeder  for  the  other  abroad;  but 
in  practice  this  system  has  never  been  uni- 
formly maintained,  and  was  completely  dis- 
located by  the  war  in  South  Africa.  The 
Army  Service  and  several  departmental  corps 
are  part  of  the  organization. 

The  following  is  the  organization  of  the 
Regular  Army  according  to  the  units  of  each 
arm  of  the  service.  The  strength  is  given 
below : 

Household  Cavalry  ....  Regiments         3 
Cavalry  of  the  Line.  ...        do  28 

Horse  Artillery Batteries         30 

Field  Artillery do  158 

Mountain  Artillery  ....        do  11 

Garrison  Artillery Companies    111 

Royal  Engineers do  100} 

Foot  Guards Battalions       10 

Infantry  of  the  Line. ...        do  161 

Army  Service  Corps.  .  . .  Companies      72 

R.  A.  Medical  Corps  ...        do  56 

Army  Ordnance  Corps  .        do  24 

In  addition  to  these  are  Colonial  Corps  and 

Indian  Infantry  in  Egypt,  Barbados,  Jamaica, 

Bermuda,    Malta,    West    Africa,     Mauritius, 

Ceylon,  China,  and  Hong  Kong,  the  Straits 

Settlements,  etc. 


The  Army  Reserve  is  a  vital  element  in  the 
Army  organization,  the  Reserve  men  being 
liable  by  the  terms  of  their  agreement  to  gen- 
eral service  with  the  arms  in  which  they  were 
enrolled  with  the  colors.  The  Reserve  was 
profoundly  affected  by  the  war  in  South  Africa, 
and  the  general  mobilization  of  the  force 
showed  that  the  force  could  be  relied  upon. 
Reservists,  who  have  served  their  period  with 
the  colors,  and  who  are  of  the  best  soldiering 
age,  and  available  for  service  if  required,  are  an 
excellent  set  of  men.  The  reserve  men  are 
pensioners  of  the  respective  territorial  regi- 
ments, and  look  to  the  officer  commanding  the 
district  as  their  commanding  officer. 

The  establishment  as  at  present  authorized 
is  80,000.  Subsequently  to  the  war  men  have 
been  drafted  in  large  numbers  to  the  Reserve, 
and  the  numbers  increased  by  18,288  between 
Jan.  1st  and  April  1st,  1903.  The  Reserve 
comprises  Sections  A,  B,  C  and  D,  the  B  sec- 
tion being  the  most  important,  comprising 
all  who  have  enlisted  for  short  service  and  have 
discharged  their  active  duties.  The  following 
was  the  strength  of  the  several  sections  on 
Jan.  1st,  1903:  A,  328;  B,  28,759;  C,  697;  D, 
3081:  total,  32,865. 

A  new  scheme  for  the  enlistment  of  railway 
employe's  into  the  Reserve,  through  the  agency 
of  the  Engineer  and  Railway  Volunteer  Staff 
Corps,  and  under  the  direct  supervision  of  the 
commandant  of  that  corps,  has  borne  fruit, 
and  bids  fair  to  be  a  success. 

A  further  reserve  force  connected  with  each 
regimental  district  is  the  Militia  Reserve,  to  be 
embodied  with  the  Militia  upon  mobilization. 


During  the  Boer  War  the  Militia,  though  it 
was  kept  in  the  background,  accomplished 
what  no  other  branch  of  the  army  could  do. 
Without  external  aid  it  provided  a  large  num- 
ber of  organized  and  completed  battalions  for 
home,  foreign,  and  active  service,  thus  main- 
taining its  old  traditions,  and  demonstrating 
its  high  value  among  the  military  forces  of  the 
Crown.  The  service  upon  the  lines  of  com- 
munication was  most  arduous.  The  Militia 
is  a  force  of  very  old  standing,  the  purpose  of 
which  is  to  provide  a  body  of  trained  men, 
available  in  case  of  need  or  of  imminent  nation- 
al danger,  to  supplement,  support,  or  relieve 
the  regular  army  at  home  and  on  the  Medi- 
terranean stations.  There  are  in  all  124  In- 
fantry battalions  attached  to  the  Line  regi- 
ments, 32  corps  of  Garrison  Artillery,  3  Field 
Batteries,  2  fortress  corps  of  Engineers,  10 
divisions  of  Submarine  Miners,  and  2  com- 
panies of  the  Medical  Staff  Corps.  The  Malta 
regiment,  some  colonial  corps,  and  8  Channel 
Island  regiments  are  in  addition.  It  has  often 
acted  as  a  feeder  to  the  Regular  Army,  and, 
under  the  territorial  system,  this  has  come  to 
be  regarded  as  its  chief  function.  A  very  large 
number  of  militia  recruits  are  every  year 
transferred  to  the  line — as  many,  indeed,  as 


no 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN   REFERENCE    BOOK. 


one-third  of  the  whole  number  enlisted — and 
the  force  is  a  channel  through  which  many 
commissions  are  annually  gained  in  the  regu- 
lar Army.  This  system  is  to  be  continued. 
Great  dissatisfaction  was  felt  owing  to  the  re- 
tention of  Militia  battalions  for  so  long  a  period 
in  South  Africa,  whereby  a  real  hardship  was 
inflicted  upon  officers  and  men,  and  the  feeling 
is  general  in  the  force  that  it  is  neglected. 

The  Militia  recruit  is  enlisted  for  six  years, 
and  may  re-engage  if  under  45  years  of  age 
for  a  further  period  of  four  years.  Recruits 
are  liable,  at  any  time  after  enlistment,  to  be 
assembled  for  preliminary  drill  for  such  period, 
not  exceeding  six  months,  as  may  be  directed, 
from  time  to  time  by  the  Secretary  of  State 
for  War.  Brigades  and  "regiments  are  called 
out  annually  for  27  days'  training,  which  may 
be  extended  to  56  days  if  deemed  expedient. 

The  Lord-Lieutenant  of  a  county  recom- 
mends to  the  consideration  of  the  Secretary  of 
State  for  War,  for  submission  to  His  Majesty, 
the  names  of  candidates  for  first  appointment 
to  Commissions,  commanding  officers  being 
directed  to  assist  him  in  the  selection  if  called 
upon.  For  subaltern  officers  in  the  Militia, 
candidates  must  be  seventeen  years  of  age  or 
upwards.  The  appointment  of  officers  as 
captains  and  field  officers  is  recommended  by 
the  Militia  commanding  officer  direct. 

The  New  Militia  Reserve,  to  be  formed  as  a 
"Reserve  Division  of  the  Militia,"  was  author- 
ized by  a  Royal  Warrant  (Feb.  4th,  1903), 
under  the  Militia  and  Yeomanry  act,  1892,  and 
has  an  establishment  of  50,000.  It  is  intend- 
ed to  raise  the  force  in  round  numbers  from 
100,000  to  150,000,  and,  in  order  to  stimulate 
recruiting,  men  joining  from  the  garrison 
Regiment  receive  $30  annually,  and  other  men 
$22.50,  with  quarters  and  rations  during  train- 
ing. The  arrangements  for  musketry  training 
are  to  be  increased.  Men  of  the  Reserve  Divi- 
sion are  liable  to  serve  with  the  Militia  when- 
ever that  force  is  embodied  by  proclamation. 

The  services  of  the  Imperial  Yeomanry  in 
South  Africa,  in  the  organizations  of  which  the 
old  Yeomanry  Cavalry  played  a  very  large 
part  (although  in  the  actual  composition  of  the 
force  the  regular  yeomen  formed  only  about 
one-fifth  of  the  total  strength),  caused  the 
military  authorities  to  reorganize  the  force. 
An  Army  Order  of  April  17th,  1901,  provided 
that  it  should,  in  future,  be  entitled  the  "Im- 
perial Yeomanry,"  and  that  the  brigade  organ- 
ization should  be  abolished,  and  the  force  be 
organized  in  regiments  of  four  squadrons,  with 
a  regimental  staff  and  a  machine-gun  section. 
The  order  included  rules  as  to  efficiency,  drills, 
and  pay.  During  the  period  of  training,  and 
under  conditions  laid  down,  the  daily  pay, 
including  ration  allowance,  varies  from  $1.35 
in  the  case  of  a  private  to  $2.38  in  the  case  of  a 
regimental  sergeant-major,  with  Is.  additional 
when  a  non-commissioned  officer  acts  as 
quartermaster.  It  was  also  announced  that 
after  Oct.  31st,  1901,  all  corps  of  Volunteer 


light  horse  and  Volunteer  companies  of 
mounted  infantry  would  be  disbanded-  or 
merged  into  squadrons  of  the  Imperial 
Yeomanry.  The  number  of  regiments  so  far 
constituted  is  52.  A  Committee  on  the  or- 
ganization of  arms  and  equipment  of  the  Yeo- 
manry Force  reported  upon  the  subject  in 
January,  1901,  and  it  was  decided,  under  the 
new  Army  scheme,  to  provide  the  Yeomanry 
with  rifles,  to  give  them  extra  pay  as  indicated 
above,  with  horse  allowance  of  $25  and  to 
raise  the  force  to  35,000  as  Imperial  Yeomanry 
intended  to  furnish  mounted  troops  for  home 
defense,  while  Colonial  Yeomanry  are  to  be 
affiliated  for  Imperial  services.  There  is  a 
school  for  instruction  for  officers  of  Imperial 
Yeomanry,  with  a  lieutenant-colonel  as  com- 
mandant and  a  staff  of  66. 

THE    VOLUNTEERS 

Volunteer  corps  are  raised  under  the  Volun- 
teer Act  1863  (26  &  27  Viet.,  c.  65).  They  are 
subject  to  the  provisions  of  that  Act  and  any 
Acts  amending  it,  and  likewise  to  all  regula- 
tions made  with  regard  to  Volunteer  corps. 
The  Volunteer  (Military  Service)  Act  of  '96 
provides  that  whenever  an  order  for  the  em- 
bodiment of  the  Militia  is  in  force,  any  member 
of  a  Volunteer  corps  may  offer  himself  for 
actual  military  service,  and  if  the  services  of 
such  members  of  any  corps  are  sufficient  to 
enable  them  to  be  separately  organized  are 
accepted,  then  those  members  may  be  called 
out  either  as  a  corps  or  as  part  -of  a  corps. 
Under  the  Volunteers  Act  1900  new  regulations 
were  made  as  follows: — I.  A  member  of  a 
Volunteer  corps  may  contract  to  come  out  for 
actual  military  service  in  Great  Britain  when- 
ever summoned,  and  to  serve  for  a  period  not 
exceeding  one  month  in  the  absence  of  a  Royal 
Proclamation  calling  out  the  Volunteers  gen- 
erally. II.  A  member  of  a  Volunteer  corps 
may  contract  to  proceed  upon  active  service 
to  any  part  of  the  world  in  a  unit  or  company 
formed  of  Volunteers,  on  special  conditions  as 
defined  by  the  terms  of  his  contract. 

The  Volunteers,  like  the  Militia,  form  junior 
battalions  attached  to  the  line  regiments  in 
their  respective  districts.  Their  own  organ- 
ization as  a  cohesive  and  independent  fighting 
force  is  still  imperfect,  and  the  new  Army 
scheme  proposes  a  much  higher  level  of  effi- 
ciency and  an  improved  organization. 

Like  the  Militia,  the  Volunteers  hold  a  con- 
siderable place  in  the  new  Army  scheme  of 
1901-2,  and  now  enter  into  the  composition  of 
the  fourth  Army  Corps.  The  force  numbers 
223  battalions,  and  of  these  27  are  included  in 
the  Army  Corps  scheme.  The  Volunteers  are 
to  be  specially  trained  for  its  work  with  the 
Army  Corps  and  for  positions  round  London, 
while  increased  drill  and  rifle  shooting  are  to 
contribute  to  efficiency.  The  Government 
programme  for  reorganizing  the  Army.present- 
ed  in  February,  1900,  included  the  providing 
for  extended  training  in  camp  during  the 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


Ill 


summer  and  for  the  supply  of  regimental 
transport  and  caused  very  considerable  diffi- 
culty and  dissatisfaction.  The  view  of  the 
War  Office  is  that  if  Volunteers  cannot  con- 
form to  the  new  regulations,  they  must  face 
some  reduction  of  numbers,  since  it  would  be 
more  to  the  purpose  of  the  Government  to  get 
a  smaller  body  of  efficient  men  upon  which  it 
could  rely.  A  controversy  has  raged  round 
this  point,  and  it  was  contended  by  many 
Volunteers  that  the  most  zealous  among  them 
could  not  conform  to  the  requirements.  The 
returns  of  Nov.  1st,  1902,  showed  a  con- 
siderable decline  in  numbers  as  compared  with 
the  previous  year  (268,550  as  compared  with 
288,476),  and  a  decrease  in  the  percentage  of 
efficients  to  the  enrolled  strength  (95.49  as 
compared  with  97.43),  and  in  numbers  present 
at  inspections  (77.48  as  compared  with  83.93). 
The  decline  has  been  continued.  Particulars 
are  given  below. 

EFFECTIVES    AND    DISTRIBUTION. 

Establishment  and  Strength  of  Army,  Army 
Reserve,  Militia,  Imperial  Yeomanry,  and 
Volunteers  on  Jan.  1st,  1903  (all  ranks). 


Forces. 

Normal 
Estab- 
lishment 

Actual 
Strength 

Want- 
ing to 
com- 
plete 

Army,  Regular: 

Forces,      Regi- 
mental   Estab- 

lishments   

284,378 

*324,653 

— 

General        and 

Departmental 

Staff  and  Mis- 

cellaneous   Es- 

tablishments. . 

2,400 

2,400 

— 

Armv     Reserves, 

Class  I.  .  . 

80,000 

32,865 

47,135 

Militia  .     . 

131,737 

108,568 

23,169 

Militia      Reserve 

(New)  

50,000 

t 

50,000 

Channel     Islands 

and    Colonial 

Militia  

6,002 

5,068 

934 

Imperial  Yeom'n- 

ry  at  Home.  .  .  . 

35.164 

22,942 

12,222 

Volunteers  
Bermuda       Rifle 

346,450 

250,990 

95,460 

Volunteers  .... 

319 

233 

86 

General  total.  . 

936,450 

747,719 

188,731 

ACTUAL  STRENGTH  OF  THE  REGULAR  ARMY  BY 
ARMS. 

Household    Cavalry 1,490 

Cavalry  of  the  Line 29,297 

Imperial    Yeomanry 1,610 

Royal    Horse    Artillery    and    Royal 

Field  Artillery 34,959 

Royal  Garrison  Artillery 23,174 

Royal  Engineers 13,757 

Foot  Guards 9,966 

Infantry  of  the  Line 176,580 

Colonial  Corps  and  Indian  Infantry 
borrowed  for  garrison  and  expedi- 
tionary purposes 15,503 

*Parliament  in  1902  sanctioned  200,300  ex- 
cess numbers. 

tNot  formed  on  Jan.  1st,  1903. 


Army  Service  Corps 8,443 

Royal  Army  Medical  Corps 6,020 

Army  Ordnance  Corps 2,638 

Army  Pay  Corps 853 

Army  Post  Office  Corps 362 

It  appears  from  the  General  Annual  Return 
of  the  Army  that  in  the  year  ending  Dec.  31st, 
1902,  51,677  recruits  joined  (2,317  for  long 
service,  49,360  for  short  service),  as  compared 
with  47,039  in  1901. 

THE  STRENGTH  OF  THE  ARMY  RESERVE 

from  1898  to  1903  has  been  as  follows:— 1898, 
82,063;  1899,  78,839;  1900,  24,388;  1901, 
5,434 ;  1 902,  2,573 ;  1903,  32,865.  The  reduced 
numbers  since  1901  have  been  due  to  Reserv- 
ists being  embodied  with  the  Regulars  for  the 
war.  The  establishment  is  80,000,  and  on 
April  1st,  1903,  the  strength  had  increased  to 
51,153,  leaving  28,847  wanting  to  complete 
the  establishment.  It  is  impossible  to  give 
satisfactory  details,  there  being  a  large  number 
of  men  on  gratuity  furlough,  eventually  to  be 
transferred  to  the  Reserve. 

CHANGES    IN    ESTABLISHMENT    AND    EFFECTIVE 
OF   THE    MILITIA 

during  the  last  seven  years,  exclusive  of  the 
permanent  staff; 


Date. 

Effective 
strength 

108,350 
107,878 
105,531 
103.647 
98,130 
92,741 
102,845 
131,737 

Estab- 
lishment 

Wanting 
to  com- 
plete 

1st  Jan.,  1896 
1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 

126,723 
126,609 
125,435 
124,481 
123,137 
124,252 
123,993 
108,568 

18,373 
18,731 
19,904 
20,834 
25,007 
31,511 
21,148 
23,160 

The  figures  from  1900  onwards  do  not  in- 
clude Militia  Reservists  called  out  on  perma- 
nent service  with  the  Line.  Recruiting  in 
1902  showed  a  material  increase — 41,486,  as 
compared  with  37,644  in  the  previous  year. 
Returns  are  not  available  for  1903. 

The  new  Militia  Reserve  has  an  established 
strength  of  50,000.  Its  formation  began  in 
1903,  but  particulars  are  not  available  of  the 
effective  attained. 

ENROLLED        STRENGTH       OF       THE       IMPERIAL 
YEOMANRY 

in  1902,  21,840,  and  the  number  present  at  the 
inspection  19,570.  The  establishment  being 
35,164,  the  number  wanting  to  complete  was 
13,324.  On  Jan.  lst,1903,the  enrolled  strength 
had  increased  to  22,945,  the  recruits  number- 
ing 8,845,  and  the  net  increase  during  the  year 
1902  having  been  5,546.  These  figures  are 
exclusive  of  Imperial  Yeomanry  in  South 
Africa  (2,449  raised  in  1902),  who  are  included 
in  the  strength  of  the  Regular  Army,  and  cer- 
tain regiments  not  yet-formed  are  included  in 
the  establishment.  On  Jan.  1st,  1903,  the 
establishment  of  the  recruits  formed  was  30,- 
992,  and  the  strength  22,942, 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


STRENGTH  OF  THE  VOLUNTEERS. 

The  conditions  affecting  unfavorably  the 
strength  of  the  Volunteers  have  been  given 
above.  The  establishment  is  346,450,  and  the 
actual  strength  by  the  latest  return  (Jan.  1, 
1903)  250,990,  leaving  95,460  wanting  to  com- 
plete. The  enrolled  strength  has  been  as 
follows  since  the  establishment  of  the  force: 
'60,  119,146;  '61,  161,239;  '62,  157,818; 
'63,  162,935;  '64,  170,544;  '65,  178,484; 
'66,  181,565;  '67,  187,864;  '68,  199,194; 
'69,  195,287;  70,  193,893;  '71,  169,608; 
'72,  178,279;  73,  171,937;  74,  175,387; 
75,  181,080;  76,  185,501;  77,  193,026; 
78.  203,213;  79,  206,265;  '80,  206,537; 
'81,  208,308;  '82,  207,336;  '83,  209,365; 
'84,  215,015;  '85,  224,012;  '86,  226,752; 
'87,  228,038;  '88,  226,469;  '89,  224,021; 
'90  221,048;  '91,  222,046;  '92,  225,423; 
'93,  227741;  '94,  231,328;  '95,  231,704; 
'96  236,059;  '97,  231,796;  '98,  230,678; 
'99,  229,854;  1900,  277,628; 
1901,  288,476;  1902,  268,550.  The  later  re- 
turn mentioned  above  (250,990)  shows  a  fur- 
ther falling  off  of  17,560,  and  it  is  believed 
that  the  diminution  has  not  ceased.  The 
shortage  of  officers  on  Jan.  1st,  1903,  was  1895. 


Service  is  for  two  years  with  the  colors  and 
eight  in  the  reserve,  eight  in  the  National 
Guard  and  ten  in  its  reserve ;  the  cavalry,  how- 
ever, spending  ten  years  in  the  National 
Guard  and  eight  in  its  reserve. 

The  Standing  Army  consists  of  ten  in- 
fantry regiments,  eight  battalions  of  light  in- 
fantry and  rifles,  three  cavalry  regiments,  and 
three  regiments  of  field  artillery.  The  Gen- 
darmerie consists  of  sixteen  divisions,  and  the 
men  are  borne  upon  the  strength  of  the  line. 
The  peace  strength  of  the  army  is  about 
1880  officers  and  25,000  men.  As  a  matter  of 
fact  these  numbers  are  never  attained  under 
ordinary  circumstances,  the  number  with  the 
colors  varying  from  16,000  to  18,000.  There 
are  three  general  commands.  The  total  war 
strength  is  82,000  men  and  114  guns.  In- 
cluding the  territorial  army,  and  its  reserve, 
there  are  said  to  be  some  160,000  men  avail- 
able, but  the  organization  is  very  defective. 
The  Evzonoi  highlanders  are  by  far  the  best 
troops. 

ITALY. 

The  Italian  army  consists  of  the  Active 
Army,  the  Mobile  Militia,  and  the  Territorial 
Militia.  There  are  12  army  corps,  each  hav- 
ing 2  infantry  divisions,  except  that  in  the 
Rome  district ,  where  are  three.  The  organi  za- 
tion  of  the  permanent  army  comprises  96  regi- 
ments of  line  infantry  (288  battalions),  12  regi- 
ments of  bersaglieri  (36  battalions)  and  7 
Alpine  regiments  (22  battalions).  The 
strength  varies  considerably,  the  company 
having  upon  a  peace  strength  a  maximum  of 
100  and  a  minimum  of  60,  with  a  mean  of  80, 
known  as  the  forza  bilanciatia.  Large  num- 
bers of  men  are  upon  what  is  known  as  unlim- 


ited leave.     There  are  24  regiments  of  cavalry 
(144    squadrons),    each    squadron    having    a 
mean  strength  of  145  men  and   124  horses. 
There  are  24  regiments  of  field  artillery,  with 
186  6-gun  batteries,  but  in  peace  time  the  bat- 
I   tery  has  only  4  guns.     The  army  also  com- 
|    prises  1  regiment  of  horse  artillery  (6  batteries) , 
,    1  of  mountain  artillery  (12  batteries),  1  bri- 
gade of  mountain  artillery,  with  3  batteries  in 
Venetia,  3  regiments  of  coast  artillery  and  a 
brigade   in   Sardinia,  2  regiments   of  fortress 
artillery   and   5   of  engineers,    comprising   60 
companies  of  the  various  branches. 

The  total  strength  of  the  forces  is  given  as 
follows: 

Officers 
and  Men. 

With  the  colors 248,1 1 1 

On  unlimited  leave 486,290 

Mobile  Militia 320,170 

Territorial  Militia 2,275,631 


Total. 


.   3,330,202 


There  are  about  1,250  guns  with  the  Regular 
Forces  and  378  with  the  Mobile  Militia. 


JAPAN. 

The  military  forces  of  Japan  are  the  Per- 
manent Army,  with  reserves  and  recruiting 
reserves,  the  Territorial  Army,  the  National 
Militia  and  the  militia  of  certain  of  the  islands. 
The  Permanent  Army  is  available  for  foreign 
service,  the  Territorial  Army  for  home 
defense,  and  the  militia  for  auxiliary  opera- 
tions in  more  distant  parts  of  the  country. 

Service  is  personal  and  obligatory  from  the 
age  of  17  to  40.  The  total  actual  period  is  12 
years  and  4  months,  of  which  3  years  are  in 
the  Regular  Army,  4  years  and  4  months  in  the 
Reserve,  and  5  years  in  the  Territorial  Army. 
The  recruiting  reserve  is  drawn  from  the  ex- 
cess of  the  contingent,  and  the  men,  after 
passing  their  7  years  and  4  months  in  the 
Reserves,  pass  to  the  Militia. 

The  Emperor  is  supreme  head  of  the  army, 
and  military  affairs  are  directed  through  the 
War  Minister  and  the  Chief  of  the  General 
Staff  by  the  Superior  War  Council.  In  order 
to  insure  unity  of  action  between  the  various 
branches  of  the  navy,  there  is  a  council  con- 
sisting of  the  War  Minister,  the  Naval  Min- 
ister, the  chiefs  of  the  General  Staff  and  the 
Naval  Staff  and  the  Director-General  of  Mili- 
tary Training. 

The  following  are  details  of  the  effective 
strength  of  the  army  on  a  war  footing,  not 
comprising  the  troops  in  the  island  of  For- 
mosa: -Administrations  and  establishments, 
1,000  officers,  2,900  men;  Permanent  Army, 
infantry,  156  battalions;  cavalry,  55  squad- 
rons with  9,000  horses;  field  artillery,  19  regi- 
ments of  6  batteries  with  684  guns;  fortress 
artillery,  20  battalions;  engineers,  13  sapper 
battalions  and  1  railway  battalion;  transport, 
13  battalions:  total,  203  battalions,  55  squad- 
rons, 684  guns;  or  7,500  officers,  193,790  men, 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


113 


61,390  horses.  Depot  troops:  52  battalions, 
17  squadrons,  26  companies,  19  batteries;  or 
1,000  officers,  34,600  men,  9,000  horses,  114 
guns.  Territorial  Army:  130  battalions,  26 
squadrons,  312  guns,  3,200  officers,  118,530 
men,  11,860  horses.  Militia:  35  officers,  1,180 
men,  210  horses.  Grand  total,  386  battalions, 
26  companies,  99  squadrons,  1,116  guns, 
11,735  officers,  348,100  men  and  84,460 
horses.  The  total  fully  trained  force,  accord- 
ing to  the  St.  Petersburg  Gazette,  is  509,960. 
The  Military  College  and  Academy  train  ac- 
complished officers  of  great  intelligence.  They 
were  pronounced  by  General  Grant  to  be 
among  the  foremost  of  the  kind  in  the  world. 
The  barracks  and  gymnasia  are  of  the  best 
type,  and  every  care  is  paid  to  the  physical 
development  of  the  men. 

MEXICO. 

The  Mexican  army  consists  in  peace  time  of 
3,500  officers,  31,000  men,  and  11,000  horses 
or  mules.  It  was  proposed  to  introduce  per- 
sonal or  obligatory  service,  but  the  plan  has 
been  postponed,  and  the  army  is  recruited  by 
voluntary  engagement  of  3,  4  and  5  years,  with 
special  levies  drawn  by  lot.  The  passage  of 
the  forces  to  a  war  footing  has  been  denned  by 
law,  and  provision  is  made  for  mobilizing  the 
first  and  second  reserve,  including  the  rural 
and  urban  police,  the  national  guard  and  other 
forces. 

The  following  is  the  strength:  Regular  army, 
2,700  officers,  61,000  men:  reserves,  1,000  offi- 
cers, 155,000  men;  total,  3,700  officers,  186,000 
men,  with  32,000  horses  and  12,000  mules. 

MOROCCO. 

The  Sultan's  forces  comprise  about  30,000 
excellent  men  of  all  arms,  under  command  for 
training  of  Kaid  Sir  Harry  Maclean.  The 
infantry  arm  is  the  Martini. 

THE  NETHERLANDS. 

Holland  has  at  present  no  standing  army, 
but  a  cadre  of  officers  and  non-commissioned 
officers  (establishment  about  2,200)  for  train- 
ing the  forces  embodied. 

The  Landwehr,  which  has  replaced  the  old 
Schutterij,  received  its  first  contingent  re- 
cently, and  the  country  has  been  divided  into 
48  Landwehr  districts.  The  corresponding 
battalions  cannot,  however,  be  formed  before 
1909.  The  Landwehr  and  Landsturm  to 
which  men  are  to  be  transferred  will  have  a 
peace  strength  of  about  20,000,  and  a  volunteer 
establishment  in  time  of  war,  the  militia  to  be 
increased  to  12,300,  to  be  permanently  em- 
bodied, with  5,200  more  to  be  called  up  for 
short  periods;  and  the  reorganization  is  being 
proceeded  with.  The  total  armed  strength  is 
estimated  at  69,000. 

The  army  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies  numbers 
about  35,000  officers  and  men,  recruited  vol- 
untarily, one-half  of  the  men  natives,  and  a 


plan  of  mobilization  for  war  has  recently  been 
adopted. 

PORTUGAL 

The  army  was  reorganized  on  October  1, 
1899.  The  peace  footing  is  62,427,  including 
33,420  militia.  The  infantry  of  the  line  are 
18,000,  the  cavalry  3,032,  the  dragoons  1,804, 
the  light  troops  1,012,  "the  field  artillery 
3,375  and  the  horse  artillery  479.  The  total 
number  of  guns  is  448.  The  war  footing  is 
100,204  including  52,675  militia. 

A  new  law  was  introduced  in  September, 
1895,  by  which  the  service  is  three  years  with 
the  colors,  five  with  the  first  reserve  and  four 
with  the  second.  There  is  in  addition  a  cola- 
nial  army  of  9,000.  The  rules  of  exemption 
are  most  liberal,  a  sum  of  money  paid  to  the 
Government  being  accepted  as  an  equivalent. 


ROUMANIA. 

The  armed  forces  of  Roumania  consist  of 
the  Regular  Army,  the  Militia,  and  the  Opol- 
tchenie.  In  peace  time  there  only  exist  cadres 
for  the  regular  army,  which  is  divided  into  per- 
manent and  territorial  troops.  The  period  of 
service  for  the  permanent  troops  is  three 
years,  and  for  the  territorial  troops  five  years 
for  the  infantry  and  four  for  the  calvary;  but 
in  this  latter  force  the  soldier  at  first  only  puts 
in  three  months  of  continuous  service;  he  is 
then  sent  to  his  home  and  called  up,  in  his 
turn,  for  one  week  each  month. 

The  effective  of  the  army  in  war  is  as  fol- 
lows: Infantry:  8  rifle  battalions;  34  infantry 
regiments  (102  battalions;  altogether  2,250 
officers,  126,000  men,  and  4,700  horses). 
Cavalry:  6  Roshiori  regiments  (24  squadrons, 
forming  an  independent  division);  11  Caal- 
rashi  regiments  (44  squadrons) ;  total,  530 
officers,  13,200  men,  12,100  horses.  Artillery: 
12  regiments  (75  batteries,  450  guns;  40  am- 
munition columns;  2  fortress  artillery  regi- 
ments) ;  total,  930  officers,  26,900  men,  22,800 
horses.  Engineers:  12  sapper  companies,  4 
telegraph,  4  pontoon,  and  4  railway  com- 
panies: total,  140  officers,  6,200  men,  1,500 
horses.  Grand  total,  2,850  officers,  169,800 
men,  and  41,400  horses.  If  to  these  are  added 
the  transport,  auxiliary  troops,  32  militia  regi- 
ments, etc.,  the  numbers  will  amount  to  7,500 
officers,  314,000  men,  and  65,000  horses. 


The  huge  Russian  army  makes  continual 
progress,  and  its  varied  composition  and  little- 
known  development  make  it  very  difficult  to 
describe.  It  may  be  said  to  consist  of  several 
armies:  the  European,  the  Caucasian,  the  Tur- 
kestan, and  the  Amur  force;  the  first  of  these 
organized  like  other  European  armies,  and  the 
constitution  of  the  others  varying  in  confor- 
mity with  local  requirements.  Moreover,  the 
strength  of  each  varies  according  to  the  neces- 
sities of  the  situation,  the  troops  being  on  the 


114 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


ordinary  peace  footing,  on  the  higher  peace 
establishment  as  in  the  frontier  districts,  or  on 
the  war  footing  as  in  Asiatic  Russia.  There 
are  13  greater  military  districts,  the  Trans- 
caspian  district,  and  the  territorial  region  of 
the  Don  Cossacks.  -There  are  25  army  corps  in 
Europe  and  the  Caucasus,  2  in  Turkestan,  and 
2  in  the  Amur  district. 

The  peace  strength  has  been  given  as  follows : 

Europe  and  the         Asiatic 
Caucasus.  Russia. 

Infantry 627,000  men.  83,000  men. 

Cavalry 116,000    "  14,000    " 

Artillery 138,000    "  15,000    " 

Engineers 34,000    "  8,000    " 

Army  services  .  .    34,000    "  5,000    " 


Total 949,000    "          124,000    " 

Of  these  forces  the  active  army  numbers 
731,000  in  Europe  and  the  Caucasus,  and 
87,000  in  Asiatic  Russia.  Baron  von  Tettau, 
in  a  volume  on  the  Russian  Army  (1902),  gives 
the  peace  strength,  including  Cossacks  and 
Frontier  Guards,  as  1,100,000. 

It  must  be  understood  that  in  regard  to  the 
preceding  estimate  and  in  what  follows  con- 
cerning the  distribution  of  the  Russian  forces, 
considerable  doubt  exists.  The  troops  were 
moved  secretly  in  view  of  the  war  with 
Japan,  and  very  various  statements  have 
been  made  as  to  the  force  actually  available 
in  the  Far  East. 

An  Imperial  order  of  November  12,  1903, 
gave  instructions  for  the  formation  of  2  new 
brigades. 

The  Cossack  forces  have  a  special  constitu- 
tion. Every  Cossack  becomes  liable  to  serve 
as  soon  as  he  has  completed  his  eighteenth 
year.  For  the  first  three  years,  which  are 
looked  on  as  "preparatory,"  his  service  is, 
however,  purely  local ;  but  for  the  next  twelve 
years  he  is  considered  as  belonging  to  the 
"front"  category.  This  category  consists  of 
three  bans,  the  first  of  which  is  formed  of  men 
actually  serving,  and  the  two  others  of  men 
who  have  been  granted  unlimited  leave.  The 
last  five  years  are  spent  in  the  Reserve  cate- 
gory. There  is,  however,  a  still  further  cate- 
gory, for  which  no  limit  of  age  is  fixed:  this 
comprises  all  able-bodied  Cossacks  not  other- 
wise classified.  These  have  to  supply  and 
maintain  their  own  horses,  besides  providing 
their  own  clothing  and  equipment.  The 
peace  effective  of  the  Cossacks  is  stated  to  be 
65,930,  with  52,400  horses,  but  it  is  probable 
that  not  more  than  54,000  are  permanently 
with  the  colors.  The  war  strength  is  given  as 
182,065,  including  4,275  officers,  and  there  are 
173,150  horses.  This  gives  a  percentage  of 
13.2  to  the  male  population  liable  to  Cossack 
service. 

In  the  Russian  Empire  considerably  over  a 
million  men  annually  attain  the  age  for  joining 
the  army.  In  1902  the  number  liable  to 
serve  was  1,122,000,  and  315,832  were  em- 
bodied in  the  standing  army.  Seventy  per 


cent,  of  the  men  so  entered  are  illiterates. 
About  5,000  enlist  annually  as  volunteers,  and 
16,000  join  the  Cossacks.  The  period  of 
liability  to  personal  service  lasts  from  the 
twenty-first  to  the  forty-third  year  of  age. 
Those  who  join  the  standing  army  spend  five 
years  with  the  colors  (four  in  the  infantry), 
thirteen  in  the  reserve,  and  the  remainder  in 
the  Opoltchenie,  or  militia.  In  some  in- 
stances, however,  the  War  Minister  has 
power  to  retain  men  for  a  longer  period  with 
the  colors;  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  this 
period  is  shortened  by  one,  two,  three,  or  four 
years  for  those  possessing  a  superior  educa- 
tion. The  Opoltchdnie,  which  has  been  de- 
veloped from  a  simple  militia  into  a  first  re- 
serve formation,  now  embraces  two  different 
classes:  (1)  Men  between  21  and  43  years  of 
age,  who  have  never  served;  (2)  men  who 
have  completed  5  years'  service  with  the 
colors  and  13  years  in  the  reserve.  The  ages 
of  the  men  vary  between  39  and  43  years. 

The  Finnish  Military  Service  Law,  whereby 
the  Finnish  army  has  lost  the  independence 
guaranteed  by  treaty,  was  promulgated  on 
August  1,  1901.  The  offices  of  Finnish  com- 
mander-in-chief  and  staff  have  been  abolished. 

The  war  strength  of  the  Russian  forces  con- 
sists of  about  56,500  officers  and  2,855,000 
men,  including  1,792,000  infantry  and  196,000 
cavalry.  These  form  the  active  army  of  all 
classes.  To  these  figures  must  be  added  the 
available  reserves,  estimated  at  1,064,000; 
frontier  battalions,  41,000;  Cossacks,  142,000. 
There  are  besides  these  the  Territorial  Re- 
serves, some  2,000,000  men,  and  the  Opol- 
tch^nie,  1,300,000,  which  could  be  employed 
in  case  of  emergency.  Gen.  Redigers,  a  well- 
known  authority,  estimates  the  trained  re- 
serve to  be  2,700,000.  It  is  expected  that 
under  new  organization  the  Opoltche'nie,  or 
militia,  in  time  of  war  will  form  40  infantry 
divisions,  640  battalions;  20  regiments  of 
cavalry,  80  squadrons;  80  batteries  of  artil- 
lery, and  20  battalions  of  sappers;  but  owing 
to  the  vast  distances  to  be  covered,  and  the 
want  of  railway  accommodations,  the  mobili- 
zation of  this  great  force  would  be  neither 
easy  nor  rapid.  In  regard  to  the  embodi- 
ment of  the  reserve  force  in  the  event  of  war, 
great  advances  have  been  made  by  the  estab- 
lishment of  brigade  commands  and  the  organi- 
zation of  reserve  brigades. 


The  military  forces  consist  of  the  national 
army  and  the  militia  (Opoltche'nie). 

The  national  army  is  divided  into  three 
levies:  1st,  men  from  20  to  30  years  of  age, 
and  containing  permanent  cadres  and  a  re- 
serve; 2nd,  men  from  31  to  37  years;  and 
3rd,  men  from  38  to  45  years,  with  no  con- 
stituted cadres  in  peace  time. 

The  militia  consists  of  men  from  17  to  50 
years  of  age  not  in  the  national  army.  No 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


115 


substitution  or  buying  off  is  allowed.  The 
annual  contingent  is  usually  about  20,500 
conscripts,  of  whom  6,000  are  generally  unfit 
for  service. 

The  peace  effective  is  difficult  to  calculate, 
because,  for  economic  reasons,  it  is  usual  to 
send  down  men  before  their  proper  date  for 
release.  The  units  are  strongest  in  the  spring, 
and  from  then  gradually  dwindle  away  until  a 
company  barely  consists  of  more  than  10  or  15 
men.  The  army  is  a  species  ot  semi-militia. 

The  war  effective,  according  to  official  tables, 
the  accuracy  of  which  must  be  accepted  with 
caution,  amounts  to  8,110  officers,  331,900 
men,  420  guns,  and  39,070  horses.  The  num- 
ber of  actual  combatants  would  be  about 
228,000,  but  a  very  large  proportion  are  of 
the  2d  and  3d  levies,  with  little  or  no  training. 

SPAIN. 

Under  the  terms  of  an  order  of  January  29, 
1903,  the  army  has  been  reorganized  on  the 
basis  of  an  effective  of  80,000  men;  the  second 
battalions  of  the  infantry  regiments  and  the 
fourth  squadrons  of  the  cavalry  being  reduced 
to  skeleton  formations.  There  are  in  all  about 
23,000  officers  provided  for  the  old  establish- 
ment, but  the  supernumeraries  are  on  half-pay, 
and  their  places  are  not  being  filled.  There 
are  eight  captain-generalcies,  but  the  eight 
army  corps  are  replaced  by  divisions,  and 
further  reductions  are  being  introduced.  The 
headquarters  are  respectively:  1st,  Madrid; 
2nd,  Seville;  3rd,  Valentia;  4th,  Barcelona; 
5th,  Saragossa;  6th,  Burgos;  7th,  Valladolid; 
8th,  Corunna. 

The  following  is  the  constitution,  by  units, 
of  the  army:  Infantry,  56  regiments,  20  bat- 
talions of  Chasseurs,  4  African  regiments,  2 
regiments  in  the  Balearic  Islands,  2  regiments 
in  the  Canaries,  recruiting  cadres,  etc.  The  cav- 
alry, 28  regiments,  and  3  squadrons  for  foreign 
possessions.  Artillery,  13  field,  1  siege  and 

3  mountain  regiments  (all  with  four  6-gun  bat- 
teries), 14  fortress  battalions,  1  central  gun- 
nery school,  1  central  remount  committee,  and 

4  companies  of  artificers.    The  engineer  corps 
consists  of  4  regiments  of  sappers  and  miners, 
1  pontoon  regiment,  1  telegraph  battalion,  1 
railway  battalion,  1  topographical  brigade,  1 
company  of  artificers,  and  8  reserve  depots, 
with   5   separate   companies   of   sappers   and 
miners    for    the    Balearic    Islands,    etc.     For 
recruiting  purposes  the  Peninsula  has  116  dis- 
tricts, the  Canaries  and  Balearics  have  2,  and 
Ceuta  and  Melilla  have  2.     The  total  armed 
strength  is  estimated  to  be  500,000. 

SWEDEN    AND    NORWAY. 

SWEDEN. — The  Swedish  army  underwent  a 
reorganization  in  1901,  which  is  progressive 
and  will  have  its  full  effect  in  1914.  General 
personal  service  has  been  adopted,  with  short 
periods  with  the  colors :  one  year  for  service  in 
the  cavalry  and  artillery,  and  eight  months  for 


the  infantry.  The  army  will  be  substantially 
increased  in  strength.  The  24  existing  infantry 
regiments  are  to  have  a  third  battalion  each, 
and  3  fortress  regiments  of  similar  strength 
are  to  be  raised.  Some  of  the  new  formations 
have  already  been  brought  into  existence. 

On  a  peace  footing  there  are  2,606  officers, 
1,797  non-commissioned  officers,  6,947  cor- 
porals and  others,  557  cadets,  7,792  volunteers, 
and  22,332  men,  being  a  total  of  40,031.  The 
artillery  are  to  receive  Krupp  quick-firing 
guns,  of  which  the  pattern  is  still  under  trial 
in  an  experimental  battery.  There  are  4 
corps  of  engineers.  Steps  are  also  to  be  taken 
to  increase  the  body  of  reserve  officers.  One 
great  object  in  the  recent  change  is  to  give 
a  more  homogeneous  character  to  the  forces. 
The  plans  for  mobilization  of  the  reserves  have 
been  improved,  and  a  Landsturm  is  being 
organized. 

NORWAY. — The  force  now  availabe  for  ser- 
vice beyond  the  frontier  numbers,  with  officers 
and  men,  25,109;  but  the  total  armed  strength 
is  estimated  to  be  38,000,  There  is,  however, 
the  defect  that  there  is  no  reserve  of  the  line  to 
fill  up  the  gaps  which  might  arise  during  a  war, 
without  taking  men  from  the  militia  (Land- 
vaern).  Besides  the  troops  of  the  line  there 
exists  the  militia  or  Landvaern  for  the  defense 
of  Norway,  in  case  the  troops  of  the  line  should 
be  taken  over  to  Sweden. 

SWITZERLAND. 

The  federal  forces  do  not  constitute  a 
standing  army,  the  principle  being  that  of  a 
militia,  and  the  liability  to  serve  twelve  years 
in  the  Elite,  twelve  in  the  Landwehr,  and  six 
in  the  Landsturm.  During  the  twelve  years  in 
the  Elite  (ten  for  the  cavalry)  the  aggregate 
service  is  141  days  in  the  infantry,  146  in  the 
engineers,  160  in  the  cavalry,  and  163  in  the 
artillery. 

The  total  military  strength  consists  of:  Elite 
(20  to  32  years  of  age) :  96  battalions  of  in- 
fantry, 8  battalions  of  rifles,  24  squadrons  of 
dragoons,  48  field  batteries  of  6  guns,  2  moun- 
tain batteries,  10  position  batteries,  and  12 
companies  of  light  horse.  Landwehr  (32  to  44 
years  of  age) :  96  battalions  of  infantry,  8  bat- 
talions of  rifles,  24  squadrons  of  dragoons,  8 
field  batteries,  and  15  position  batteries.  An 
aggregate  total,  in  round  numbers,  of  200,000 
men,  of  whom  130,000  are  in  the  first  12  classes 
of  the  Elite,  formed  into  4  army  corps.  In 
addition,  the  Landsturm  can  furnish  fully 
300,000,  giving  an  armed  strength  of  500,000, 
maintained  at  a  cost  of  about  $5,000,000  a 
year  for  a  total  population  of  3,500,000. 

TURKEY. 

The  Turkish  military  forces  are  organized  on 
the  territorial  system,  the  whole  empire  being 
divided  into  seven  territorial  districts.  By  the 
recruiting  law  all  Mussulmans  are  liable  to  mili-. 
tary  service.  Christians  and  certain  sects  pay 


116 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


an  exemption  tax.  The  nomad  Arabs,  although 
liable  to  service  by  law,  furnish  no  recruits, 
and  many  Kurds  evade  service.  The  conscrip- 
tion therefore  falls  somewhat  heavily  on  the 
Osmanlis,  or  Turks  proper. 

The  men  liable  to  service  are  divided  into — 

(1)  Nizam,  or  regular  army,  and  its  reserve; 

(2)  Redif,  corresponding  to  Landwehr;  and 

(3)  Mustahfiz,  or  Landsturm.     There  are  also 
660  Ilaveh  battalions,  mostly  skeleton  forma- 
tions,  in   which  men   supplementary  to   the 
establishments  are  enrolled.     Liability  to  ser- 
vice until  recently  commenced  at  twenty  years 
of  age,  and  lasted  for  twenty  years— i.e.,  with 
colors  of  the  Nizam,  four  years;  in  the  reserve 
of  the  Nizam,  two  years;  in  the  Redif,  four 
years  in  first  class  and  four  years  in  second 
class;  and  in  the  Mustahfiz,  six  years.     An 
Irade"  issued  in  November,  1903,  increases  the 


total  Nizam  service  to  nine  years  and  the  Redif 
service  to  nine  years,  it  being  estimated  that 
this  will  add  250,000  men  to  the  army.  The 
cavalry  are  set  clown  at  55,300;  the  artillery 
(174  field  and  22  mountain  batteries)  at  54,720 
— 1,356  guns;  the  engineers  at  7,400;  infantry, 
583,200;  total,  700,620.  The  Nizam  has  320 
battalions,  203  squadrons,  and  248  batteries, 
and  the  Redif  374  battalions,  666  supplemen- 
tary battalions  (incomplete),  and  48  squad- 
rons. An  irregular  "Hamidieh"  cavalry  has 
been  raised  among  the  Kurds,  and  has  266 
squadrons. 

Tin-  total  war  strength  is  estimated  to  be: 
46,400  officers,  1,531,600  men,  1,530  guns,  and 
109,900  horses.  The  Ottoman  army  has  been 
trained  and  reorganized  largely  by  German 
officers,  and  is  composed  of  the  best  fighting 
material,  as  the  war  with  Greece  proved. 


CHAPTER    V. 


THE     RAILROADS     OF     THE     WORLD. 


In  the  Railroad  Gazette  (New 
York)  for  May  30,  1902,  there  ap- 
peared exhaustive  tables,  compiled 
from  the  Archiv  fur  Eisenbahnweseu 
of  Prussia  of  the  railroads  of  the 
world  in  the  year  1900  and  in  previ- 
ous years.  With  the  help  of  these 
tables  the  Railroad  Gazette,  in  its  is- 
sue for  June  6,  makes  the  following 
comparative  statements : 

The  mileage  built  in  each  decade  has 
been  for  the  world :  Ten  years  to 
1840,  4,772;  1850,  19,198;  1860,  43,- 
160;  1870,  63,255;  1880.  101,081; 
1890,  152,179 ;  1900,  107,421. 

The  mileage  built  before  1830,  in- 
significant in  amount,  is  included  with 
the  4,772  miles  credited  above  to  the 
following  decade. 

Of  the  total  of  491,066  miles  com- 
pleted at  the  end  of  the  century  more 
than  one-half  had  been  built  since 
]880  and  nearly  three- fourths  since 
1870.  The  total  built  in  the  forty 
years  down  to  1870  (130.385  miles) 
\yas  one-seventh  less  than  the  construc- 
tion in  the  single  decade  ending  with 
1890.  It  is  notable,  however,  that  in 
the  last  decade  of  the  century  44,758 
miles  less  were  built  than  in  the  pre- 
ceding ten  years.  This  is  one  of  the 
indications  that  the  civilized  and  pro- 
ductive industrial  countries  of  the 
world  are  now  generally  well  equipped 
with  these  instruments  of  transporta- 
tion. Europe  (except  Russia)  and 
North  America  have  immediate  need 
of  no  large  additions  to  their  mileage. 
There  is  still  abundant  room  for  rail- 
roads in  Asia,  Africa  and  South 
America,  but  the  slow  growth  of  indus- 
tries of  these  continents,  two  of  which 
are  over  rather  than  under  populated, 
but  whose  population  is  to  a  great  ex- 
tent a  bar  to  progress  such  as  Europe 
and  North  America  have  had  in  tlie 
past  century,  gives  no  promise  of  rapid 
railroad  extension. 

Nevertheless,  the  most  notable  de- 
velopment of  the  last  decade  has  been 
the  greater  activity  in  Asia  and  Afri- 
ca. In  Asia,  until  after  1890,  there 


was  scarcely  any  railroad  except  "in 
British  India,  a  very  little  in  Asia 
Minor,  a  beginning  in  Russia  and  Ja- 
pan. But  the  20,960  miles  in  Asia  in 
1890  had  become  37,477  miles  in  1900, 
and  the  6,113  miles  in  Africa,  12,501. 
The  additions,  considering  the  size  of 
the  continents,  are  small ;  but  they  are 
only  beginnings,  and  considerable  new 
additions  have  been  made  since  1900, 
chiefly  the  Siberian  Railroad  in  Asia 
and  the  Uganda  in  Africa.  It  is  prob- 
ably not  generally  known  that  even  in 
this  last  decade  it  is  India  and  not 
Russia  which  leads  in  railroad  con- 
struction in  Asia ;  India  had  added 
(5,982  miles  (42  per  cent)  to  the  16,- 
781  it  had  in  1890,  while  the  additions 
in  Asiatic  Russia  were  but  4,622 
miles. 

In  Europe  more  railroad  was  built 
from  1890  to  1900  than  in  the  previ- 
ous decade,  but  less  than  from  1870  to 
1880.  The  increase  in  the  last  decade 
was  wholly  due  to  Russia,  where  it 
was  10,659  miles,  against  4,413  miles 
in  the  previous  decade.  In  the  rest  of 
Europe  29,700  miles  were  built  from 
1880  to  1890,  and  only  26,418  in  the 
following  decade. 

The  most  notable  change  in  the  last 
decade,  however,  is  the  decrease  in 
construction  in  North  America,  which 
was  so  long  the  great  field  for  railroad 
construction.  With  2,834  miles  built 
in  1840,  the  increase  in  mileage  for 
successive  decades  has  been :  1840- 
1850,  9,099;  1850-1860,  23,644;  1860- 
1870,  22,887 ;  1870-1880,  45,629 ;  1880- 
1890,  85,766  ;  1890-1900,  33,856. 

Thus  the  new  construction  on  this 
continent  in  the  last  decade  was  60  per- 
cent less  than  from  1880  to  1890,  and 
even  20  per  cent  less  than  from  1870 
to  1880.  The  decrease  in  the  last  de- 
cade was  common  to  Canada  and 
Mexico,  as  well  as  to  the  United 
States.  It  was  altogether  healthy. 
But  this  country  and  Canada,  at 
least,  are  richer  to-day  than  they 
would  have  been  if  they  had  built 
as  much  railroad  in  the  last  decade  as 


117 


118 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


119 


British  India, 
80,053. 


Russia, 
195,556. 


Germany, 
330,460. 


France, 
360,721. 


PQ 

Great  Britain,    5 
656,735. 

_5 
«< 


United  States, 
1,284,807. 


Russia, 
10,560. 


British  India, 
14,743. 


France, 
28,750. 


<#  United  States, 

a  33,893.                   tf 

a  H 

£  § 

b  Germany,            P 

J  34,590.                  52; 

•S  ^ 

I  O 

^,  Great  Britain,    ^ 

g.  62,252. 


120 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


in  'the    one    preced 
000,000,000    more 
been  expended  for  i 
have   been   require* 
tions  are  that  the 
has  been  most  pro 
productive   industr 
railroads  traffic  to 

South    and    Cen 
eluding  West  Indie 
of  a  figure  in  the  i 
ing  now  altogether 
or  less  than  Asia. 
South  American  m 
tina  and  Brazil. 

Australia  also  ha 
in  railroad  constru 
for  more  roads,  bu 
as  yet  to  support 
slowly.     It  had  1, 
added  3,780  by  1£ 
1890,  and  only  3,18 
of    the    century. 
14,925  miles. 

The    last    annua 
same  source,  publh 
shows  the  world's 
the  end  of  1901. 

Europe,  18 
Mileage  of 
Principal 
Countries. 

ing   it.      Fully    $2,- 
than    has    actually 
lew  railroads  would 
1  :    and   the    indica- 
capital  thus  saved 
Stably  employed  in 
ios   which   give   the 
carry. 

tral    America     (in- 
s)  do  not  cut  much 
•ailroad  world,  hav- 
only  29,071  miles, 
Two-thirds  of  the 
ileage  is  in  Argen- 

s  slackened  its  pace 
ction.     It  has  room 
t  not  people  enough 
them,  and  it  grows 
097  miles   in   1870, 
80,   6,863  more   by_ 
5  in  the  last  decade 
Australia    now    has 

1    return    from    the 
shed  in  June,  1903, 
railroad  mileage  at 

1,760  miles. 
Mileage  of 
Principal 
Countries. 
Holland                 2,035 
Roumania.  .  .  .      1,982 
Turkey  (includ- 
ing  Bulgaria 
and  Roumelia)  1,963 
Denmark.  ...       1,917 
Portugal  1,492 
Norway.  ...          1,313 
Greece  607 
Servia  361 

h  and  South),  256,643 
es. 
Mexico                   9  660 

TYPES  OF  AMERICAN    LOCOMOTIVES. 

040    A     O   O                                    *  WHEEL  SW.TCHE* 

060  A  OOO                 a     •• 

080  A  OOOO             „     - 

240  Jin  00                   -,OUPLEO 

260  ^0   OOO                     MOGUL 

280    AO     OOOO                        CONSOLIDATE 

>IOO    ^0    OOOOO                nrcAPOO 

440  ^oo  OO 

460    AO  OOOO                         .0  WHEEL 

480  jfln  oOOOO         ,2     - 

O42    A     \)  O    O                               4COUPLED4TRAILINO 

062  A  OOO  o 

082  A   OOOO  n          •     » 

Q44    (^     OO  O  O                           FORNEY  4  COUPLED 

Ofi4  A  OOO  no              -    •     - 

046^     OOOOO                        PORNEV  4  COUPLED 

O66^    OOOnnn            TOPNEVB  COUPLED 

242^loOOo                        comuBux 

262  Jin    OOO  r,                   PRA.R.E 

282   ^lO     VJLJVJCJO                «  COUPLED  DOUBLE  CNO^ft 

'  244^o  OOoo 

264^o  OOOn^        .     •• 

284^n  OOOOo^    «     

246^0  OOortn          £     •• 

266^0   OOOno^      .     „ 

420^0  oOo                                 BICYCLE    OR    SINGLE 

442  ^0    0  O  O  0                            ATLANTA 

462^ooOOOn         MftlPlft 

Russia  32,130 
France  27,285 
Austro-Hung'y  23,432 
Great     Britain 
and  Ireland..  22,164 
Italy  9,881 
Spain  .     8,447 
Sweden  7,242 
Belgium  4,047 
Switzerland.     .     2,443 

Total  America  (Nort 
mi 
United  States.  198,346 
British    North 
America.  .  .  .    18,397 
Argentina.  .  .  .    10,479 

Total  Asia, 
British  India.  .  25,515 
Siberia        and 
Manchuria.  .     5,697 

Total  Africa 
British     South 
and     Central 
Africa  5,504 

Total  Australia  and 
mi 

Grand  Total  of  Woi 
miles. 

AAA^O   QQ  O   0  0                  A  COUPLED  DOUBLE  rNDtR 

464<4ooOOOno      .     .. 

446^0oOOooo        „     » 

466^00  (JOOnrsn  „      - 

—  Encyclopedia  Americana. 

RAILWAY  SIGNALS. 

One    blast    of    the    whistle    means 
"stop    at    once,"    or    what    is    known 
as     "down     brakes";     two     blasts    of 
the      whistle      mean      "off      brakes"; 
three     blasts     of     the     whistle     mean 
"back  up";  a  continuous  blast  means 
"danger."       A     semaphore    signal    at 
right  angles  to  the  post  indicates  dan- 
ger ;    when    the    semaphore    drops    to 
an  angle  it  is  a  signal  to  proceed.     A 
red  lantern  indicates  danger,  as  does 
a  red  flag;  a  green  lantern  or  a  green 
flag    indicates    "caution."        Lanterns 
which  are  swung  at  right  angles  across 
the    tracks    mean    "stop"  ;    a    lantern 
raised    and    lowered    means    "start"  ; 
when   lanterns  are  swung  in   a  circle 
it  means  "back  the  train." 

Brazil.  .  .                9,248 

Chili  2,896 

42,057  miles. 
Japan.  .  .               4,093 

Dutch  Indies..  .   1,392 
China  772 

14,270  miles. 
Algiers           and 
Tunis.  .  .  .          3,060 

Egypt  2,903 

New  Zealand,  15,470 
es. 

id's  Railroads,  510,470 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


THE  RAILROAD  SYSTEM   OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.* 


If  one  were  called  upon  to  name  the 
field  of  engineering  in  which  the  vast 
scale  upon  which  things  are  done  in 
this  country  is  most  strikingly  shown, 
he  would  be  safe  in  pointing  to  the 
colossal  railroad  system  of  the  United 
States.  In  respect  of  the  total  length 
of  track,  the  total  number  of  locomo- 
tives and  cars,  the  veritable  army  of 
employees,  and  the  gross  value  of 
capital  invested,  our  railway  system  is 
so  huge  that  it  stands  absolutely  in  a 
class  by  itself  among  the  railroad  sys- 
tems of  the  world.  It  is  equally  true 
that  in  respect  of  the  character  of  its 
track,  rolling  stock,  its  general  equip- 
ment, and  methods  of  operation,  it  is 
marked  by  national  characteristics 
which  distinguish  it  far  more  sharply 
from  the  great  European  and  Asiatic 
roads,  than  they  are  distinguished 
from  each  other. 

In  attempting  to  impress  upon  the 
mind  the  magnitude  of  the  properties 
and  the  operations  represented  by  the 
statistics  of  such  huge  interests  as  the 
railroads  of  the  United  States,  where 
the  figures  run  into  the  millions  and 
billions,  it  is  necessary  to  translate 
these  figures  into  concrete  terms  and 
refer  them  to  some  widely  known 
standard  of  measurement,  whether  of 
distance,  weight,  or  bulk.  On  the  fol- 
lowing pages,  our  artist  has  endeavored 
— and  we  think  very  successfully — to 
transform  the  statistics  of  our  rail- 
roads into  concrete  form  by  taking  as 
a  unit  of  measurement  the  greatest 
single  constructive  work  of  man,  the 
great  Pyramid  of  Egypt,  with  whose 
dimensions  every  voting  American 
citizen  is  perfectly  familiar,  or,  if  he  is 
not,  ought  to  be.  From  time  immemo- 
rial the  great  Pyramid,  being  one  of 
the  original  seven  wonders  of  the 
world,  has  been  a  favorite  standard  of 
comparison  with  other  great  construc- 
tive works.  It  measures  some  756  feet 
on  the  base  by  481  feet  in  height,  and 
contains  about  91  y%  million  cubic  feet. 
Now,  before  we  can  use  even  this  well- 
known  standard  and  be  sure  that  it 
will  convey  its  full  impression  to  the 
average  reader,  we  must  compare  the 
Pyramid  itself  with  some  big  and  well- 
known  structure,  and  for  this  purpose 
our  artist  has  drawn  the  Capitol  of 
Washington  at  the  side  of  the  Pyra- 
mid, both  on  the  same  scale.  If  it 
were  possible  to  take  a  shell  of  the 
Pyramid,  composed  merely  of  the  outer 


'    layer  of  stone,  and  place  it  over  the 
I    Capitol,    it   would  practically   shut   it 
<    out   from    view,   and   the  apex   of   the 
Pyramid  would  extend  200  feet  above 
the  highest  point  of  the  Capitol  dome. 
The  total  length  of  the  railroads  in 
:    operation  in  the  United  States  at  the 
;    close  of  the  fiscal  year  1901  was  195,- 
!    887    miles,    this    total    not    including 
i    track    in    sidings,    etc.      If   these   rail- 
j    roads   could    be   stretched   out    in   one 
i    continuous   line,    they   would   ba   sufli- 
j    cient  to  girdle  the  earth  at  the  equator 
I    more  than  eight  times;   or,  if  started 
;    from  the  earth  and  stretched  outward 
into   space,   they     would     reach   four- 
fifths  of  the  distance  from  the  earth  to 
the  moon. 

Steel  Rails. — Now,  to  arrive  at  an 
estimate  of  what  it  has  taken  in  ma- 
terial to  build  this  length  of  railroad, 
let  us  assume  that  a  fair  average  size 
j  of  rail  is  one  weighing  75  pounds  to 
I  the  yard.  Much  of  the  track  in  the 
i  Eastern  States  weighs  80,  90  and  100 
pounds  to  the  yard,  while  most  of  the 
track  west  of  the  Mississippi  weighs 
70,  GO  and  in  some  instances  as  low  as 
56  pounds  to  the  yard.  On  this  basis 
it  is  an  easy  calculation  to  determine 
that  the  total  weight  of  these  rails  is 
over  25,000,000  tons ;  and  if  the  mass 
were  melted  and  cast  in  solid  pyra- 
midal form  it  would  contain  105,540,- 
000  cubic  feet,  and  would  be  over 
15  per  cent  larger  than  the  great 
Pyramid  itself.  If  the  rails  were  cast 
in  one  rectangular  block,  it  would 
form  a  mass  436  feet  square  on  the 
base  and  equal  in  height  to  the  Wash- 
ington Monument,  which  towers  550 
feet  above  its  base. 

Railroad  Ties. — The  railroad  ties 
used  in  this  country  vary  in  size  from 
a  tie  8  inches  wide,  6  inches  deep  and 
9  feet  long  to  ties  as  much  as  12  inches 
in  width  and  8  inches  in  depth.  .  A 
fair  average  would  be  a  tie  10  inches 
in  width  and  7  inches  in  depth  and  9 
feet  long,  and  a  good  average  spacing 
would  be  24  inches,  center  to  center 
of  the  ties,  or  say  2,600  to  the  mile. 
On  this  basis  we  find  that,  could  all 
these  ties  be  gathered  together  on  the 
Nile  desert  and  piled  one  upon  an- 
other into  a  pyramid  of  the  same  pro- 
portions as  that  at  Gizeh,  it  would 
form  a  mass  twenty-four  times  as  great 
as  the  Pyramid  of  the  Pharaohs,  meas- 
uring 2,200  feet  on  its  base  and  reach- 
ing 1.390  feet  into  the  air. 


*  Reprinted  from  the  "Transportation  Number"  of  the  Scientific  American,  Dec.  13.  1902, 
therefore  the  figures  and  the  comparisons  are  for  that  year. 


122 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


Q 


i*t 


II 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


123 


124 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


Rock  and  Gravel  Ballast.— After  the 
ties  and  rails  have  been  laid  in  the 
construction  of  a  railroad  the  ballast 
cars  pass  over  it  and  unload  their 
broken  rock  or  gravel,  which  is  tamped 
beneath  and  filled  around  the  ties  to 
form  a  solid  but  well-drained  founda-. 
tion.  On  some  of  our  Eastern  roads 
the  depth  of  the  ballast  will  exceed 
18  or  20  inches;  on  the  other  hand, 
some  of  the  Western  roads  have  nono 
at  all,  although  of  late  years  a  vast 
advance  has  been  made  in  the  ballast 
ing  of  the  more  cheaply  constructed 
systems.  Assuming  an  average  depth 
of  12  inches  of  ballast,  we  find  that 
if  the  railroad  builders  of  the  United 
States  had  concentrated  their  efforts, 
as  did  the  Egyptians  of  old,  on  a  sin- 
gle structure  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile, 
they  would,  in  a  period  of  years  not 
much  greater  than  that  required  to 
build  the  Pyramid,  have  raised  a  pyra- 
mid of  their  own  135  times  greater  in 
bulk  than  the  tomb  of  Cheops.  This 
vast  pile  would  measure  3,900  feet  on 
each  side  at  the  base,  and  would  lift 
its  head  nearly  half  a  mile  into  the 
air,  or  to  be  exact,  just  2.500  feet. 
Were  the  spirit  of  the  great  Cheops 
to  return  to  earth,  and  attempt  to 
pace  off  the  distance  around  the  base, 
it  would  have  to  step  out  some  5,000 
paces,  or  say  three  miles,  to  make  the 
circuit ;  and  should  it  climb  to  the 
summit,  it  would  have  to  make  a  jour- 
ney of  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile. 
So  much  for  the  roadbed  and  the 
track.  Now  let  us  turn  our  attention 
to  the  equipment. 

Locomotives. — At  the  close  of  the 
fiscal  year  1901,  there  were  in  service  . 
on  the  United  States  railroads  39,729 
locomotives.  Assuming  that  the  av- 
erage locomotive  fills  a  block  10  feet 
wide  by  15  feet  high  by  50  feet  long. 
and  that  all  these  locomotives  could  be 
brought  into  review  at  Gizeh  and  there 
piled  up  into  one  great  block,  a  loco- 
motive that  would  fill  that  block  would 
be  510  feet  in  height  and  1,700  feet, 
or,  say,  a  third  of  a  mile,  in  length,  its 
smokestack  towering  29  feet  above  the 
summit  of  the  Pyramid. 

Passenger  Cars. — There  are  35,800 
passenger,  mail  and  baggage  cars  on 
our  railroads,  and  a  typical  car  repre- 
senting the  space  occupied  by  these 
would  be  500  feet  high  and  1,950  feet 
in  length,  and  it  would  take  3  1-2  great 
Pyramids  to  equal  it  in  bulk. 

Freight  Cars. — As  far  as  the  equip- 
ment is  concerned  it  is  in  the  extraor- 
dinary number  of  the  freight  cars  em- 
ployed that  we  get  the  best  idea  of 


the  great  scale  upon  which  our  rail- 
roads are  operated.  The  total  number 
of  cars  is  1,409.472.  They  vary,  of 
course,  considerably  in  size,  capacity 
and  type,  there  being  in  addition  to  the 
familiar  box  car,  the  coal  cars  of  va- 
rious size  and  type,  the  freight  cars, 
and  a  small  number  of  miscellaneous 
cars  for  railroad  construction  and 
other  purposes.  A  single  box  car  repre- 
senting the  space  occupied  by  all  these 
freight  cars  would  be  two-thirds  of  a 
mile  in  length  and  one-quarter  of  a 
mile  in  height.  The  Pyramid  of  Che- 
ops would  reach,  about  to  the  floor  of 
the  car.  Were  the  Eiffel  Tower  set 
alongside  of  it,  it  would  reach  only 
two-thirds  of  the  distance  to  its  roof, 
while  the  whole  Brooklyn  Bridge,  with 
its  anchorages,  could  be  placed  bodily 
inside  the  car,  and  if  the  foundations 
of  its  piers  rested  upon  the  car  floor, 
the  summit  of  its  towers  would  still 
reach  only  half  way  to  the  roof  of  the 
car. 

Employees. — It  requires  over  one  mil- 
lion employees  for  the  maintenance  and 
operation  of  our  railroads.  Of  these 
nearly  one-half  are  engaged  upon  the 
track  and  roadbed,  in  proportions 
made  up  as  follows :  There  are  33,- 
817  section  foremen,  each  of  whom  has 
~a  stretch  of  a  few  miles  of  track  under 
his  charge,  and  a  gang  of  from  five  to 
eight  or  ten  section  men,  his  duties  be- 
ing those  of  maintaining  the  track  in 
proper  level  and  line,  seeing  that  the 
track  bolts  are  kept  tight,  the  joints  in 
good  order,  and  that  the  roadbed  is 
properly  trimmed,  graded  and  drained. 
The  total  number  of  trackmen  em- 
ployed in  the  section  gangs,  as  they 
are  called,  is  239,166.  There  are  also 
47,576  switchmen,  flagmen  and  watch- 
men, who  are  engaged  in  switching 
work  at  the  yards,  in  guarding  the 
level  crossings,  and  in  patrolling  the 
track.  There  are  also  over  7,423  men 
employed  on  work  trains  and  other 
work  incidental  to  track  maintenance. 
In  addition  to  these  there  are  131,722 
laborers  engaged  in  construction  and 
repair  and  maintenance  work  of  va- 
rious kinds,  making  a  total  engaged 
on  track  work  and  general  labor  con- 
nected therewith  of  459,704  men.  Car- 
rying out  our  system  of  comparison 
with  some  standard  of  bulk,  we  have 
chosen  the  Park  Row  Building,  New 
York,  which  has  a  total  height  of  390 
feet.  If  this  army  of  trackmen  and 
laborers  were  combined  in  one  typical 
giant,  he  would  be  some  385  feet  in 
height  and  of  proportionate  weight  and 
bulk.  The  next  largest  item  is  the 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


135 


Trackmen 
and  laborers. 


Machinists 
and  shopmen. 


Station 
agents  and 
stationmen. 


Conductors 
and  brakemen. 


Enginemen 
and  firemen. 


Clerks,  etc. 


-g  Telegraph 
•g  operators. 
R 

A 

^     General 
officers. 


126 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


machinists,  of  which  there  are  34,698, 
the  carpenters,  of  which  there  are  48,- 
946,  and  various  other  shopmen  en- 
gaged in  the  repair  and  general  main- 
tenance of  the  rolling  stock  to  the 
number  of  120,550,  making  a  total 
number  of  skilled  and  unskilled  men 
in  the  railroad  shops  of  204,194.  The 
next  largest  total  is  that  of  the  sta- 
tion agents,  baggage  masters,  porters, 
etc.,  there  being  32,294  station  agents 
and  94,847  baggage  masters,  porters, 
etc.  Then  follow  the  conductors  and 
brakemen,  32,000  of  the  former  and 
84,493  of  the  latter.  There  are  92,- 
458  enginemen  and  firemen,  45,292  of 
the  former  and  47,166  of  the  latter. 
Employed  in  the  general  offices  of  the 
various  railroad  companies,  in  per- 
forming the  vast  amount  of  clerical 
work  required,  there  are  39,701  clerks, 
while  sheltered  under  the  same  roof 
is  a  body  of  men  upon  whom  as  much 
as  or  more  than  any  other  in  the  whole 


army  of  railroad  employees  falls  the 
responsibility  of  the  safety  of  trains 
and  passengers — the  telegraph  opera- 
tors and  dispatchers,  of  whom  there 
are  altogether  26,606.  The  smallest  in 
number,  but  controlling  the  whole  of 
this  vast  organization,  are  the  general 
officers,  presidents,  vice-presidents, 
treasurers,  secretaries,  etc.,  of  whom 
there  are  4.780. 

Money  Value. — Perhaps,  after  all, 
the  most  remarkable  figures  are  -those 
which  show  the  total  value  of  the  rail- 
road system  of  the  United  States, 
which  expressed  in  figures  is  13,308,- 
029,032  dollars.  If  this  sum  were  rep- 
resented in  ten-dollar  gold  pieces,  and 
these  pieces  were  set  on  edge,  side  by 
side,  they  would  reach  more  than  half 
way  from  New  York  to  San  Fran- 
cisco, or  1,700  miles.  Or,  were  this 
coin  melted  and  run  into  a  single  cast- 
ing, it  would  form  a  column  15  feet 
in  diameter  and  259  feet  in  height. 


ABSTRACT  OF  STATISTICS  OF  RAILWAYS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 
FOR  THE  YEAR  ENDING  JUNE  30,  1903. 


From  summaries  which  appear  in 
the  Sixteenth  Statistical  Report  of  the 
Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  pre- 
pared by  its  statistician  as  the  com- 
plete report  for  the  year  ending  June 
30,  1903,  this  information  is  obtained : 

MILEAGE       AND       CAPITALIZATION       OF 
ROADS. 

The  total  single-track  railway  mile- 
age in  the  United  States  on  June  30, 
1903,  was  207,977.22  miles,  having  in- 
creased 5,505.37  miles  in  the  year  end- 
ing on  that  date.  This  increase  ex- 
ceeds that  of  any  previous  year  since 
1890.  The  nineteen  states  and  terri- 
tories for  which  an  increase  in  mileage 
exceeding  100  miles  is  shown  are  Ar- 
kansas, California,  Georgia,  Illinois, 
Louisiana,  Michigan,  Minnesota,  Mis- 
sissippi, Missouri,  North  Carolina, 
North  Dakota,  Pennsylvania,  Texas, 
Washington,  West  Virginia,  -Wiscon- 
sin, Indian  Territory,  New  Mexico, 
and  Oklahoma.  Most  of  the  railway 
mileage  of  the  country,  excepting  that 
of  street  lines,  is  covered  by  reports 
rendered  to  the  Commission  by  the  car- 
riers. 

For  the  year  under  consideration  the 
operated  mileage  concerning  which  sub- 
stantially complete  returns  were  made 
was  205,313.54 miles,  including  5,902.87 
miles  of  line  on  which  trackage  privi- 
leges were  exercised.  The  aggregate 


length  of  railway  mileage,  including 
tracks  of  all  kinds,  was  283,821.52 
miles,  being  classified  as  follows : 
Single  track,  205,313.54  miles;  sec- 
ond track,  14,681.03  miles;  third 
.track,  1.303.53  miles;  fourth  track, 
963,36  miles ;  and  yard  track  and 
sidings,  61,560.06  miles.  Thus  it  ap- 
pears that  there  was  an  increase  of 
9.626.16  miles  in  the  aggregate  length 
of  all  tracks,  of  which  3,339.13  miles, 
or  34.69  per  cent,  were  due  to  the  ex- 
tension of  yard  track  and  sidings. 

The  number  of  railway  corporations 
included  in  the  report  was  2,078.  Of 
this  number  1,036  maintained  operat- 
ing accounts,  805  being  classed  as  in- 
dependent operating  roads  and  231  as 
subsidiary  roads.  Of  roads  operated 
under  lease  or  some  other  form  of  con- 
tract, 316  received  a  fixed  money  rent- 
al, 150  a  contingent  money  rental,  and 
275  were  operated  under  conditions 
not  readily  classified.  In  the  course 
of  the  year  railway  companies  owning 
11.074.19  miles  of  line  were  reorgan- 
ized, merged,  consolidated,  etc.  For 
the  year  1902  the  corresponding  item 
was  7,385.99  miles. 

The  length  of  mileage  operated  by 
receivers  on  June  30,  1903,  was  1,- 
185.45  miles,  showing  a  decrease  of 
289.87  miles  as  compared  with  the 
previous  year.  The  number  of  roads 
in  the  hands  of  receivers  was  the  same 
as  at  the  close  of  the  previous  year,  9 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


127 


3  I  "    " 

211* 


^  -a  "3  S 
oft  PQ  H 


2  J~ 

5§  § 
-I  I1 

<3    aT    O- 

111' 

^  J;  = 


128 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


roads  having  been  taken  from  the 
hands  of  receivers  and  a  like  number 
having  been  placed  in  charge  of  the 
courts. 

EQUIPMENT. 

On  June  30,  1903,  there  were  in 
the  service  of  the  railways  43,871  loco- 
motives, the  increase  being  2,646.  As 
classified,  these  locomotives  were :  Pas- 
senger, 10,570;  freight,  25,444; 
switching,  7,058.  There  were  also  799 
not  assigned  to  any  class. 

The  total  number  of  cars  of  all 
classes  was  1,753,389,  this  total  hav- 
ing increased  113,204  during  the  year. 
The  assignment  of  this  rolling*  stock 
was,  to  the  passenger  service,  38.140 
cars;  to  the  freight  service,  1,653.782 
cars;  the  remaining  61,467  cars  being 
those  employed  directly  by  the  rail- 
ways in  their  own  service.  Cars  used 
by  the  railways  that  were  owned  by 
private  companies  and  firms  are  not 
included  in  this  statement.  The  aver- 
age number  of  locomotives  per  1,000 
miles  of  line  was  214,  showing  an  in- 
crease of  8.  The  average  number  of 
cars  per  1,000  miles  of  line  was  8,540, 
showing  an  increase  of  345  as  com- 
pared with  the  previous  year.  The 
number  of  passenger-miles  per  pas- 
senger locomotive  was  1,978,786,  show- 
ing an  increase  of  70,476  miles.  The 
number  of  ton-miles  per  freight  loco- 
motive was  6,807,981,  showing  an  in- 
crease of  141,482  miles  as  compared 
with  June  30,  1902. 

The  aggregate  number  of  locomo- 
tives and  cars  in  the  service  of  the 
railways  was  1,797,260.  Of  this  num- 
ber 1,462,259  were  fitted  with  train 
brakes,  indicating  an  increase  during 
the  year  of  155,414,  and  1,770,558 
were  fitted  with  automatic  couplers, 
indicating  an  increase  of  122,028. 
Practically  all  locomotives  and  cars  in 
passenger"  service  had  train  brakes, 
and  of  the  10,570  locomotives  in  that 
service,  10  110  were  fitted  with  auto- 
matic couplers.  Only  a  few  cars  in 
passenger  service  were  without  auto- 
matic couplers.  With  respect  to 
freight  equipment  it  appears  that  most 
of  the  freight  locomotives  had  train 
brakes  and  98  per  cent  of  them  auto- 
matic couplers.  Of  1,653.782  cars  in 
freight  service  on  June  30.  1903,  1.- 
352,123  had  train  brakes  and  1,632,330 
automatic  couplers.  In  this  report 
there  have  been  continued  several  sum- 
maries, first  presented  in  the  report  for 
1902,  to  show  the  general  type  of 
efficiency  of  locomotives  and  the  ca- 
pacity of  freight  cars. 


In  these  summaries  locomotives  are 
classified  under  the  heads  of  single-ex- 
pansion locomotives,  four-cylinder  com- 
pound locomotives,  and  two-cylinder 
compound  or  cross-compound  locomo- 
tives. Each  of  these  classes  of  locomo- 
tives is  further  classified  according  to 
the  number  of  drivers,  and  the  number 
of  pilot  wheels  and  trailers. 

Freight  cars  are  first  classified  as 
box  cars,  flat  cars,  stock  cars,  coal 
cars,  tank  cars,  refrigerator  cars,  and 
other  cars.  The  cars  in  these  classes 
are  further  distributed  among  the 
requisite  number  of  subclasses,  the 
lowest  of  which.  Class  I,  being  for  cars 
having  capacities  in  the  10,000  of 
pounds ;  Class  II  for  cars  in  the  20,- 
000  of  pounds,  the  other  classes  suc- 
cessively increasing  in  the  same  ratio. 


EMPLOYEES. 

The  number  of  persons  on  the  pay 
rolls  of  the  railways  in  the  United 
States,  as  returned  for  June  30,  1903, 
was  1,312,537,  or  639  per  100  miles  of 
line.  These  figures,  when  compared 
with  the  corresponding  ones  for  the 
year  1902.  show  an  increase  of  123,222 
in  the  number  of  employees,  or  45  per 
100  miles  of  line.  The  classification 
of  employees  includes  enginemen,  52,- 
993;  firemen,  56,041;  conductors,  39.- 
741,  and  other  trainmen,  104,885. 
There  were  49961  switch  tenders, 
crossing  tenders,  and  watchmen.  With 
regard  to  the  four  general  divisions  of 
railway  employment  it  appears  that 
general  administration  required  the 
services  of  45,222  employees ;  mainte- 
nance of  way  and  structures,  433,648 
employees ;  maintenance  of  equipment, 
253,889  employees,  and  conducting 
transportation,  576,881  employees. 
This  statement  disregards  a  few  em- 
ployees of  which  no  assignment  was 
made. 

The  usual  statement  of  the  average 
daily  compensation  of  the  18  classes  of 
employees  for  a  series  of  years  is  con- 
tinued in  the  present  report,  which 
shows  also  the  aggregate  amount  of 
compensation  paid  to  more  than  97  per 
cent  of  the  number  of  employees  for 
the  year  1903  and  more  than  99  per 
rent  for  the  six  years  preceding.  The 
amount  of  wages  and  salaries  paid  to 
employees  during  the  year  end-ng  June 
30.  1903,  as  reported,  was  $757,321,- 
415:  but  this  amount,  as  compared 
with  the  total  reported  for  the  year 
1902, ,  is  understated  for  want  of  re- 
turns, by  $18,000,000  at  least. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


129 


CAPITALIZATION  OF  RAILWAY  PROPERTY. 

The  par  value  of  the  amount  of 
railway  capital  outstanding  on  June 
30,  1903,  was  $12,599,990,258, 
which  represents  a  capitalization 
of  $03,186  per  mile  for  the  rail- 
ways of  the  United  States.  Of 
this  capital,  $6,155,559,032  existed  as 
stock,  of  which  $4,876,961,012  was 
common  and  $1,278,598.020  preferred, 
and  the  remaining  part,  $6,444,431,226, 
as  funded  debt,  which  consisted  of 
mortgage  bonds,  $5,426,730.154 ;  mis- 
cellaneous obligations,  $640,704,135 ; 
income  bonds,  $234,016,821,  and  equip- 
ment trust  obligations,  $142,980,116. 
Current  liabilities  are  not  included  in 
railway  capital  for  the  reason  that  this 
class  of  indebtedness  has  to  do  with 
the  operation  rather  than  with  the 
construction  and  equipment  of  a  road. 
Current  liabilities  for  the  year  amount- 
ed to  $864,552,960,  or  $4,211  per  mile 
of  line. 

Of  the  total  capital  stock  outstand- 
ing, $2,704,821,163,  or  43.94  per  cent, 
paid  no  dividends.  The  amount  of 
dividends  declared  during  the  year  was 
$196.728,176.  being  equivalent  to  5.70 
per  cent  on  dividend-paying  stock.  For 
the  year  ending  June  30,  1902,  the 
amount  of  dividends  declared  was 
$185,391,655.  Of  the  total  amount  of 
stock  outstanding,  $6,155,559,032,  6.59 
per  cent  paid  from  1  to  4  per  cent; 
13.51  per  cent  from  4  to  5  per  cent ; 
10.34  per  cent  from  5  to  6  per  cent ; 
11.39  per  cent  from  6  to  7  per  cent, 
and  9.10  per  cent  from  7  to  8  per  cent. 
The  amount  of  funded  debt  (omitting 
equipment  trust  obligations)  that  paid 
no  interest  was  $272788.421,  or  4.33 
per  cent.  Of  mortgage  bonds,  $194,- 
295,524,  or  3.58  per  cent,  of  miscel- 
laneous obligations,  $7,377,925,  or  1.15 
per  cent,  and  of  income  bonds,  $71,- 
114,972,  or  30.39  per  cent,  paid  no  in- 
terest. 


PUBLIC  SERVICE  OF  RAILWAYS. 

The  number  of  passengers  reported 
as  carried  by  the  railways  in  the  year 
ending  June  30,  1903,  was  694.891,535, 
indicating  an  increase  of  45,013  030  as 
compared  with  the  year  ending  June 
30.  1902.  The  passenger-mileage,  or 
the  number  of  passengers  carried  1 
mile,  was  20.915.763,881,  having  in- 
creased 1.225,826261. 

The  number  of  tons  of  fre'ght  re- 
ported as  carried  (including  freight 
received  from  connecting  roads  and 
other  carriers)  was  1,304,394,323, 


which  exceeds  the  tonnage  of  the  pre- 
vious year  by  104,078,536  tons.  The 
ton-mileage,  or  the  number  of  tons  car- 
ried 1  mile,  was  173222,278,993,  the 
increase  being  15,932,908,940.  The 
number  of  tons  carried  1  mile  per  mile 
of  line  was  855,447,  which  figures  in- 
dicate an  increase  in  the  density  of 
freight  traffic  of  62,096  ton-miles  per 
mile  of  line. 

The  average  revenue  per  passenger 
per  mile  for  the  year  mentioned  was 
2.006  cents,  the  average  for  the  pre- 
ceding year  being  1.986  cents.  The 
average  revenue  per  ton  per  mile  was 
0.763  cent.  This  average  for  the  pre- 
ceding year  was  0.757  cent.  Earnings 
per  train  mile  show  an  increase  both 
for  passenger  and  freight  trains.  The 
average  cost  of  running  a  train  1  mile 
appears  to  have  increased  between  8 
and  9  cents.  The  ratio  of  operating 
expenses  to  earnings,  66.16  per  cent, 
also  increased  in  comparison  with  the 
preceding  year,  when  it  was  64.66  per 
cent. 

A  summary  of  freight  traffic,  classi- 
fied on  the  basis  of  a  commodity  classi- 
fication embracing  some  thirty-eight 
items,  is  continued  for  the  year  under 
review. 

EARNINGS  AND  EXPENSES. 

The  gross  earnings  of  the  railways  in 
the  United  States  from  the  operation 
of  205,313.54  miles  of  line  were,  for 
the  year  ending  June  30,  1903,  $1,900,- 
846,907,  being  $174.466,640  greater 
than  for  the  previous  year.  Their 
operating  expenses  were  $1,257,538,- 
852,  or  $141,290,105  more  than  in 
1902.  The  following  figures  give  gross 
earnings  in  detail,  with  the  increase 
or  the  decrease  of  the  several  items  as 
compared  with  the  previous  year :  Pas- 
senger revenue,  $421 ,704,592 — increase. 
$28,741,344 ;  mail,  $41,709,396— in- 
crease, $1,873,552;  express,  $38.331,- 
964 — increase,  $4,078,505;  other  earn- 
ings from  passenger  service,  $9,821,- 
277— increase.  $962,508;  freight  reve- 
nue, $1,338,020,026 — increase,  $130,- 
791,181 ;  other  earnings  from  freight 
service,  $4.467,025 — decrease,  $379,- 
693 ;  other  earnings  from  operation, 
including  unclassified  items,  $46,792,- 
627  —  increase,  $8,399,243.  Gross 
earnings  from  operation  per  mile  of 
line  averaged  $9.258,  the  correspond- 
ing average  for  the  year  1902  being 
$633  less. 

The  operating  expenses  were  as- 
signed to  the  four  general  divisions  of 
such  expenses?  as  follows :  Mainte- 


130 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


nance  of  way  and  structures,  $266,421,- 
774 ;  maintenance  of  equipment,  $240,- 
429,742 ;  conducting  transportation, 
$702,509,818;  general  expenses,  $47,- 
767,947;  undistributed,  $409,571.  Op- 
erating expenses  were  $6,125  per  mile 
of  line,  haying  increased  $548  per  mile 
in  comparison  with  the  preceding  year. 
The  statistical  report  contains  an 
analysis  of  the  operating  expenses  for 
the  year  according  to  the  fifty-three 
accounts  prescribed  in  the  official 
classification  of  these  expenses,  with 
the  percentage  of  each  item  of  the  ex- 
penses as  classified  for  the  years  1897 
to  1903. 

The  income  from  operation,  or  the 
net  earnings,  of  the  railways  amount- 
ed to  $643,308,055.  This  item,  when 
compared  with  the  net  earnings  of  the 
year  1902,  shows  an  increase  of  $33,- 
176,535.  Net  earnings  per  mile  for 
1903  averaged  $3,133;  for  1902,  $3,- 
048,  and  for  1901,  $2,854.  The 
amount  of  income  obtained  from  other 
sources  than  operation  was  $205,687,- 
480.  In  this  amount  are  included  the 
following  items :  Income  from  lease 
of  road,  $109,696,201;  dividends  on 
stocks  owned,  $40,081,725 ;  interest  on 
bonds  owned,  $17,696,586,  and  miscel- 
laneous income,  $38,212,968.  The  to- 
tal income  of  the  railways,  $848,995,- 
535 — that  is,  the  income  from  opera- 
tion and  from  other  sources — is  the 
amount  from  which  fixed  charges  and 
similar  items  of  expenditure  are  de- 
ducted to  ascertain  the  sum  available 
for  dividends.  Deductions  of  such  na- 
ture totalized  $552,619,490,  leaving 
$296,376,045  as  the  net  income  for  the 
year  available  for  dividends  or  surplus. 

The  amount  of  dividends  declared 
during  the  year  (including  $420,400, 
other  payments  from  net  income)  was 
$197,148,576,  leaving  as  the  surplus 
from  the  operations  of  the  year  ending 
June  30,  1903,  $99,227.469,  that  of 
the  previous  year  having  been  $94,855,- 
088.  The  amount  stated  above  for  de- 
ductions from  income,  $552,619,490, 
comprises  the  following  items : 
Salaries  and  maintenance  of  organi- 
zation. $430,427 ;  interest  accrued  on 
funded  debt,  $283,953,124;  interest  on 
current  liabilities,  $9,060,645;  rents 
paid  for  lease  of  road,  $112,230,384; 
taxes,  $57,849,569 ;  permanent  im- 
provements charged  to  income  account, 
$41,948,183;  other  deductions,  $47,- 
147,158. 

It  is  perhaps  appropriate  to  mention 
that  the  foregoing  figures  for  the  in- 
come and  expenditures  of  the  railways, 
being  compiled  from  the  annual  re- 


turns of  leased  roads  as  well  as  of  op- 
erating roads,  necessarily  include  du- 
plications in  certain  items  of  income, 
and  also  of  expenditure,  since,  in  gen- 
eral, the  income  of  a  leased  road  is  the 
rent  paid  by  the  company  which  op- 
erates it. 

RAILWAY  ACCIDENTS. 

The  statement  of  accidents  to  per- 
sons in  the  summaries  in  the  statisti- 
cal report  under  consideration  are  pre- 
sented under  the  two  general  classes 
of  accidents  resulting  from  the  move- 
ment of  trains,  locomotives,  or  cars, 
and  of  accidents  arising  from  causes 
other  than  those  resulting  from  the 
movement  of  trains,  locomotives,  or 
cars.  These  classes  include  all  the 
casualties  returned  by  the  carriers  in 
their  annual  reports  to  the  Commis- 
sion, whether  sustained  by  passengers, 
employees,  trespassers,  or  other  per- 
sons, and  for  a  number  of  reasons  they 
are  not  in  all  respects  comparable  with 
others  in  the  bulletins  that  are  based 
on  monthly  reports. 

The  total  number  of  casualties  to 
persons  on  the  railways  for  the  year 
ending  June  30,  1903,  was  86,393,  of 
which  9,840  represented  the  number 
of  persons  killed  and  76,553  the  num- 
ber injured.  Casualties  occurred 
among  three  general  classes  of  rail- 
way employees,  as  follows :  Train- 
men, 2,070  killed  and  25,676  injured; 
switch  tenders,  crossing  tenders  and 
watchmen,  283  killed,  2,352  injured; 
other  employees,  1,253  killed,  32,453 
injured.  The  casualties  to  employees 
coupling  and  uncoupling  cars  were, 
employees  killed,  281 ;  injured,  3,551. 
For  the  year  1902  the  corresponding 
figures  were,  killed,  167;  injured,  2,- 
864.  The  casualties  connected  with 
coupling  and  uncoupling  cars  are  as- 
signed as  follows :  Trainmen  killed, 
211  ;  injured,  3,023 ;  switch  tenders, 
crossing  tenders  and  watchmen  killed, 
57 ;  injured,  416 ;  other  employees 
killed,  13;  injured,  112. 

The  casualties  due  to  falling  from 
trains,  locomotives,  or  cars  in  motion 
were  :  Trainmen  killed,  440  ;  injured, 
4,191 ;  switch  tenders,  crossing  tenders 
and  watchmen  killed,  39 ;  injured, 
461 ;  other  employees  killed,  72 ;  in- 
jured. 536.  The  casualties  due  to 
jumping  on  or  off  trains,  locomotives, 
or  cars  in  motion  were :  Trainmen 
killed,  101  ;  injured,  3,133 ;  switch 
tenders,  crossing  tenders  and  watch- 
men killed,  15;  injured,  279;  other 
employees  killed,  82;  injured,  508. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


131 


The  casualties  to  the  same  three 
classes  of  employees  in  consequence  of 
collisions  and  derailments  were : 
Trainmen  killed,  648;  injured,  4,526; 
switch  tenders,  crossing  tenders  and 
watchmen  killed,  17 ;  injured,  137 ; 
other  employees  killed,  128 ;  injured, 
743. 

The  number  of  passengers  killed  in 
the  course  of  the  year  1903  was  355, 
and  the  number  injured  8,231.  In  the 
previous  year  345  passengers  were 
killed  and  6,683  injured.  There  were 
173  passengers  killed  and  4,584  injured 
because  of  collisions  and  derailments. 
The  total  number  of  persons,  other 
than  employees  and  passengers,  killed 
was  5,879;  injured,  7,841.  These  fig- 
ures include  the  casualties  to  persons 
classed  as  trespassing,  of  whom  5,000 
were  killed  and  5,0  <  9  were  injured. 
The  total  number  of  casualties  to  per- 
sons other  than  employees  from  being 
struck  by  trains,  locomotives,  or  cars, 
were  4.534  killed  and  4,029  injured. 
The  casualties  of  this  class  were  as 


follows :  At  highway  crossings,  pas- 
sengers killed,  3 ;  injured,  7 ;  other 
persons  killed,  895 ;  injured,  1,474 ;  at 
stations,  passengers  killed,  24 ;  in- 
jured, 108 ;  other  persons  killed,  390 ; 
injured,  501  ;  at  other  points  along 
track,  passengers  killed,  8 ;  injured, 
14:  other  persons  killed,  3,214;  in- 
jured, 1,925.  The  ratios  of  casualties 
indicate  that  1  employee  in  every  364 
was  killed,  and  1  employee  in  every  22 
was  injured.  With  regard  to  train- 
men— that  is,  enginemen,  firemen,  con- 
ductors, and  other  trainmen — it  ap- 
pears that  1  trainman  was  killed  for 
every  123  employed,  and  1  was  injured 
for  every  10  employed. 

One  passenger  was  killed  for  every 
1,957,441  carried,  and  1  injured  for 
every  84,424  carried.  With  respect  to 
the  number  of  miles  traveled,  how- 
ever, the  figures  show  that  58,917,645 
passenger-miles  were  accomplished  for 
each  passenger  killed,  and  2,541,096 
passenger-miles  for  each  passenger  in- 
jured. 


INTERESTING    FACTS    CONCERNING   RAILWAYS. 


Differences  of  Gauge.— It  is  not  really 
known  what,  if  any,  principle  governed  the 
determination  in  the  first  instance  of  the 
gauge  between  the  rails  of  4  ft.  8£  ins.,  which 
is  the  standard  railway  gauge  of  the  world. 
It  is  supposed  to  have  been  adopted  from  the 
roads  of  the  collieries  in  the  north  of  England, 
whose  uniform  width  necessitated  the  use  of 
wagons  having  axles  of  an  outside  width  of 
5  feet.v  In  places  these  wagons  ran  on  tram- 
ways, with  a  flange  on  the  outer  edge  of  the 
rail.  Then  came  the  edge  rail,  which  trans- 
ferred the  flange  to  the  wheel.  However,  the  • 
same  width  of  track  was  continued,  but  meas- 
ured from  the  inner  edge  of  the  rail  it  gave  a 
gauge  of  4  ft.  8$-  ins.  When  Stephenson  was 
selected  from  these  collieries  to  build  the  Liv- 
.  erpool  and  Manchester  railway,  he  brought 
with  him  the  gauge  with  which  he  was  familiar. 
The  4  ft.  8£  ins.  gauge  is  the  standard  one  in 
Europe,  with  but  few  exceptions,  and  in  North 
America,  and  throughout  the  world  generally, 
though  every  country  possesses  lines  of  nar- 
rower gauges.  European  countries  having  a 
different  gauge  are  Ireland,  5  ft.  3  ins.,  Russia, 
5  ft.,  and  Spain,  5  ft.  6  ins.  The  standard 
gauge  of  India  is  5  ft.  6  ins.,  while  there  are 
also  a  number  of  railways  whose  mileage 
amounts  to  42  per  cent,  of  the  whole,  built  on 
the  3  ft.  31  ins.  gauge.  In  New  Zealand,  Tas- 
mania, South  Africa  and  the  Sudan  the  stand- 
ard gauge  is  3  ft.  6  ins.  Australia  has  no 
standard  gauge.  In  New  South  Wales  the 
gauge  is  4  ft.  8£  ins.,  in  Queensland  3  ft.  6  ins., 
and  in  Victoria,  5  ft.  3  ins. 


CAPE     TO     CAIRO     RAILWAY. 

The  Cape  to  Cairo  Railway,  which  was  the 
late  Mr.  Rhodes's  scheme  for  joining  the 
south  and  north  of  Africa,  a  distance  of  nearly 
5,000  miles,  is  making  rapid  progress.  North- 
wards from  the  Cape  the  line  has  been  carried 
forward  by  the  Chartered  Company  to  the 
Wankie  coal-fields^  which  are  200  miles  north 
of  Buluwayo  (or  1,560  miles  north  from  the 
sea),  and  some  70  miles  south  of  the  Victoria 
Falls.  At  the  present  rate  of  progress  it  is 
expected  that  the  railway  will  reach  the  Vic- 
toria Falls  about  April,  1905.  In  the  north 
the  railway  only  runs  as  far  as  Khartoum,  and 
in  spite  of  the  agreement  with  Abyssinia  per- 
mitting the  making  of  a  line  through  its  terri- 
tory, no  extension  south  is  likely  in  the  present 
generation. 

Mr.  Rhodes's  idea  was  to  fit  the  main  lines 
with  branches  to  the  coast;  there  will  be 
many  of  these  in  time.  Two  are  finished,  the 
Uganda  Railway  (British)  and  the  Beira-Sal- 
isbury  line  (Portuguese);  others  are  planned, 
such  as  the  Congo-Katanga  Railway  (Belgian) 
to  Rhodesia  and  one  through  German  East 
Africa.  The  Cape  to  Cairo  telegraph  is 
rapidly  approaching  completion;  it  has  now 
reached  Central  Africa. 


TRANS-SIBERIAN     RAILWAY. 

The  opening  of  the  Trans-Siberian  Mail 
route  promises  to  accelerate  the  transmission 
of  European  letters  to  and  from  the  north  of 


132 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


China.  A  letter  posted  from  Tientsin  on  the 
30th  August,  1902,  and  forwarded  by  this 
route,  was  delivered  in  Liverpool  on  the  28th 
September — just  28  days  later.  The  trans- 
mission of  letters  via  Brindisi  or  via  Van- 
couver usually  takes  from  36  to  40  days. 
Therefore,  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway  saves 
at  least  a  week,  which  is  a  matter  of  great  im- 
portance to  commercial  houses.  Delivery  is, 
however,  erratic,  and  no  working  arrange- 
ment has  yet  been  arrived  at  between  the 
Post  Offices  of  Great  Britain  and  Russia.  All 
that  the  former  does  is  to  forward  letters 
marked  "Via  Siberia"  by  the  Russian  route; 
all  others  go  by  sea. 

On  Sept.  27th,  1903,  the  mails  to  the  Far 
East  were  despatched  from  Paris  (Nord)  for 
the  first  time  via  Berlin  and  Moscow. 

Moscow  is  the  western  terminus  of  the 
Trans-Siberian  Railway,  the  main  line  of 
which  extends  thence  to  Dalny,  a  distance  of 
5,403  miles.  The  Manchuria-Dalny  section, 
1,171  miles,  embraces  the  following  important 
junctions:  Harbin,  for  Vladivostok  via  Gro- 
dekovo;  Tachitchiao,  for  Pekin  via  Inkoo 
(Newchang),  and  Nangaline  for  Port  Arthur. 

The  most  direct  route  from  London  to  Mos- 
cow is  via  Dover,  Ostend,  Berlin,  Alexan- 
drowo,  Warsaw,  and  Brest  Litewski.  The 
distance  is  1,800  miles,  and  the  through  jour- 
ney occupies  67  hours. 

The  Coast  terminals  of  the  Trans-Siberian 
Railway,  viz.,  Dalny,  Vladivostok,  and  Port 
Arthur,  are  also  ports  of  call  with  various 
steamship  companies,  whose  boats  are  ar- 
ranged to  connect  with  the  train  service  gen- 
erally. Thus,  the  boats  of  the  East  China 
Railway  Company  ply  between  Dalny  and 
Shanghai,  Dalny  and  N?gasaki,  and  Dalny, 
Port  Arthur,  and  Chifu,  and  between  Vladi- 
vostok and  Shanghai.  The  "Oiye"  (Japan) 
Line  call  at  Vladivostok  and  sail  to  and  from 
all  Japanese  ports.  The  Russian  Volunteer 
fleet  has  a  steamship  service  between  Odessa 
and  Vladivostok,  calling  at  Singapore,  Port 
Arthur,  and  Nagasaki.  The  "Nipon.  Yusen- 
Kaisha" Company  furnish  boats  between  Kobe, 


Nagasaki,  Fusan,  Gensan,  and  Vladivostok, 
and  between  Kobe,  Chifu,  Dalny,  Port  Arthur, 
and  Taku.  The  Hamburg-American  Line 
gives  a  service  between  Hongkong  and  Vladi- 
vostok. 

Fares  from  London,  via  Dover,  Ostend,  and 
Alexandrowo: 

1st  2d 

Class.  Class 

To  Dalny $195  $135 

To  Pekin 200  140 

To  Port  Arthur 200  140 

To  Vladivostok 185  125 

To  Shanghai 215  150 

To  Nagasaki 215  150 

Trains  are  ferried  across  Lake  Baikal,  but 
the  railway  round  the  south  of  the  lake  is 
being  built.  The  Manchurian  Railway  itself 
is  in  a  very  bad  condition,  owing  to  poor  con- 
struction. Days  and  sometimes  weeks  of  de- 
lay are  common.  The  Siberian  main  line, 
now  single,  is  to  be  doubled. 

New  Trans-Canadian  Railway. — The  Grand 
Trunk  Railway  Company  has  secured  the 
assent  of  the  Dominion  Parliament  to  the 
construction  of  a  new  railroad  straight  across 
Canada,  from  New  Brunswick  in  the  east  te 
the  Pacific  Ocean  in  the  west.  The  Govern- 
ment will  themselves  be  the  owners  of  the 
whole  line  from  New  Brunswick  to  Winnipeg, 
but  the  line  is  to  be  leased  to  and  worked  by 
the  Grand  Trunk  Pacific.  The  Grand  Trunk 
Pacific  will  be  restricted  in  its  possession  and 
ownership  of  the  road  west  of  Winnipeg. 

Sahara  Railway. — A  project  which  is  being 
much  discussed  in  France  is  a  railway  across 
the  Sahara.  Three  routes  have  been  sug- 
gested, one  from  Igli  to  the  Niger,  one  from 
Biskra,  214  miles  southeast  of  Algiers,  to  the 
west  shore  of  Lake  Chad,  and  the  third  from 
Bizerta  in  Tunis  to  Lake  Chad.  M.  Paul 
Bonnard,  an  expert  in  African  affairs,  recom- 
mends the  latter,  as  it  would  connect  the 
French  possessions  in  North  Africa  with  the 
French  Congo,  and  thus  become  a  trans- 
African  railway. 

—Daily  Mail  Year  Book. 


STREET  AND  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1902. 


The  statistics  contained  in  this  sec- 
tion cover  all  street  and  electric  rail- 
ways in  the  United  States  that  were 
in  operation  during  any  part  of  the 
year  ending  June  30,  1902.  The  term 
"street  and  electric  railways"  as  here 
used  includes  all  electric  railways  irre- 
spective of  their  length  or  location, 
and  all  street  railways  irrespective  of 
their  motive  power.  At  the  census  of 
1890  the  railroads  that  used  motive 
power  other  than  steam  were  confiped 
almost  exclusively  to  urban  districts 
and  were  properly  classed  as  "street 
railways,"  but  the  application  of  elec- 


tricity has  enabled  these  roads  to 
greatly  extend  their  lines  in  rural  dis- 
tricts, and  a  large  proportion  of  the 
trackage  is  now  outside  the  limits  of 
cities,  towns,  or  villages.  That  the 
use  of  electric  power  has  been  the 
principal  factor  in  the  development  of 
these  railways  during  the  past  feu- 
years  is  shown  by  the  table  which 
presents  for  the  years  1890  and  1902, 
the  number  of  companies  and  miles 
of  single  track  in  the  United 
States,  segregated  according  to  char- 
acter of  motive  power  which  is  em- 
ployed. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


133 


NUMBER     OF     COMPANIES     AND     MILES     OF     SINGLE    TRACK     GROUPED 
ACCORDING     TO     MOTIVE     POWER:     1890     AND     1902. 


CHARACTER    OF    POWER. 

1902 

1890 

PER  CENT  OF 
INCREASE. 

Num- 
ber   of 
com- 
pa- 
nies. 

Miles  of 
single 
track. 

Num- 
ber   of 
com- 
pa- 
nies. 

Miles   of 
single 
track. 

Num- 
ber   of 
com- 
pa- 
nies. 

Miles   of 
single 
track. 

United  States  

849 

*22,589.47 

761 

8,123.02 

11.6 

178.1 

Electric  . 

747 
67 
26 
9 

f21,  920.07 
259.10 
240.69 
169.61 

126 
506 
55 

74 

1,261.97 
5,661.44 
488.31 
711.30 

492.9 

186.8 
152.7 
J87.8 

1,637.0 
J95.4 
J50.7 
J76.2 

Animal  
Cable.  . 

Steam  

*  Includes  12.48  miles  of  track  duplicated  in  reports  of  different  companies, 
t  Includes  6.06  miles  operated  by  compressed  air. 
|  Decrease. 


At  both  censuses  some  companies 
reported  the  use  of  more  than  one  kind 
of  power,  and  in  order  to  show  the 
total  number  of  companies  for  each 
class,  they  have  been  counted  more 
than  once  ;  therefore  the  total  given  in 
table  above  exceeds  the  actual  number 
of  separate  companies.  The  increase 
in  the  length  of  track  is  confined  en- 
tirely to  the  roads  operated  by  electric 
power.  The  use  of  electric  power  was 
reported  by  126  companies  in  1890 
and  747  in  1902.  The  single  track 
mileage  operated  by  this  power  in- 
creased from  1.261.97  miles  in  1890 


to  21,920.07  in  1902.  A  decided  de- 
crease is  shown  in  the  number  of 
companies  and  the  trackage  for  each 
of  the  other  classes  of  power. 

The  length  of  single  track,  22,589.47 
miles,  reported  for  1902,  consists  of 
16,651.58  miles  of  first  main  track, 
5,030.36  miles  of  second  main  track, 
and  907.53  miles  of  sidings  and  turn- 
outs. The  second  table  reproduces 
the  totals  for  the  United  States  and 
shows  the  mileage  of  each  of  the  dif- 
ferent classes  of  track  and  the  per 
cent  which  each  class  forms  of  the 
total. 


SINGLE-TRACK     MILEAGE     AND     PER     CENT.     WHICH     EACH     CLASS     IS 
OF     TOTAL:     1902. 


CLASS    OF   TRACK. 

Single-track 
mileage. 

Per  cent 
of  total. 

Total             .             .... 

*22,589.47 

1000 

First  main  track  .... 

16,651.58 

73  7 

Second  main  track  

5,030.36 
907  53 

22.3 
4  0 

21  302  57 

94  3 

Other  electric  power  

611.44 
606 

2.7 

CO 

Animal  •  

529.10 

1.1 

240  69 

]  t 

Steam 

169  61 

8 

Trackage  owned  

19,038.33 
3  551  14 

84.3 
15  7 

Operated  under  trackage  rights  
Constructed  and  opened  for  operation  during  the  year  
On  private  right  of  way  owned  by  company  

560.92 
1,549.73 
3,424.96 

2.5 
6.9 
15.2 

On  private  right  of  way  not  owned  by  company  
Located  within  city  limits     .  . 

377.11 
113,208.24 

1.7 
65.8 

Located  outside  city  limits  

16,855.58 

34.2 

Equipped  with  cast  welded  joints  

1,642.68 

7.3 

*  Includes  12.48  miles  of  track  duplicated  in  reports  of  different  companies. 

t  Less  than  one-tenth  of  1  per  cent. 

j  Exclusive  of  the  mileage  of  Massachusetts. 


134 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


Of  the  total  single-track  mileage, 
21,914.01  miles,  or  97  per  cent,  were 
operated  by  electric  power  and  416.36 
miles,  or  1.9  per  cent,  by  other  me- 
chanical traction,  while  only  259.10 
miles,  or  1.1  per  cent,  were  operated 
by  animal  power,  as  compared  with 
69.7  per  cent  in  1890.  Of  the  total 
trackage  in  use  by  all  companies,  84.3 
per  cent  was  owned  by  the  operating 
companies  and  15.7  per  cent  leased. 
The  mileage  of  track  constructed  and 
opened  for  operation  during  the  year 
covered  by  this  report  was  1,549.73 
miles,  or*6.9  per  cent  of  the  total,  but 
this  does  not  cover  all  of  the  track  un- 
der construction*.  A  number  of  miles 
of  track  were  in  various  stages  of  com- 
pletion, but  it  was  impracticable  to 
fix  upon  any  stage  of  the  work  at 
which  the  trackage  could  be  enume- 
rated other  than  that  of  actual  com- 
pletion. The  statistics  concerning 
track  located  on  private  right  of  way 
refer  particularly  to  rural  electric  rail- 
ways, many  of  which  have  bought  or 
have  had  surrendered  to  them  a  sepa- 
rate roadbed,  either  adjoining  or  in- 
dependent of  the  highway,  in  the  same 
manner  as  a  steam  railroad.  It  ap- 
pears from  the  reports  that  3,424.96 
miles  of  single  track  were  on  private 
right  of  way  owned  by  the  company. 
Occasionally  the  railway  is  built  on  a 
private  right  of  way  not  owned  by  the 
company,  an  example  of  which  would 
be  a  toll  bridge  owned  by  a  bridge  com- 
pany, to  whom  payment  for  the  privi- 
lege of  using  it  was  made.  There  were 


377.11  miles  of  single  track  on  right  of 
way  of  this  character. 

The  inquiries  concerning  the  loca- 
tion of  track,  whether  within  or  with- 
out city  limits,  were  made  with  the 
intention  of  ascertaining  the  relative 
length  of  track  operated  in  urban  and 
rural  districts,  respectively.  In  a  num- 
ber of  cases  it  was  impossible  to  de- 
termine exactly  the  trackage  that 
should  be  assigned  to  these  two  sub- 
divisions. In  some  instances  the  track 
was  within  or  passed  through  thickly 
settled  communities  that  were  not  or- 
ganized as  cities  or  towns,  and  there- 
fore had  no  legal  limits,  and  it  was 
difficult  to  obtain  the  length  that 
should  be  considered  as  within  the  ur- 
ban district.  In  the  New  England 
states  densely  populated  communities 
are  legally  part  of  the  town  govern- 
ment, which  includes  also  rural  dis- 
tricts. Many  companies  in  Massachu- 
setts reported  that  it  was  impractica- 
ble to  make  the  distinction,  and  ac- 
cordingly the  trackage  for  that  state 
has  not  been  included  in  this  classifica- 
tion. For  the  United  States,  exclusive 
of  Massachusetts,  13,208.24  miles  of 
single  trackage,  or  65.8  per  cent  of  the 
total,  were  reported  as  within  urban 
limits  and  6,855.58  miles,  or  34.2  per 
cent,  as  outside  of  such  limits. 

The  increase  in  the  trackage  is  due 
net  only  to  the  establishment  of  new 
companies,  but  very  largely  to  the  ex- 
tension of  the  lines  of  established  com- 
panies. 


COMPANIES     GROUPED     ACCORDING     TO     LENGTH     OF     LINE: 
1890     AND     1902. 


1 

902 

] 

890 

Number 
of  com- 
panies. 

Length  of 
line. 

Number 
of  com- 
panies. 

Length  of 
line. 

Total.  .  . 

*817 

16  651  58 

f691 

j5  jig  53 

Under  10  miles  .  . 

394 

1  957  16 

557 

2  304  49 

10  to  20  miles  

219 

3  148  94 

99 

1  353  42 

Over  20  to  30  miles  
Over  30  to  40  miles.  .  . 

76 
34 

1,878.54 
1  197  83 

16 

7 

400.39 
251  74 

Over  40  to  50  miles 

25 

1  117  05 

4. 

178  04 

Over  50  to  60  miles  
Over  60  to  70  miles.  .  . 

16 
12 

892.86 
785  22 

2 
2 

101.57 
130  33 

Over  70  to  80  miles 

7 

532  46 

1 

76  48 

Over  80  to  90  miles  
Over  90  to  100  miles 

6 
3 

515.30 
277  12 

1 

84.42 

Over  100  miles  

25 

4,349.10 

2 

238.65 

!  Operating  companies, 
t  Exclusive  of  15  lessor  companies. 
}  Exclusive  of  663.94  miles  estimated  in  1890. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


135 


COMPARATIVE     SUMMARY,     ALL     COMPANIES:     1890     AND     1902. 


ITKMS. 

1902 

1890 

Per  cent 
of 

increase. 

Number  of  companies  

987 

706 

39  8 

Cost  of  construction  and  equipment. 

$2  167  634  077 

$389  357  289 

456  7 

$1  315  572  960 

$289  058  133 

355  1 

Funded  debt  outstanding 

$992  709  1  39 

$189  177  824 

4247 

$247  553  999 

$90  617  211 

173  2 

Operating  expenditures.  . 

$142,312  597 

$62011  185 

129  5 

Percentage  operating  expenses  of  earnings  

57.5 

68.4 

Number  of  passenger  cars.  .  .              .... 

60  290 

32  505 

85  5 

Number  of  fare  passengers  carried 

4  809  554  438 

2  023  010  202 

137  7 

Number  of  employees*  

133,641 

70,764 

88.9 

*  Exclusive  of  salaried  officials  and  clerks. 

The  "length  of  line"  as  given  in  the 
report  means  the  length  of  the  road- 
bed, or,  in  the  case  of  a  railway  lying 
entirely  within  city  limits,  the  length 
of  street  occupied.  In  determining 
the  length  of  single  track,  switches  and 
sidings  are  included,  and  double  track 
is  reckoned  as  two  tracks.  The  in- 
crease in  the  length  of  line  during  the 
period  of  twelve  years  amounted  to 
11,532.05  miles,  or  225.3  per  cent,  as 
compared  with  an  increase  of  14,466.45 


miles,  or  178.1  per  cent,  in  the  length 
of  single  track.  Single-track  roads  are 
characteristic  of  rural  districts,  and 
the  fact  that  the  percentage  of  increase 
in  length  of  line  is  greater  than  in 
length  of  single  track  is  due  princi- 
pally to  the  great  development  of  in- 
terurban  single-track  lines  since  1890. 
The  average  length  of  line  per 
operating  company  in  1890  was  7.41 
miles  as  compared  with  20.38  miles  in 
1902.  The  average  operating  com- 


RELATION    OF    STREET    AND     ELECTRIC     RAILWAYS    TO    POPULATION 

1890     AND     1902. 


GEOGRAPHIC    DIVISIONS. 

Year. 

Population.* 

Total  number 
of  fare  passen- 
gers carried. 

Average 
number 
of  rides 
per  in- 
habitant. 

United  States  

1902 
1890 

75,994,575 
62,622,250 

4,809,554,438 
2,023,010,202 

63 
32 

Increase  

13,372,325 

2,786,544  236 

31 

North  Atlantic 

1902 

21  046  695 

2  618  528  979 

124 

1890 

17,401,545 

1,141,187,460 

66 

Increase  

3,645  150 

1  477  341  519 

58 

South  Atlantic 

1902 

10  443  480 

332  541  075 

32 

1890 

8,857,920 

101,647,174 

11 

Increase  
North  Central 

1902 

1,585,560 
26  333  004 

230,893,901 
1  344  000  951 

21 
51 

1890 

22,362,279 

538,309,887 

24 

I  ncrease  

3,970  725 

805  691  064 

27 

South  Central   . 

1902 

14  080  047 

210  103  861 

15 

1890 

10,972,893 

98,005,026 

9 

Increase  

'    3  107  154 

112098  835 

6 

Western. 

1902 

4  091  349 

304  379  572 

74 

1890 

3,027,613 

143,860.655 

48 

Increase  

1  .063,736 

160,518,917 

26 

*  Population  shown  for  1902  is  that  reported  at  the  census  of  1900. 


136 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


pany  in  1902  controlled  almost  three 
times  the  length  of  line  that  was  con- 
trolled by  the  average  company  in 
1890.  In  1890  there  were  only  8  com- 
panies operating  more  than  50  miles 
of  line,  and  in  1902  the  number  of 
such  companies  had  increased  to  69. 
Of  the  total  number  of  companies  re- 
ported for  1890.  94.9  per  cent  operated 
less  than  20  miles  of  line  each,  and 
their  combined  length  of  line  amounted 
to  71.5  per  cent  of  the  total  in  the 
United  States;  in  1902  corresponding 
percentages  were  75  and  30.7,  respec- 
tively. Thus,  while  there  are  still  a 
large  number  of  companies  that  op- 
erate less  than  20  miles  of  track,  the 
portion  of  the  total  length  of  line 


operated  by  them  is  not  half  as  great 
as  in  1890. 

The  extent  to  which  street  and  elec- 
tric railways  are  used,  and  the  in- 
crease in  their  use  as  measured  by  the 
average  number  of  rides  per  inhabi- 
tant, are  shown  below. 

From  this  table  it  appears  that  the 
most  extensive  use  of  street  and  elec- 
tric railways  is  in  the  North  Atlantic 
states,  where  the  average  number  of 
rides  per  inhabitant  in  1902  was  124; 
the  Western  states  come  next  with  an 
average  of  74.  The  greatest  increase 
in  this  respect  is  shown  for  the  South 
Atlantic  states,  where  the  average  was 
almost  three  times  as  great  in  1902  as 
it  was  in  1890. 


NUMBER   OF    OPERATING    AND   LESSOR   COMPANIES    BY   STATES   AND 
TERRITORIES:    1902. 


STATES  AND  TERRITORIES 

Total. 

Operat- 
ing. 

STATES  AND  TERRITORIES. 

Total. 

Operat- 
ing. 

United  States 

987 

817 

5 

5 

17 

16 

Alabama  

g 

9 

5 

5 

Arizona 

2 

2 

4 

4 

Arkansas  

7 

7 

New  Hampshire  

13 

7 

California.  .  .  . 

35 

35 

30 

26 

Colorado  

9 

8 

New  Mexico.  .  .  . 

1 

1 

Connecticut  

27 

23 

New  York. 

119 

96 

Delaware  . 

3 

3 

7 

7 

District  of  Columbia  

8 

8 

Ohio  

67 

63 

Florida  

6 

6 

Oregon.. 

6 

6 

Georgia  

10 

10 

Pennsylvania  

196 

98 

Idaho  

1 

1 

Rhode  Island 

g 

g 

Illinois  

58 

50 

South  Carolina 

7 

7 

Indiana.  .  

27 

27 

South  Dakota 

1 

1 

Iowa  
Kansas  

22 
12 

22 
12 

Tennessee  
Texas 

8 
17 

8 
17 

Kentucky  

12 

12 

Utah.  .  .  . 

3 

3 

Louisiana  
Maine  

8 
20 

8 
19 

Vermont  

9 
21 

9 

21 

Maryland  

12 

10 

Washington  

8 

8 

Massachusetts  

93 

75 

g 

g 

Michigan  

24 

24 

17 

17 

Minnesota.  

5 

5 

ACCIDENTS. — The  following  state- 
ment reproduces  the  totals  concerning 
the  number  of  persons  killed  and  in- 
jured in  the  United  States  for  the  year 


Persons. 

Killed. 

Injured. 

Total.  . 

1,218 

47  429 

Passengers  

265 

26,690 

Employees 

122 

3  699 

Others  

831 

17,040 

"Others"  referred  to  in  this 
statement,  include  persons  on  foot  or 
riding  in  vehicles  other  than  street 
cars  who  were  killed  or  injured  in  col- 
lision with  street  cars.  The  number 
of  persons  reported  as  killed,  1,218, 
and  injured,  47,429,  form  only  an  in- 
appreciable percentage  of  the  total 
number  of  passengers  carried. — From 
a  Bulletin  published  by  the  Census 
Bureau. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


POPULATION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


The  population,  of  the  United  States, 
according  to  the  Twelfth  Census,  was 
75,994,575,  divided  as  follows:  38,- 
816,448  males,  37,178,127  females.  Of 
the  total,  65,653,299  were  native  born, 
and  10,341,276  foreign  born.  The 


population  is  again  divided  as  follows : 
White,  66,809,196  ;  negroes,  8,833,994  ; 
Indians  237,196,  but  this  figure  does 
not  include  the  population  of  Indian 
territory  or  on  Indian  reservations ; 
Chinese,  89,863 ;  Japanese,  24,326. 


POPULATION  OF  EACH   STATE  AND  TERRITORY   OF  THE 
UNITED  STATES. 


States  and  Territories. 

1790. 

1800. 

1860. 

1880. 

1890. 

1900. 

964  201 

1  262  505 

1  513  017 

1  828  697 

32  052 

63  592 

40  440 

59  620 

122  931 

435,450 

802,525 

1  128  179 

1  311  564 

379,994 

864  694 

1  208  130 

1  485  053 

34,277 

194,327 

412  198 

539  700 

Connecticut  

237,946 

251,002 

460,147 

622,700 

746,258 

908  420 

Delaware  

59,096 

64,273 
14093 

112,216 
75  080 

146,608 
177,624 

168,493 
230  392 

184,735 
278  718 

Florida. 

140,424 

269,493 

391  422 

528  542 

Georgia.  .  . 

82,548 

162,686 

1,057,286 

1,542,180 

1,837  353 

2  216  331 

Idaho 

32,610 

84  385 

161  772 

1  711  951 

3  077  871 

3  826  351 

4  821  550 

Indiana 

5,641 

1,350,428 

1,978,301 

2  192  404 

2  516  462 

180  182 

302  060 

Iowa.  .  . 

674,913 

1  624  615 

1  911  896 

2  231  853 

Kansas 

107  206 

996  096 

1  427  096 

1  470  495 

Kentucky  
Louisiana 

73,677 

220,955 

1,155,684 
708  002 

1,648,690 
939  946 

1,858,635 
1  1  18  587 

2,147,174 
1  381  625 

Maine  
Maryland  
Massachusetts  
Michigan.  .  . 

96,540 
319,728 
378,787 

151,719 
341,548 
422,845 

628,279 
687,049 
1,231,066 
749  113 

648,936 
934,943 
1,783,085 
1  636  937 

661,086 
1,042,390 
2,238,943 
2  093  889 

694,466 
1,188,044 
2,805,346 
2  420  982 

Minnesota  

172,023 

780  773 

1  301  826 

1  751  394 

Mississippi.  .  .  . 

8  850 

791  305 

1  131  597 

1*289'  600 

1  551  270 

Missouri 

1  182  012 

2  168  380 

2  fi7Q  1  84 

q  -\Of\  Kfit; 

Montana   . 

39  159 

132  159 

243  329 

Nebraska 

28  841 

452  402 

i  n^s'oio 

1    (\f\f\  QQO 

Nevada.  .  .  . 

6  857 

62  266 

45  761 

42  335 

New  Hampshire  
New  Jersey.  .  .  . 

141,885 
184,139 

183,858 
211  149 

326,073 
672  035 

346,991 
1  131  116 

376,530 
1  444  933 

411,588 
1  883  669 

New  Mexico.  .  .  . 

93  516 

119  565 

'  153*593 

195  310 

New  York  
North  Carolina.  . 

340,120 
393  751 

589,051 
478  103 

3,880,735 
992  622 

5,082,871 
i  *3QQ  ^o 

5,997,853 
1  fi17  Q47 

7,268,894 
1  893  810 

North  Dakota  

4  337 

135  177 

182  719 

319  146 

Ohio  

45  365 

2  339  511 

31  no  062 

o  «7O  CM  « 

4  j57  545 

Oklahoma  

61  834 

398  331 

Oregon  

52  465 

174  768 

313  767 

413  563 

Pennsylvania 

434  373 

602  365 

2  906  21  5 

4  oeo  oqi 

a  qno  1  i  K 

Rhode  Island  
South  Carolina.  .  . 

68,825 
24Q  073 

69,122 
345  591 

174,620 
703  708 

276,531 

qqc  C77 

345,506 

11  ci    i  40 

428,556 
1  340  316 

South  Dakota  

328  808 

'401*570 

Tennessee  
Texas  

35,691 

105,602 

1,109,801 
604  215 

1,542,359 
1  591  749 

1,767,518 
2  235  523 

2,020,615 
3  048  710 

Utah  

40,273 

143,963 

207,905 

276,749 

*  Includes  6,394  negroes. 


t  Included  in  the  population  of  the  several  States. 

137 


138 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


POPULATION  OF  EACH  STATE  AND  TERRITORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES— 

Continued. 


States  and  Territories. 

1790. 

1800. 

1860 

1880. 

1890. 

1900. 

85  425 

154,465 

315,098 

332,286 

332,422 

343  641 

Virginia  
Washington 

747,610 

880,200 

1,596,318 
11,594 

1,512,565 
75,116 

1,655,980 
349,390 

1,854,184 
518  103 

618  457 

762  794 

958  800 

Wisconsin.  .  .  . 

775,881 

1,315,497 

1,686,880 

2,069,042 

20,789 

60,705 

92  531 

Persons  on  public  ships 
in  the  service  of  the 
United  States  or  sta- 
tioned   broad.  . 

*91  219 

Total  United  States, 

3,929,214 

5,308,483 

31,443,321 

50,155,783 

62,622,250 

75,693,734 

Alaska  

32,052 

63  592 

Hawaii 

89  990 

154001 

Indian  Territory  

180,182 

302  060 

Indians  on  Reservations 

145  282 

(t) 

Total  .  . 

76.303.387 

*  Includes  6,394  negroes 


t  Included  in  the  population  of  the  several  States. 

[From  Reports  of  the  Census.] 


The  figures  of  the  Bureau  of  Statis- 
tics vary  somewhat  from  those  of  the 
Census,  and  their  table  given  farther 
on  is  later  than  the  Census  figures. 
The  census  of  the  Philippine  Islands 
taken  1904,  gives  the  population  as  7,- 
035,426,  of  which  647,740  are  classi- 


fied as  wild  and  uncivilized.  Luzon 
contains  3,798,507  persons;  Panay 
has  743,646  people ;  Mindanao  is 
fourth  with  499,634  inhabitants; 
Jolo  follows  with  44,718  people,  of 
whom  only  1,270  are  civilized.  The 
population  of  Manila  is  219,028. 


OFFICIAL   CENSUS   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES,   BY   COUNTIES, 

FOR  1900. 


ALABAMA. 

AREA,    50,722    SQUARE    MILES. 


Autauga  .... 
Baldwin  .... 
Barbour  .... 
Bibb 

17,915 
13,194 
35,152 
18,498 
23,119 
31,944 
25,761 
34,874 
32,554 
21,096 
16,522 
18,136 
27,790 
17,099 
13,206 
20,972 
22,341 

Conecuh  .  .  . 
Coosa  
Covington.  . 
Crenshaw  .  .  . 
Cullman  .  .  .  . 
Dale  

.     17,514 
.     16,144 
.     15,346 
.     19,668 
.     17,849 
.    21,189 
54,657 

Jackson  
Jefferson.  . 

.    30,508 
140  420 

Perry  

Lamar  
Lauderdale.  . 
Lawrence  .  .  . 
Lee  
Limestone  .  .  . 
Lowndes.  .  .  . 
Macon  
Madison  .... 
Marengo  .... 
Marion  
Marshall  .... 
Mobile  
Monroe 

.     16,084 
.    26,559 
.    20,124 
31,826 
22,387 
35,651 
23,126 
43,702 
38,315 
14,494 
23,289 
62,740 
23  666 

Pike.  .  . 

Randolph  
Russell  
St.  Clair  
Shelby 

Blount  

Bullock  
Butler  
Calhoun  .  .  . 
Chambers  .  . 
Cherokee.  .  . 
Chilton  .... 
Choctaw  .  .  . 
Clarke  
Clay  
Cleburne.  .  . 
Coffee  
Colbert 

Dallas 

Dekalb  .... 
Elmore  .... 
Escambia  .  . 
Etowah.  .  .  . 
Fayette.  .  .  . 
Franklin  .  .  . 
Geneva  .... 
Greene  
Hale  

.    23,558 
.     26,099 
.     11,320 
.    27,361 
.     14,132 
.     16,511 
.     19,096 
.    24,182 
.    31,011 

Sumter  
Talladega  
Tallapoosa  .  .  . 
Tuscaloosa  .  .  . 
Walker  
Washington  .  . 
Wilcox  
Winston  

,.  1 

Montgomery  . 

.    72,047 
28  820 

Henry  

.    36,147 

Total.  . 

31,783 
24,402 
29,172 
21,647 
27,083 
19,425 
23,684 
32,710 
35,773 
29,675 
36,147 
25,162 
11,134 
35,631 
9,554 


1,828,697 


Apache 

Cochise 

Coconino.  .  .  . 

Gila 

Total.  . 


8,297 
9,251 
5,514 
4,973 


ARIZONA. 

AREA,    113,916    SQUARE    MILES. 


Graham .  . . 
Maricopa.  . 
Mohaye.  .  . 

Navajo  .  . . 


14,162 

20,457 

3,426 

8,829 


Pima  
Final  . 

..     14,689 
7,779 

Santa  Cruz  . 
Yavapai  .  .  . 

.  .      4,545 
..     13,799 

Yuma 


4,145 


San  Carlos  In- 
dian Reserv'n.      3,065 


122,931 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


139 


140 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


Arkansas 

12,973 
19,734 
9,298 
31,611 
16,396 
9,651 
8,539 
18,848 
14,528 
21,289 
15,886 
9,628 
11,620 
22,077 
19,772 
19,505 
21,270 
14,529 
11,051 

AREA 

Dallas  
Desha  
Drew  
Faulkner.  .  .  . 
Franklin  .... 
Fulton.  .  . 
Garland  
Grant  
Greene  
Hempstead.  . 
Hot  Spring  .  . 
Howard  
Independence 
Izard  
Jackson  
Jefferson.  .  .  . 
Johnson  .... 
Lafayette  .  .  . 
Lawrence  .  .  . 

ARKA 

52,198 

11,518 
11,511 
19,451 
20,780 
17,395 
12,917 
.     18,773 
7,671 
16,979 
24,101 
12,748 
14,076 
.     22,557 
.     13,506 
.     18,383 
.    40,972 
.     17,448 
.     10,594 
.     16,491 

NSAS. 

SQUARE    MILES. 

Lee  
Lincoln  
Little  River  .  . 
Logan  
Lonoke  
Madison  
Marion  
Miller  
Mississippi  .  .  . 
Monroe  
Montgomery.  . 
Nevada  
Newton  
Ouachita  
Perry  
Phillips  .  . 

19,409 
13,389 
13,731 
20,563 
22,544 
19,864 
11,377 
17,558 
16,384 
16,816 
9,444 
16,609 
12,538 
20,892 
7,294 
26,561 
10,301 
7,025 
18,352 

Pope  
Prairie  
Pulaski  
Randolph  .  . 
St.  Francis 
Saline  .... 
Scott  
Searcy.  .  .  . 
Sebastian  . 
Sevier  .... 
Sharp  .... 
Stone  
Union 

.     21,715 
.  .     11,875 
.  .    63,179 
.  .     17,156 
.  .     17,157 
.  .     13,122 
..     13,183 
.  .     11,988 
..    36.935 
.  .     16,339 
..     12,199 
.  .      8,100 
22  495 

Ashley  
Baxter  
Benton 

Boone  
Bradley. 

Calhoun  
Carroll  
Chicot  
Clark  
Clay  
Cleburne  
Cleveland  .... 
Columbia  .... 
Conway  
Craighead.  .  .  . 
Crawford  
Crittenden  .  .  . 
Cross 

Van  Buren  . 
Washington 
White  .  . 
Woodruff  .  . 
Yell  

.  .     11,220 
.  .     34,256 
..     24,864 
.  .     16,304 
.  .     22,750 

1  311  564 

Pike  
Poinsett  
Polk 

Total. 

Alameda.  .  .  . 
Alpine  
Amador  
Butte  
Calaveras  .  .  . 
Colusa 

130,197 
509 
11,116 
17,117 
11,200 
7,364 
18,046 
2,408 
8,986 
37,862 
5,150 
27,104 
4,377 
16,480 
9,871 

AREA, 

Lake 

CALIFC 

188,981 
6,017 
4,511 
170,298 
6,364 
15,702 
4,720 
20,465 
9,215 
5,076 
2,167 
19,380 
16,451 
17,789 
19,696 
15,786 

3RNIA. 

SQUARE  MILES. 

Plumas 

4,657 
17,897 
45,915 
6,633 

27,929 
35,090 
342,782 
35,452 

16,637 
12,094 
18,934 
60,216 
21,512 

Shasta.     .  .  . 

17  318 

Lassen  
Los  Angeles  . 
Madera  
Marin  
Mariposa.  .  .  . 
Mendocino  .  . 
Merced  
Modoc  
Mono  
Monterey  .  .  . 
Napa  
Nevada  
Orange  
Placer  

Riverside  .... 
Sacramento  .  . 
San  Benito  .  .  . 
San    Bernar- 
dino   
San  Diego.  .  .  . 
San  Francisco. 
San  Joaquin.  . 
San  Luis  Obis- 
po  . 

Sierra  
Siskiyou  .  .  . 
Solano  
Sonoma.  .  .  . 
Stanislaus.  . 
S  utter 

.  .       4,017 
..     16,962 
.  .     24,143 
..    38,480 
.  .      9,550 
5885 

Contra  Costa  . 
Del  Norte  
Eldorado  
Fresno  
Glenn  
Humboldt  .... 
Inyo  
Kern  
Kings  
Total. 

Tehama.  .  .  . 
Trinity 

.  .     10,996 
4  383 

Tulare  
Tuolumne.  . 
Ventura.  .  .  . 
Yolo  
Yuba 

.  .     18,375 
..     11,166 
.  .     14,367 
.  .     13,618 
8  620 

San  Mateo  .  .  . 
Santa  Barbara 
Santa  Clara  .  . 
Santa  Cruz  .  .  . 

.1,485,053 

1,690 
4,080 
3  661 

Arapahoe  .... 
Archuleta  .... 
Baca  
Bent  • 

153,017 
2,117 
759 
3,049 
21,544 
7,085 
501 
7,082 
8,794 
4,632 
2,937 
5,487 
1,134 
3,120 
3,008 

AREA, 

Elbert 

COLO! 
104,500 
3  101 

IADO. 

SQUARE    MILES. 

Las  Animas  .  . 
Lincoln  
Logan 

21,840 
926 
3,292 
9,267 
1,913 
3,058 
4,535 
3,268 
11,522 
4,731 
2,998 
1,583 
7,020 
3,766 
34,448 

Rio  Blanco  . 
Rio  Grande. 
Routt 

El  Paso  
Fremont  .... 
Garfield  
Gilpin  
Grand 

.    31,602 
.     15,636 
.       5,835 
.       6,690 
741 

Mesa  
Mineral  
Montezuma  .  . 
Montrose  
Morgan  
Otero  
Ouray  
Park  . 

Saguache  .  . 
San  Juan.  .  . 
San  Miguel  . 
Sedgwick  .  . 
Summit.  .  . 

3,853 
2,342 
5,379 
971 
2,744 

Boulder  
Chaffee  
Cheyenne  .... 
Clear  Creek.  .  . 
Conejos  
Costilla 

Gunnison  .  .  . 
Hinsdale.  .  .  . 
Huerfano  .  .  . 
Jefferson.  .  .  . 
Kiowa  
Kit  Carson  .  . 
Lake  
La  Plata 

5,331 
1,609 
8,395 
9,306 
701 
1,580 
18,054 
7  016 

Teller  
Washington 
Weld 

.       29,002 
1,241 
16  808 

Custer  
Delta. 

Phillips  
Pitkin  
Prowers 

1  729 

Dolores  

.  .  539,700 

Douglas  
Eagle 

Larimer  

.     12,168 

Pueblo 

Total  

Fairfield  
Hartford.  . 

184,203 
195,415 

AREA 

Litchfield  .  .  . 
Middlesex.  .  . 

CONNE( 

,  4,674  s 
.    63,672 
.    41,760 

7TICUT. 

aUARE    MILES. 

New  Haven  .  . 
New  London.  . 

269,163 

82,758 

Tolland.     .  . 
Windham  .  . 

.    24,523 
..    46,861 
ons  2** 

Total 

Kent  .  . 

DELAWARE. 

AREA,    2,120    SQUARE    MILES. 

32,762      |      Newcastle.  .  .  .  109,697      | 

Sussex.  .  .        .    42,276 
.  .  184,735 

Total  .  . 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


141 


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142 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA. 

AREA,    60    SQUARE    MILES. 


The  District  .  . 


Alachua  
Baker  
Bradford  
Brevard  
Calhoun  
Citrus  
Clay.  .  
Columbia  .  .    . 
Dade  
De  Soto  
Duval  
Escambia  .... 
Total 

32,245 
4,516 
10,295 
5,158 
5,132 
5,391 
5,635 
17,094 
4,955 
8,047 
39,733 
28,313 

AREA, 

Franklin  
Gadsden  
Hamilton 
Hernando.  .  .  . 
Hillsboro  
Holmes  
Jackson  
Jefferson  
Lafayette 
Lake  .  .  . 

FLOE 

59,268 
4,890 
15,294 
11,881 
3,638 
36,013 
7,762 
23,377 
16,195 
4,987 
7,467 
3,071 
19,887 

IDA. 

SQUARE    MILES. 

Levy  
Liberty  
Madison 

8,603 
2,956 
15,446 
4,663 
24,403 
18,006 
9,654 
11,374 
3,444 
6,054 
12,472 
11,641 

St.  John  .  .  . 
Santa  Rosa. 
Sumter  .... 
Suwanee  .  .  . 
Taylor  
Volusia  .... 
Wakulla  .  . 
Walton  .... 
Washingon. 

9,165 
.  .     10,293 
.  .       6,187 
.  .     14,554 
.  .       3,999 
.  .     10,003 
.  .       5,149 
.  .       9,346 
.     10,154 

.  .528,542 

.  .    53,735 
..       7,515 
.  .       5,499 
.  .     19,252 
.     17,619 
.     15,856 
.     26,212 
.     12,197 
7,912 
.     20,419 
.       9,846 
.     10,083 
.     19,023 
.    31,076 
.      4,748 
.     24,002 
8  716 

Manatee  
Marion  
Monroe  
Nassau  
Orange  
Osceola  
Pasco  .  .  , 

Lee  
Leon 

Polk  
Putnam 

Appling  
Baker  
Baldwin  
Banks 

12,336 
6,704 
17,768 
10,545 
20,823 
19,440 
50,473 

AREA, 

Dekalb  
Dodge  
Dooly  
Dougherty  .  .  . 
Douglas  
Early  
Echols  
Effingham 
Elbert  

GEOR 
58,000  s 
21,112 
13,975 
26,567 
13,679 
8,745 
14,828 
3,209 
8,334 
19,729 
21,279 
11,214 
10,114 
33,113 
11,550 
17,700 
117,363 
10,198 
4,516 
14,317 
14,119 
16,542 
25,585 
13,604 
20,752 
18,277 
11,922 
18,009 
14,492 
11,177 
18,602 
22,641 
13,645 
24,039 
15,033 
18,212 

GIA. 

QUARE  MILES. 

Johnson  
Jones  
Laurens  
Lee  .- 

11,409 
13,358 
25,908 
10,344 
13,093 
7,156 
20,036 
7,433 
9,804 
6,537 
.  14,093 
13,224 
10,080 
23.339 
6,319 
6,763 
14,767 
20,682 
16,359 
15,813 
8,623 
29,836 
16,734 
8,602 
17,881 
12,969 
8,641 
8,100 
18,761 
17,856 
18,489 
13,436 
4,701 
6,285 
16,847 

Richmond.  . 
Rockdale.  .  . 
Schley  
Screven.  .  .  . 
Spalding.  .  . 
Stewart.  .  .  . 
Sumter  
Talbot  
Taliaferro.  .  . 
Tattnall.  .  .  . 
Taylor  
Telfair  
Terrell  
Thomas.  .  .  . 
Towns  
Troup  
Twiggs 

Bartow  
Berrien  
Bibb  

Liberty  
Lincoln.  .  .  . 

Lowndes.  .  .  . 
Lumpkin  
McDuffie  
Mclntosh  
Macon  
Madison  
Marion  
Meri  wether.  ,  . 
Miller 

Broods  
Bryan  
Bulloch  
Burke  
Butts  
Calhoun  
Camden  
Campbell  .... 
Carroll  
Catoosa  
Charlton  
Chatham  
Chattahoochee 
Chattooga.  .  .  . 
Cherokee  
Clarke  
Clay  
Clayton  
Clinch  
Cobb  
Coffee 

18,606 
6,122 
21,377 
30,165 
12,805 
9,274 
7,669 
9,518 
26,576 
5,823 
3,592 
71,239 
5,790 
12,952 
15,243 
17,708 
8,568 
9,598 
8,732 
24,664 
16,169 
13,636 
10,653 
24,980 
10,368 
4,578 
5,442 
29,454 

Emanuel  
Fannin  . 

Fayette  
Floyd  
Forsyth  
Franklin  
Fulton 

Milton 

Gilmer  
Glascock  
Glynn  
Gordon  
Greene  
Gwinnett  .  .  .  . 
Habersham.  .  . 
Hall  
Hancock  
Haralson  
Harris  
Hart  .  . 
Heard  
Henry 

Mitchell  
Monroe  
Montgomery.  . 
Morgan 

Union  
Upson  
Walker  
Walton  
Ware  
Warren  
Washington. 
Wayne  
Webster.  .  .  . 
White 

8,481 
.     13,670 
.  .     15,661 
.    20,942 
.  .     13,761 
.  .    11,463 
.  .    28,227 
.       9,449 
.       6,618 
5  912 

Murray  
Muscogee  
Newton  
Oconee  
Oglethorpe.  .  . 
Paulding  
Pickens.  .  . 

Pierce  
Pike  
Polk 

Whitfield.  .  . 
Wilcox  .  . 

.  .     14,509 
11  097 

Colquitt  
Columbia  .... 
Coweta  
Crawford  
Dade 

Wilkes  
Wilkinson.  . 
Worth  . 

.     20,866 
.     11,440 
18  664 

Houston  
Irwin  
Jackson 

Pulaski  
Putnam  
Quitman  
Rabun  
Randolph 

2,216,331 

.       3,804 
..     11,950 
.       6,882 

..161.772 

Dawson  
Decatur  
Total.     .  .  . 

Jasper  
Jefferson  

Ada.  .  

11,559 
11,702 
7,051 
10,447 
4,900 
4,174 

AREA, 

Canyon  
Cassia 

IDA 

86,294  g 
7,497 
3,951 
2,049 
2,286 
12,821 
9,121 

HO. 

QUARE  MILES. 

Kootenai  
Latah  
Lemhi  
Lincoln 

10,216 
13,451 
3,446 
1,784 
13,748 
8,933 

Owyhee.  .  .  . 
Shoshone.  .  . 
Washington. 

Bannock 

Bear  Lake  .... 
Bingham  
Elaine  
Boise  
Total  .  . 

Custer  
Elmore  
Fremont  
Idaho  

Nez  Perces.  .  .  . 
Oneida  

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


143 


144 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


Adams  
Alexander.  .  .  . 
Bond 

67,058 
19,384 
16,078 
15,791 
11,557 
41,112 
8,917 
18,963 
17,222 
47,622 
32,790 
24,033 
19,553 
19,824 
34,146 
838,735 
19,240 
16,124 
31,756 
18,972 
19,097 
28,196 
28,273 
10,345 
20,465 
28,065 

AREA, 

Ford  
Franklin.  .  .  . 
Fulton 

ILLI1 
55,405  i 
18,359 
19,675 
46,201 
15,836 
23,402 
24,136 
20,197 
32,215 
7,448 
10,836 
40,049 
38,014 
33,871 
20,160 
28,133 
14,612 
24,533 
15,667 
78,792 
37,154 
11,467 
43,612 
34,504 
87,776 
16,523 
29,894 

fOIS. 

JQUARE    MILES. 

Livingston.  .  .  . 
Logan  
McDonough.  .  . 
McHenry  
McLean  
Macon  
Macoupin  
Madison  

42,0351  Randolph.  .  . 
28,680  [Richland.  .  . 
28,412  Rock  Island  . 
29,759  St.  Clair  
67,843  Saline  
44,003  Sangamon.  . 
42,256  Schuyler.  .  .  . 
64,694  Scott  
30,446  1  Shelby  
16,370  'Stark  
17,491  iStephenson. 
13,110  Tazewell.  .  .  . 
14,336  Union  
20,945  Vermilion.  .  . 
13,847  Wabash  
30,836  Warren.  .  .  . 
35,006  Washington. 
15,224  Wayne.  .  . 
29,129  White  
88,608  Whiteside.  .  . 
19,830  Will  
17,706  Williamson.  . 
31,595  Winnebago.  . 
13,585  Woodford.  .  . 
14,554 
4,746 

.    28,001 
.     16,391 
.     55,249 
.    86,685 
.     21,685 
.     71,593 
.     16,129 
.     10,455 
.     32,126 
.     10,186 
.     34,933 
.     33,221 
.     22,610 
.    65,635 
.     12,583 
.     23,163 
.     19,526 
.     27,626 
.     25,386 
.     34,710 
.     74,764 
.     27,796 
.     47,845 
.     21,822 

4,821,550 
20  148 

Boone  
Brown  
Bureau  
Calhoun  
Carroll 

Gallatin  
Greene  
Grundy  
Hamilton  
Hancock  
Hardin  
Henderson.  .  .  . 
Henry  
Iroquois  
Jackson 

Cass  
Champaign.  .  . 
Christian  
Clark  
Clay 

Marshall  
Mason  
Massac  
Menard  
Mercer  
Monroe  
Montgomery  .  . 
Morgan  
Moultrie  
Ogle  

Clinton  
Coles  
Cook  1 
Crawford  .   .  . 
Cumberland. 
Dekalb.  ..... 
Dewitt  

Jasper  
Jefferson  
Jersey  
Jo  Daviess.  .  .  . 

Kane  
Kankakee.  .  .  . 
Kendall  
Knox  
Lake  
Lasalle  
Lawrence  
Lee  

Peoria  
Perry  
Piatt  
Pike 

Douglas  

Dupage  
Edgar 

Edwards.  .  .  . 
Effingham.  .  . 
Fayette  
Total 

Pope  
Pulaski  
Putnam  

22,232 
77,270 
24,594 
13,123 
17,213 
26,321 
9,727 
19,953 
34,545 
31,835 
34,285 
28,202 
13,476 
29,914 
22,194 
19,518 
25,711 
49,624 
20,357 
45,052 
13,495 
30,118 
21,446 

AREA, 

Franklin  
Fulton  
Gibson 

INDI 

33,809 
16,388 
17,453 
30,099 
54,693 
28,530 
29,914 
19,189 
21,702 
21,292 
25,088 
28,575 
28,901 
26,633 
14,292 
26,818 
22,913 
15,757 
20,223 
32,746 
29,109 
15,284 
37,892 
38,386 

ANA. 

SQUARE    MILES. 

Lawrence  
Madison  
Marion  
Marshall  
Martin  
Miami  
Monroe  
Montgomery.  . 
Morgan  
Newton  
Noble  
Ohio  
Orange  
Owen  
Parke  
Perry  
Pike  
Porter  
Posey  
Pulaski  
Putnam  
Randolph.  .  . 
Ripley 

25,729 
70,470 
197,227 
25,119 
14,711 
28,344 
20,873 
29,388 
20,457 
10,448 
23,533 
4,724 
16,854 
15,149 
23,000 
18,778 
20,486 
19,175 
22,333 
14,033 
21,478 
28,653 
19,881 

Rush 

Allen  
Bartholomew  . 
Benton  
Blackford.  .  .  . 
Boone  
Brown  
Carroll  
Cass  
Clark  
Clay  
Clinton  
Crawford  
Daviess  
Dearborn  
Decatur 

St.  Joseph.  . 
Scott  
Shelby  
Spencer.  .  .  . 
Starke  
Steuben  .... 
Sullivan.  .  .  . 
Switzerland. 
Tippecanoe. 
Tipton  
Union  
Vanderburg. 
Vermilion  .  . 
Vigo  
Wabash.  ... 
Warren  .... 
Warrick  
Washington. 
Wayne 

.     58,881 
.      8,307 
.     26,491 
.     22,407 
.     10,431 
.     15,219 
.    26,005 
.    11,840 
.     38,659 
.     19,116 
.       6,748 
.     71,769 
.    15,252 
.    62,035 
.     28,235 
.     11,371 
.     22,329 
.     19,409 
.     38,970 
.     23,449 
.     19,138 
17  328 

Grant  
Greene  
Hamilton  
Hancock  
Harrison  
Hendricks.  .  .  . 
Henry  
Howard  
Huntington.  . 
Jackson 

Jasper  
Jay  .  .  . 

Jefferson  
Jennings  
Johnson  
Knox  
Kosciusko.  .  .  . 
Lagrange  
Lake  
Laporte. 

Dekalb  
Delaware.  .     .  . 
Dubois  
Elkhart  
Fayette  
Floyd  
Fountain.  .    .  . 
Total.  .  .  . 

Wells  
White.  . 

Whitley 

2,516,492 

.     17,820 
.     13,757 
.     18,729 
.     19,514 
.     13,752 
.     22,794 
.     25,597 
.    20,022 
.     14,512 
.     12,667 
.     12,327 
.     19.544 

Adair  
Adams  
Allamakee.  .  .  . 
Appanoose.  .  .  . 
Audubon  
Benton  
Blackhawk.  .  . 
Boone  
Bremer  
Buchanan.  .  .  . 
Buena  Vista.  . 
Butler.  .  . 

16,192 
13,601 
18,711 
25,927 
13,626 
25,177 
32,399 
28,200 
16,305 
21,427 
16,975 
17,955 

AREA, 

Calhoun.  . 

icn 

50,914 
18,569 
20,319 
21,274 
19,371 
20,672 
16,570 
17,037 
12,440 
13,401 
27,750 
43,832 
21.685 

NA. 

SQUARE    MILES. 

Dallas 

23,058 
15,620 
18,115 
19,185 
35,989 
7,995 
56,403 
9,936 
29,845 
17,754 
14,996 
18.546 

Greene  
Grundy.  .  .  . 
Guthrie.  .  .  . 
Hamilton.  .. 
Hancock.  .  . 
Hardin.  .  .  . 
Harrison.  .  . 

Carroll  
Cass  
Cedar  
Cerro  Gordo.    . 
Cherokee  
Chickasaw.  .  . 
Clarke  
Clay 

Davis  
Decatur  

Des  Moines.  . 
Dickinson.  .  . 
Dubuque.  .  .  . 
Emmet 

Fayette  
Floyd  
Franklin 

Howard.  .  .  . 
Humboldt.  . 
Ida  
Iowa.  .  . 

Clayton  
Clinton  
Crawford  .  . 

Fremont.  . 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


145 


IOWA— Continued. 


Jackson 

23  615 

Mahaska.  .  .  . 
Marion  
Marshall  
Mills  
Mitchell  
Monona  
Monroe  
Montgomery  . 
Muscatine.  .  . 
O'Brien  
Osceola  
Page  
Palo  Alto 

34,273 
24,159 
29,991 
16,764 
14,916 
17,980 
17,985 
17,803 
28,242 
16,985 
8,725 
24,187 
14,354 

Plymouth.  .  . 
Pocahontas.  . 
Polk  
Pottawattamie 
Poweshiek  .  .  . 
Ringgold.  .  .  . 
Sac  
Scott  
Shelby  
Sioux  
Story  
Tama  
Taylor 

22,209 
15,339 
82,624 
54,336 
19,414 
15,325 
17,639 
51,558 
17,932 
23,337 
23,159 
24,585 
18,784 

Union  
Van  Buren.  .  .  . 
Wapello  
Warren  
Washington.  .  . 
Wayne  
Webster  

Jasper  
Jefferson.  .  . 

.     26,976 
.     17,437 
24  817 

Jones  
Keokuk.  .  .  . 
Kossuth.  .  .  . 
Lee 

.     21,954 
.     24,979 
.     22,720 
39  719 

Winnebago.  .  . 
Winneshiek.  . 
Woodbury.  .  .  . 
Worth  
Wright.  . 

Linn  
Louisa  
Lucas  
Lyon  
Madison.  .  .  . 
Total.  . 

.    55,392 
.     13,516 
.     16,126 
.     13,165 
.     17,710 

..2 

19,928 
17,354 
35,426 
20,376 
20,718 
17,491 
31,757 
12,725 
23,731 
54,610 
10,887 
18,227 

2,231,853 


Allen  
Anderson  
Atchison  
Barber  
Barton  
Bourbon  
Brown  
Butler 

19,507 
13,938 
28,606 
6,594 
13,784 
24,712 
22,369 
23,363 
8,246 
11,804 
42,694 
2,640 
1,701 
15,833 
18,071 
16,643 
1,619 
30,156 
38,809 
9,234 
21,816 
15,079 
25,096 
3,682 
11,443 
8,626 
9,626 

AREA, 

Finney  
Ford 

KAN 

78,418  f 
3,469 
5,497 
21,354 
10,744 
2,441 
5,173 
422 
1,264 
493 
16,196 
1,426 
10,310 
17,591 
457 
2,032 
17,171 
17,533 
19,420 
18,104 
1,107 
10,663 
2,365 
27,387 
1,563 
40,940 
9,886 
16,689 

SAS. 

SQUARE  MILES. 

Logan  

1,962 
25,074 
21,421 
20,676 
24,355 
1,581 
21,641 
14,647 
29,039 
11,967 
304 
20,376 
19,254 
4,535 
11,325 
23,659 
11,844 
11,182 
5,084 
14,442 
18,470 
7,085 
5,241 
29,027 
18,248 
14,745 
13,828 

Rooks  
Rush  
Russell 

Franklin  
Geary 

McPherson.  .  . 
Marion  
Marshall  
Meade  
Miami  
Mitchell  
Montgomery.  . 
Morris  
Morton  
Nemaha 

Saline  
Scott  
Sedgwick  
Seward.  . 

Gove  
Graham  
Grant  
Gray  
Greeley  
Greenwood.  .  . 
Hamilton  
Harper  
Harvey  
Haskell  
Hodgeman.  .  .  . 
Jackson  
Jefferson.  .  .  . 
Jewell  
Johnson  
Kearny  
Kingman  
Kiowa  
Labette 

Shawnee  
Sheridan  
Sherman  
Smith  
Stafford  
Stanton  
Stevens  
Sumner  
Thomas  
Trego  
Wabaunsee.  .  . 
Wallace  
Washington.  .  . 
Wichita  
Wilson  
Woodson  
Wyandotte.  .  . 

.  .1 

Chase  
Chautauqua.  . 
Cherokee  
Cheyenne  
Clark  
Clay  
Cloud  

Neosho  
Ness  

Norton  
Osage  
Osborne  
Ottawa  
Pawnee  
Phillips  
Pottawatomie 
Pratt  
Rawlins.  
Reno  
Republic  
Rice  

Coffey  
Comanche.  .  .  . 
Cowley  
Crawford  
Decatur  
Dickinson.  .  .  . 
Doniphan.  .  .  . 
Douglas  
Edwards  
Elk  
Ellis  
Ellsworth  
Total.  . 

Lane  
Leavenworth.  . 
Lincoln  
Linn.  .  .  . 

7,960 
6,134 
8,489 

17,076 
1,098 

44,037 
822 

53,727 
3,819 
3,341 

16,384 

9,829 

3€7 

620 

25,631 
4,112 
2,722 

12,813 
1,178 

21,963 
1,197 

15,621 

10,022 

73,227 


1,470,495 


Adair.  .  .  . 

Allen 

Anderson. 
Ballard. 
Barren . 
Bath.  . . 
Bell. .  .  . 
Boone. 
Bourbon.  .  .  . 

Boyd 

Boyle 

Bracken 

Breathitt.  .  . 
Breckinridge . 

Bullitt 

Butler 

Caldwell 

Galloway.  .  .  . 

Campbell 

Carlisle 

Carroll 

Carter. .  . 


AREA, 

14,888 

Casey  

14,657 

Christian  

10,051 

Clark  

10,761 
23,197 

Clay  
Clinton  

14,734 

Crittenden.  .  .  . 

15,701 

Cumberland.  . 

11,170 

Daviess  

18,069 

Edmonson.  .  .  . 

18,834 

Elliott  

13317 

Estill.  .  . 

12,137 

Fayette  

14,322 

Fleming  

20,534 

Floyd.  

9,602 

Franklin  

15,896 

Fulton  

14,510 

Gallatin  

17,633 

Garrard.  .     .  .  . 

54,223 

Grant  

10,195 

Graves  

9,825 

Grayson  

20.228 

Green.  . 

KENTUCKY. 

37,680    SQUARE    MILES. 


15,144 

Greenup  

37,962 

Hancock  

16,694 

Hardin  

15,364 

Harlan  

7,871 

Harrison  

15,191 

Hart  

8,962 

Henderson.  .  .  . 

38,667 
10,080 

Henry  
Hickmari  

10,387 

Hopkins  

11,669 

Jackson  

42,071 

Jefferson  

17,074 

Jessamine.  .  .  . 

15,552 

Johnson  

20,852 

Kenton  

11,546 

Knott  

5,163 

Knox 

12,042 

Larue  

13,239 

Laurel.  . 

33,204  Lawrence  

19,878 
12.255 

Lee  

Leslie.  .  . 

15,432 1  Letcher. 
8,914 1  Lewis.. 
22,937 1  Lincoln.  .  .  . 


9,838 
18,570 
18,390 
32,907 
14,620 


Livingston.  . . 

Logan 

Lyon 

McCracken..  . 
McLean.  . 


11,745  Madison. 
30,995  Magoffin. 
10,561  Marion. 


232,549 


Marshall.  . 


11,925  Martin 

13,730  Mason 

63.591  Meade 

8,704  Menifee 

17,372  Mercer 

10,764  Metcalf 

17.592  Monroe 

19,612)  Montgomery. 

7,988!  Morgan 

6,753  i  Muhlenberg. 


9,172 
17,868 
17,059 
11,354 
25,994 

9,319 
28,733 
12,448 
25,607 
12,006 
16,290 
13,692 

5,780 
20,446 
10,533 

6,818 
14,426 

9,978 
13,053 
12,034 
12,792 
20,741 


146 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


KENTUCKY— Continued. 


Nelson  
Nicholas  
Ohio  
Oldham 

16,587 
11,952 
27,287 
7,078 
17,553 
6,874 
14,947 
8,276 

Pike 

22  686IShelhv. 

.     18,340 
.     11,624 
.      7,406 
11  075 

Warren.  .  .  . 
Washington. 
Wayne  
Webster  
Whitley.... 
Wolfe  .  .  . 

.  .     29,970 
.  .     14,182 
.  .     14,892 
.  .     20,097 
.  .     25,015 
8  764 

Powell  
Pulaski  

.       6,443 
.    31,293 

Simpson  
Spencer  
Taylor  . 

Robertson  .  .  . 
Rockcastle.  .  . 
Rowan  

.       4,900 
.     12,416 

8  277 

Owen  
Owsley  
Pendleton.  .  .  . 
Perry  
Total.  . 

Todd  
Trigg.  .  .  . 

.     17,371 
14073 

Russell  
Scott  

.       9,695 
.     18,076 

Trimble 

7  272 

Woodford.  . 

.  .     13,134 
.2.147,174 

Union  

.    21,326 

LOUISIANA. 


Acadia  

23,483 
24,142 
21,620 
29,701 
17,588 
24,153 
44,499 
30,428 
6,917 
3,952 
16,351 
23,029 
13,559 
25,063 

31,153 

AREA, 

East  Carroll.  .  . 
East  Feliciana. 
Franklin  
Grant  
Iberia  

41,255  i 
11,373 
20,443 
8,890 
12,902 
29,015 
27,006 
9,119 
15,321 
22,825 
28,882 
15,898 
8,100 
12,322 
16,634 
33,216 
287,104 

SQUARE   MILES. 

Ouachita  
Plaquemines.  . 
Pointe  Coupee. 
Rapides  
Red  River  
Richland. 

20,947 
13,039 
25,777 
39,578 
11,548 
11,116 
15,421 
5,031 
9,072 
8,479 
20,197 

12,330 
52,906 
18,940 
34,145 

St.  Tammany. 
Tangipahoa.  .  . 
Tensas  
Terrebonne.  .  . 
Union  
Vermilion.  .  .   . 
Vernon  
Washington..  . 
Webster  
West    Baton 
Rouge  
West  Carroll.  . 
West  Feliciana 
Winn 

Ascension.  .  .  . 
Assumption  . 
Avoyelles.  .    . 
Bienville.  .  .  . 
Bossier  
Caddo  
Calcasieu.  .    . 
Caldwell.  .  .    . 
Cameron.  .  .  . 
Catahoula.  .  .  ' 
Claiborne.  .  .  . 
Concordia.  .  . 
De  Soto  
East  Baton 
Rouge.  .  . 
Total.  . 

Iberville  
Jackson  
Jefferson. 

Sabine  
St.  Bernard.  .  . 
St.  Charles  
St.  Helena  
St.  James  
St.     John    the 
Baptist  
St.  Landry  .  .  . 
St.  Martin.  .  .  . 
St.  Mary  

Lafayette.  .  .  . 
Lafourche.  .  .  . 
Lincoln  
Livingston.  .  .  . 

Morehouse.  .  .  . 
Natchitoches.  . 
Orleans.  

..1. 

13,335 

17,625 
19,070 
24,464 
18,521 
20,705 
10,327 
9,628 
15,125 

10,285 
3,685 

15,994 
9,648 


381,625 


MAINE. 

AREA,    31,766    SQUARE    MILES. 


Androscoggin  .  54,242 
Aroostook.  .  .  .  60,744 
Cumberland.  .  .100,689 
Franklin 18,444 


Hancock 37,241 

Kennebec 59,117 

Knox 30,406 

Lincoln 19,669 


Oxford 32,238  Somerset.  .  . 

Penobscot.  . .  .    76,246  Waldo 


33,849 
24,185 


Piscataquis.  .  .     16,949  Washington..  .     45,232 
Sagadahoc 20,330  York 64,885 


Total 694,466 

MARYLAND. 

AREA,    11,124    SQUARE    MILES. 


Allegany  53,694 
AnneArundel.    40,018 
Baltimore.  ...     90,755 
Baltimore  City  508,957 
Calvert  10,223 
Caroline  16,248 

Carroll 

33  860 

Harford  
Howard  
Kent. 

28,269 
16,715 
18,786 
30,451 
29,898 
18,364 

St.  Mary  .  .  . 
Somerset.  .  . 
Talbot  
Washington. 
Wicomico.  .  . 
Worcester.  . 

.     18,136 
.    25,923 
.     20,342 
.    45,133 
.    22,852 
.  .     20,865 
1.190,050 

Cecil  
Charles.  . 

.    24,662 
18,316 

Dorchester.  .  . 
Frederick.  .  .  . 
Garrfit,t,.  . 

.    27,962 
.    51,920 
.     17,701 

Montgomery.  . 
Prince  George  . 
Queen  Anne  .  . 

Total.  . 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

AREA,   7,800   SQUARE    MILES. 


Barnstable. 
Berkshire  . 

Bristol 

Dukes , 


27,826 

95,667 

252,029 

4,561 


357,030 

Franklin 41,209 

Hampden 175,603 

Hampshire  .  .  .    58,820 


Middlesex.  .  .  .  565,696 
Nantucket.  .  . .      3,006 

Norfolk 151,539 

Plymouth.  .  .  .  113,985 


Suffolk 611,417 

Worcester. .  . .  346,958 


Total 2,805,346 


Alcona 5,691 

Alger 5,868 

Allegan 38,812 

Alpena 18,254 

Antrim 16,568 

Arenac ,  9,821 

Baraga 4,320 

Barry 22,514 


AREA, 

Bay  
Benzie.  /  
Berrien  
Branch  

MICH] 
56,243  E 
62,378 
9,685 
49,165 
27,811 
49,315 
20,876 
13,956 
15,516 

GAN. 

QUARE  MILES. 

Chippewa.  .  . 
Clare  
Clinton  
Crawford  .  .  . 
Delta  
Dickinson.  .  . 
Eaton.  . 

21,338 
8,360 
25,136 
2,943 
23,881 
17,890 
31,668 
15.931 

Genesee  41,804 

Gladwin.  .  .  6  564 

Gogebic  16,738 
Grand  Traverse  20,479 
Gratiot  29,889 
Hillsdale  29  865 

Calhoun  

Cass 

Charlevoix.  .  .  . 
Cheboygan.  . 

Houghton.  .  .  .  66,063 
Huron.  .  .34.162 

Emmet.  .  . 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


147 


148 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


Ingham  

39,818 
34,329 
10,246 
8,990 
22,784 
48,222 
44,310 
7,133 
129,714 
3,217 
4,957 
27,641 
10,556 

MICJ 
Lenawee  

HIGAN 

48,406 
19,664 
2,983 
7,703 
33,244 
27,856 
41,239 
18,885 
20,693 
27,046 
14,439 
9,308 
32,754 

—  Continued. 

Montcalm.  .  .  . 
Montmorency  . 
Muskegon.  .  .  . 
Newaygo  
Oakland.  .  . 

32,754 
3,234 
37,036 
17,673 
44,792 
16,644 
7,765 
6,197 
17,859 
1,468 
6,175 
39,667 
8,821 

Roscommon. 
Saginaw.  .  .  . 
St.  Clair  
St.  Joseph.  . 
Sanilac 

1,787 
.    81,222 
.  .     55,228 
.  .    23,889 
35  055 

Ionia 

Livingston  .  .  . 

Irno  
Isabella  
Jackson  
Kalamazoo.  . 
Kalkaska.  .  .  . 
Kent 

Mackinac  
Macomb  
Manistee  
Manitou  
Mason  

Oceana  

Schoolcraft. 
Shiawassee.  . 
Tuscola.  .  .  . 
Van  Buren.  . 
Washtenaw. 
Wayne.  .  . 

.       7,889 
.     33,866 
.  .     35,890 
.  .     33,274 
.  .    47,731 
.  .  348,793 

Ogemaw  
Ontonagon  .  .  . 
Osceola  
Oscoda  
Otsego  

Mecosta  
Menominee.  .  . 
Midland  
Missaukee.  .  .  . 
Monroe  

Keweenaw.  .  . 
Lake.  .  . 

Lapeer 

Ottawa  
Presque  Isle 

Wexford.  .  . 

16  845 

Leelanau  .... 

.2,420,982 

Total.  . 

MINNESOTA. 

AREA,    95,274   SQUARE    MILES. 


Aitkin     .  .  . 

6  743 

Freeborn.     .  .  . 

21,838 

Morrison  

22,891 

Sibley  16  862 

Anoka  
Becker     .    .    . 

11,313 
14,375 

Goodhue  
Grant  

31,137 
8,935 

Mower  
Murray.  .  . 

22,335 
11,911 

Stearns  44,464 
Steele  16  524 

Beltrami 

11  030 

Hennepin  .... 

228,340 

Nicollet.  . 

14  774 

Stevens                   8  721 

9912 

Houston. 

15400 

Nobles 

14  932 

Swift                      13  503 

Bigstone  

8  731 

Hubbard  

6,578 

Norman  

15,045 

Todd.                     22*214 

Blue  Earth 

32  263 

Isanti   .  .  . 

11  675 

Olmsted 

23  119 

Traverse                 7  573 

Brown  

19,787 

Itasca.  

4,573 

Ottertail  

45,375 

Wabasha               18  924 

Carlton 

10017 

Jackson    .    .    . 

14,793 

Pine.  . 

11  546 

Wadena                  7  921 

17  544 

Kanabec 

4  614 

Pipestone 

9  264 

Waseca                  14760 

Cass  
Chippewa  
Chisago.  .  . 

7,777 
12,499 
13  248 

Kandiyohi.  .  .  . 
Kittson  
Lac  qui  Parle  . 

18,416 
7,889 
14,289 

Polk  
Pope  
Ramsey 

35,429 
12,577 
170  554 

Washington..!    27^808 
Watonwan  11,496 
Wilkin                     8  080 

Clay 

17  942 

Lake 

4  654 

Red  Lake 

12  195 

Winona                 35  686 

Cook.  .  . 

810 

Lesueur.  .      .  . 

20,234 

Redwood  

17,261 

Wright.  .  .            29  157 

Cottonwood 

12  069 

Lincoln  . 

8,966 

Renville.  . 

23  693 

White  Earth  In- 

Crow Wing  .  .  . 

14,250 

Lyon.  .  , 

14,591 

Rice.  . 

26.080 

dian  Reserva- 

Dakota. 

21  733 

McLeod. 

19,595 

Rock  

9  668 

tion.                     3  486 

Dodge  

13,340 

Marshall  

15,698 

Roseau  

6,994 

Yellow  Medicinel4,602 

Douglas  

17,964 

Martin.  ...-.., 

16,936 

St.  Louis  

82,932 

Faribault.  .  . 

22055 

Meeker.  .  . 

17,753 

Scott.  .  .  . 

15,147 

Fillmore  . 

28  238 

Millelacs 

8  066 

7281 

Total.  . 

..1.751,394 

MISSISSIPPI. 

AREA,    47,156    SQUARE    MILES. 


Adams  ...    . 

30,111 
14,987 
20,708 
26,248 
10,510 
35,427 
16,512 
22,116 
19,892 
13,036 
20,787 
17,741 
19,563 
26,293 
34,395 
13,076 
24,751 
13,678 
6,795 

Grenada  
Hancock.  .  .  » 
Harrison.  .  .  . 
Hinds 

14,112 
11,886 
21,002 
52,577 
36,828 
10,400 
13,544 
16,513 
15,394 
21,292 
17,846 
20,492 
22,110 
38,150 
15,103 
17,360 
21,956 
23,834 
21,552 

Lowndes  
Madison  
Marion.  .  .  . 

29,095 
32,493 
13,501 
27,674 
31,216 
16,536 
12,726 
19,708 
30,846 
20,183 
29,027 
6,697 
14,682 
27,545 
18,274 
15,788 
5,435 
20,955 
14,316 

Sharkey 

12  178 

Alcorn  

Simpson.  .  .  . 
Smith  
Sunflower  .  . 
Tallahatchie 
Tate 

.     12,800 
.     13,055 
.    16,084 
.    19,600 
.     20,618 
.     12,983 
.     10,124 
.     16,479 
.     16,522 
.    40,912 
.    49,216 
12  539 

Amite  

Attala.  

Marshall 

Holmes  
Issaquena.  .  . 
Itawamba.  .  . 
Jackson  
Jasper  
Jefferson.  .  .  . 
Jones  
Kemper  
Lafayette.  .  .  . 
Lauderdale.  . 
Lawrence.  .  .  . 
Leake.  .  . 

Monroe  
Montgomery.  . 
Neshoba  
Newton  
Noxubee  
Oktibbeha  
Panola  
Pearl  River.  .  . 
Perry  
Pike  
Pantotoc  
Prentiss  

Bolivar  
Calhoun  
Carroll  
Chickasaw.  .  . 
Choctaw  
Clai  borne.  .  .  . 
Clarke  .  . 

Tippah  
Tishomingo. 
Tunica  
Union  
Warren  
Washington. 
Wayne 

Clay  
Coahoma.  .  .  . 
Copiah  
Covington.  .  .  . 
De  Soto 

Webster.  ,  .. 

.     13,619 

Wilkinson.  . 

.  .    21,453 
14  124 

Lee 

Yalobusha.  . 
Yazoo  

..     19,742 
.    43,948 

1,551,270 

Franklin  

Leflore  
Lincoln  .  .  . 

Rankin  
Scott  

Greene  
Total.  . 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


149 


21,728 
17,332 
16,501 
21,160 
25,532 
18,253 
30,141 
16,556 
14,650 
28,642 
121,838 
16,769 
16,656 
25,984 
13,113 
24,315 
26,455 
6,706 
23,636 
16,923 
26,826 
16,939 
15,383 
18,903 
17,363 
20,578 
22,532 
12,959 
18,125 

AREA, 

Dallas 

MISS 
67,380 

13,903 
21,325 
14,418 
12,986 
16,802 
21,706 
30,581 
12,298 
20,554 
52,713 
17,832 
24,398 
28,054 
9,985 
17,083 
18,337 
21,834 
8,716 
195,193 
84,018 
25,712 
27,843 
13,479 
16,523 
31,679 
31,662 
16,724 
18,352 
25,503 

OURI. 

SQUARE    MILES. 

Livingston.  .  .  . 
McDonald.  .  .  . 

22,302 
13,574 
33,018 
9,975 
9,616 
26,331 
14,706 
15,187 
11,837 
15,931 
19,716 
16,571 
12,175 
11,280 
27,001 
32,938 
13,906 
14,096 
12,145 
12,115 
15,134 
32,438 
14,194 
25,744 
16,193 
23,255 
10,394 
16,688 
12,287 

Randolph  .  .  . 
Ray 

24,442 
24,805 
8,161 
13,186 
24,474 
17,907 
10,359 
24,051 
50,040 
575,238 
33,703 
10,840 
13,232 
13,092 
11,247 
16,167 
24,669 
9,892 
20,282 
10,127 
22,192 
31,619 
9,919 
14,263 
15,309 
16,640 
9,832 
17,519 

,106,665 

5,080 
4,355 
6,212 

3S- 

2,660 
243,339 

9,604 
19,614 
2,809 
18,252 
9,080 
22,085 
2,552 
15,690 
6,033 
6,550 
2,055 
6,959 
14,325 
628 
8,756 
7,339 
13,086 
9,862 
11,619 
1,362 
18,205 

068,539 

Andrew  

Daviess.  .  . 

Dekalb  . 

Dent  

Madison.  .  . 

Barry     .  . 

Douglas 

Maries  
Marion.  .  .  . 

St.  Charles  
St.  Clair  
Ste.Genevieve 
St.  Francois.. 
St.  Louis  
St.  Louis  City. 
Saline  
Schuyler  
Scotland.  .  .  . 

Barton  
Bates  
Benton  

Dunklin  

Franklin  
Gasconade.  .  .  . 
Gentry.  .  . 

Mercer  
Miller......  . 
Mississippi.  .  . 
Moniteau.  .  .  . 
Monroe  
Montgomery.  . 
Morgan  
New  Madrid  .  . 
Newton  
Nod  away 

Bellinger.     .  . 
Boone  
Buchanan.  .  . 
Butler  

Greene  
Grundy.  . 

Harrison  
Henry  

Caldwell  
Callaway.  .  .  . 
Camden  

Hickory  
Holt  
Howard 

Scott  
Shannon.  ... 

Cape  Girardeau 
Carroll  
Carter  
Cass.  . 

Shelby  
Stoddard  .  . 

Howell  
Iron.  . 

Oregon.  .  . 

Osage  
Ozark  
Pemiscot 

Stone  

Jackson  
Jasper  

Cedar  

Taney  
Texas  
Vernon  
Warren  
Washington.  .  . 
Wayne 

Chariton.  .  .  . 

Christian  
Clark  
Clay  

Johnson  
Knox  
Laclede  

Pettis  
Phelps 

Pike.  .  .. 

Clinton  
Cole 

Lafayette 

Platte 

Lawrence  
Lewis 

Polk 

Webster 

Cooper  

Pulaski  
Putnam  
Rails. 

Worth 

Crawford 

Lincoln  
Linn  

Wright 

Dade  

....  3 

Total  

Beaverhead.  .  . 
Broadwater.  .  . 
Carbon  

5,615 
2,641 
7,533 
25,777 
10,966 
7,891 
2,443 

AREA, 

Deerlodge.  .  .  . 
Fergus  
Flathead 

MON1 
143,776 

17,393 
6,937 
9,375 
9,553 
4,328 
5,330 
ce!9,171 

"ANA. 

SQUARE  MILES. 

7,695 
2,526 
13,964 
7,341 
7,822 
47,635 
3,086 

Teton 

Meagher  
Missoula  
Park  
Ravalli  
Silverbow  
Sweet  Grass..  . 

Valley 

Yellowstone.  . 
Crow  Indian  R< 
ervation.  .  .. 

Cascade  

Gallatin  .  . 

Choteau  

Granite  

Custer 

Dawson  

Lewis  andClarl 

Total  .... 

Adams  

18,840 
11,344 
1,114 
603 
11,689 
5,572 
7,332 
3,470 
20,254 
13,040 
15,703 
21,330 
12,467 
2,559 
6,541 
5,570 
15,735 
11,211 
14,584 
19,758 
6,286 
6,215 
12,214 

AREA, 

Deuel  
Dixon  

NEBR 
75,995 
2,630 
10,535 
22,298 
140,590 
2,434 
15,087 
9,455 
8,781 
12,373 
30,051 
2,127 
5,301 
763 
5,691 
17,206 
13,330 
9,370 
2,708 
4,409 
12,224 
432 
10,343 
15,196 

ASKA. 

SQUARE    MILES. 

Johnson  
Kearney. 

11,197 
9,866 
1,951 
3,076 
758 
14,343 
64,835 
11,416 
960 
1,305 
517 
16,976 
9,255 
8,222 
14,952 
12,414 
22,288 
11,770 
1,702 
10,772 
8,445 
17,747 
10,542 

Redwillow.  .  .  . 
Richardson.  .  . 
Rock 

Antelope  
Banner  

Dodge  
Douglas  
Dundy  
Fillmore  
Franklin.  .  .  . 

Keith  
Keyapaha.  .  .  . 
Kimball. 

Blaine  
Boone  

Saline  

Sarpy 

Boxbutte  

Knox  
Lancaster.  .  .». 

Saunders  
Scotts  Bluff.  .  . 
Seward 

Boyd  
Brown  

Frontier 

Buffalo  

Furnas  

Logan.  .  . 

Sheridan  . 

Burt  

Gage  
Garfield 

Sherman  
Sioux  
Stanton  
Thayer.  .  . 

Butler. 

McPherson  .  .  . 
Madison  
Merrick. 

Cass  

Gosper  
Grant  

Cedar  

Chase.  . 

Thomas  
Thurston  . 

Cherry  
Cheyenne  
Clay  

Hall  
Hamilton  
Harlan  

Nemaha  
Nuckolls  
Otoe 

Valley 

Washington.  .  . 
Wayne  
Webster  

Colfax  

Pawnee  

Cuming  
Custer  

Hitchcock.  .  .  . 
Holt 

Phelps 

Wheeler  

Dakota.  

Pierce 

York 

Dawes  
Dawson  

Howard  
Jefferson  

Platte 

..1 

Polk 

Total.  .  .  . 

150 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


Churchill  

830 
1,534 
5,688 
1,972 

NEVADA. 

ABEA,    122,090   SQUARE   MILES. 

Eureka     1,954  T/vnn    

2,268 
1,140 
2,893 
3,673 

Washoe.  .  . 
White  Pine. 

9,141 
.       1,961 

42  335 

Humboldt  4,463 
Lander  ....       1,534 

Nye 

Elko  

Ormsby.       .    . 

Esmeralda  .  .  . 
Total     .  .  . 

Lincoln                   3  284 

Belknap  . 

19,526 
16,895 
31,321 

NEW  HA 

ABEA,    9,280   6 

Coos  29,468 
Graf  ton  40,844 
Hillsboro            112  640 

VfPSHIRE. 

QUARE    MILES. 

Merrimack  .  .  . 
Rockingham  .  . 
Strafford  

52,430 
51,118 
39,337 

Sullivan 

18  009 

Carroll  

411  588 

Cheshire 

Total  .  .  . 

Atlantic  
Bergen  
Burlington  .  .  . 
Camden  
Cape  May  .... 
Cumberland  .  . 
Total.  .  .  . 

46,402 
78,441 
58,241 
107,643 
13,201 
51,193 

NEW  J 

AREA,    3,320   i 

Essex  359,053 
Gloucester  ...    31,905 
Hudson  386,048 
Hunterdon  .  .  .    34,507 
Mercer  95,365 
Middlesex.  .  .  .    79,762 

ERSEY. 

iQUARE   MILES. 

Monmouth  .  .  . 
Morris  

82,057 
65,156 
19,747 
155,202 
25,530 
32,948 

Sussex  

.    24  134 

Union 

99  353 

Ocean  
Passaic  

Warren  

.  .    37,781 

.1,883,669 
12  195 

Salem  

Somerset. 

Bernalillo  .... 
Chaves  
Colfax  
Donna  Ana.  .  . 
Eddy  
Total  

28,630 
4,773 
10,150 
10,187 
3,229 

NEW  & 

AREA,    121,201 

Grant  12,883 

[EXICO. 

SQUARE   MILES. 

Rio  Arriba  .  .  . 
San  Juan  
San  Miguel  .  .  . 
Santa  Fe  
Sierra  

13,777 

4,828 
22,053 
14,658 
3,158 

Socorro 

Guadalupe  .  .  .      5,429 
Lincoln  4,953 

Taos  
Union  
Valencia  .  .  . 

.  .     10,889 
.  .       4,528 
..     13,895 

195  310 

Mora  10,304 

Otero  4,791 

• 
Albany  .  .  . 

165,571 
41,501 
69,149 
65,643 
66,234 
88,314 
54,063 
36,568 
47,430 
43,211 
27,576 
46,413 
81,670 
433,686 
30,707 
42,853 

NEW 

AREA,    47,800 

Fulton.  .      .  .       42,842 

YORK. 

SQUARE    MILES. 

Onondaga.  .  . 
Ontario  
Orange  
Orleans  
Oswego  .... 
Otsego  
Putnam  .... 
Queens  
Rensselaer  .  . 
Richmond  .  . 
Rockland  .  .  . 
St.  Lawrence 
Saratoga.  .  .  . 
Schenectady  . 
Schoharie  .  .  . 
Schuyler.  .  .  . 

168,735 
49,605 
103,859 
30,164 
70,881 
48,939 
13,787 
152,999 
121,697 
67,021 
38,298 
89,083 
61,089 
46,852 
26,854 
15,811 

Seneca   . 

28  114 

Allegany.  .  . 
Broome.  .  .  . 
Cattaraugus 
Cayuga  .... 
Chautauqua 
Chemung  .  . 
Chenango  .  . 
Clinton  .... 
Columbia  .  . 
Cortland  .  .  . 
Delaware  .  . 
Dutchess.  .  . 
Erie  

Genesee  34,561 
Greene  31,478 
Hamilton  .  .  .         4,947 
Herkimer  .  .  .       51,049 
Jefferson.  .  .  .       76,748 
Kings  .             1  166  582 

Steuben  .  .  . 
Suffolk  .... 
Sullivan  .  .  . 
Tioga  

.       82,822 
.       77,582 
.       32,306 
27,951 

Tompkins.  . 
Ulster 

.       33,830 
88422 

Lewis  27,427 
Livingston  .  .       37,059 
Madison  40,545 
Monroe  217,854 
Montgomery        47,488 
Nassau  55,448 
New  York.  .  .  2,050,600 
Niagara  74,961 
Oneida  .              132  800 

Warren.  .     . 
Washington 
Wayne  .... 
Westchester 
Wyoming  .  . 
Yates 

29,943 
.       45,624 
.       48,660 
.     183,375 
.       30,413 
.       20,318 

7,268,012 

.    26,233 
.  .    26,591 
.  .     35,261 
.  .    25,116 
.  .     27,903 
.  .     10,413 
.  .      4,343 
..    23,263 
.  .     12,038 

Essex  
Franklin.  .  .  . 
Total 

Alamance  .... 
Alexander.  .  .  . 
Alleghany.  .  .  . 
Anson  

25,665 
10,960 
7,759 
21,870 
19,581 
26,404 
20,538 
17,677 
12,657 
44,288 

NORTH  C 

AREA,    50,704 

Burke  17,699 
Cabarrus.     ...    22,456 
Caldwell  ....     15,694 
Camden  5,474 
Carteret  .     ...     11,811 
Caswell  15,028 

AROLINA. 

SQUARE   MILES. 

Clay 

4,532 
25,078 
21,274 
24,160 
29,249 
6,529 
4,757 
23,403 
12,115 
22,405 

Durham  .  .  . 
Edgecombe  . 
Forsyth.  .  . 
Franklin  .  . 
Gaston  .  .  . 
Gates  
Graham  .  .  . 
Granville.  . 
Greene  

Cleveland  .  . 
Columbus  .  . 
Craven  .... 
Cumberland 
Currituck  .  . 
Dare  
Davidson  .  . 
Davie  

Ashe         

Beaufort  
Bertie  
Bladen  
Brunswick  .  .  . 
Buncombe  .  . 

Catawba  .    ...    22,133 
Chatham.     ...    23,912 
Cherokee.     .  .  .    11,860 
Chowan.  .        .     10,258 

Dulpin.  . 

Guilford  .  . 

.    39,074 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


151 


Rio&rande 


RIVERS   OF   THE   WORLD. 


152 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


Halifax  

30,793 
15,988 
16,222 
14,104 
14,294 
9,278 
29,064 
11,853 
32,250 
8,226 
18,639 
15,498 
12,567 
12,104 

NORTH 

Madison  
Martin  
Mecklenburg  . 
Mitchell  
Montgomery.  . 
Moore  
Nash  
New  Hanover  . 
Northampton  . 
Onslow  
Orange  
Pamlico  
Pasquotank  .  . 
Fender  

CAROL 

20,644 
15,383 
55,268 
15,221 
14,197 
23,622 
25,478 
25,785 
21,150 
11,940 
14,690 
8,045 
13,660 
13,381 

I  N  A  —  Continued. 

Perquimans  .  .     10,091  Swain  
Person  16,685  Transylvania  . 
Pitt  30.889  1  Tvrrell.  . 

8,401 
6,620 
4,980 
27,156 
16,684 
.54,626 
19,151 
10,608 
13,417 
31,356 
26,872 
23,596 
14,083 
11,464 
893,810 

6,491 
13,107 
20,288 
7,961 
8,310 
1,530 

2,208 
319,146 

29,246 
23,713 
32,525 
44,289 
40,940 
34,311 
40,981 
41,163 
24,625 
94,747 
71,715 
46,591 
53,751 
22,342 
30,394 
15,330 
25,584 
48,245 
87,870 
•  24,953 
51,555 
21,125 
157,545 

34,975 
7,469 

12,873 
389,245 

Harnett  
Hay  wood  .  .  . 
Henderson  .  . 
Hertford.  .  .  . 
Hyde 

Polk  
Randolph  .... 
Richmond.  .  .  . 
Robeson  
Kockingham.  . 
Rowan  
Rutherford.  .  . 
Sampson  
Stanly  
Stokes.  . 

7,004  Union  
28  232  Vance 

28  408  Wake 

Iredell  
Jackson  
Johnston.  .  .  . 

40,371  Warren  
33,163  Washington  .  . 
31,066  Watauga  
25  101  Wayne 

Jones  
Lenoir  
Lincoln  
McDowell  .  .  . 
Macon  
Total 

26,380  Wilkes  

15,220  Wilson  
19,866  Yadkin  
25,515  Yancey  
1 

Surry  

Barnes  
Benson  
Billings  
Bottineau.  .  . 
Burleigh  
Cass  
Cavalier  
Dickey  
Eddy  
Emmons  
Foster  
Total 

13,159 
8,320 
975 
7,532 
6,081 
28,625 
12,580 
6,061 
3,330 
4,349 
3,770 

N 

AREA, 

Grand  Forks.  . 
Griggs  
Kidder  
Lamoure.  .     .  . 
Logan  
McHenry. 
Mclntosh.      .  . 
McLean  
Mercer  
Morton  
Nelson 

ORTH 
72,000  i 

24,459 
4,744 
1,754 
6,048 
1,624 
5,25$ 
4,818 
4,791 
1,778 
8,069 
7,316 

DAKOTA. 

SQUARE    MILES. 

Oliver  
Pembina.  .  .  . 
Pierce  
Ramsey  
,Ransom  

990[Towner  .  . 

17,869  Traill  
4,765|Walsh  
9,198  Ward  
6,919lWells  
17,387  Williams  
7,995iStanding  Rock 
6,039      Indian    Res- 
7,621      ervation.  .  .  . 
5,888 
9,143 

Richland.  .  .  . 
Rolette  
Sargent  
Stark 

Steele  
Stutsman.  .  .  . 

Adams  
Allen  
Ashland  
Ashtabula.  . 
Athens  
Auglaize.  .  .  . 
Belmont.  .  .  . 
Brown  
Butler  
Carroll  
Champaign.  . 
Clark  
Clermont  .... 
Clinton  
Columbiana.  . 
Coshocton.  .  . 
Crawford  .... 
Cuyahoga.  .  .  . 
Darke  
Defiance  
Delaware 

26,328 
47,976 
21,184 
51,448 
38,730 
31,192 
60,875 
28,237 
56,870 
16,811 
26,642 
58,939 
31,610 
24,202 
68,590 
29,337 
33,915 
439,120 
42,532 
26,387 
26,401 
37,650 

AREA, 

Fairfield 

OH 
39,964 

34,259 
21,725 
164,460 
22,801 
27,918 
14,744 
31,613 
34,425 
409,479 
41,993 
31,187 
20,486 
27,282 
30,982 
24,398 
19,511 
32,330 
34,248 
44,357 
27,768 
21,680 
39,534 

IO. 

SQUARE    MILES. 

Licking  
Logan  
Lorain  
Lucas 

47,070  Portage  
30,420  Preble  
54,857  Putnam  
153,559  Richland  
20,590  Ross  
70,134fSandusky  
28,678  SScioto  
21,958  Seneca  
28,620  Shelby  
28,021  Stark  
43,105  Summit  
27,031  Trumbull  
130,146lTuscarawas.  .  . 
17  905|  Union 

Fayette  
Franklin.  .  .  . 

Fulton  
Gallia  
Geauga. 

Madison  
Mahoning.  .  .  . 
Marion  
Medina  
Meigs  
Mercer  
Miami 

Greene  
Guernsey  .... 
Hamilton  
Hancock  
Hardin  
Harrison  
Henry  . 

Monroe  
Montgomery. 
Morgan  
Morrow  
Muskingum.  . 
Noble  

Highland  
Hocking  

17,879  Van  Wert  
53,185  Vinton  
19,466  Warren  

Huron.  
Jackson 

Ottawa  
Paulding 

22,213  Washington.  .  . 
27,528  Wayne  
31,841  Williams  
27,016  Wood  

Jefferson  
Knox  
Lake  
Lawrence  

Perry  
Pickaway.  .  .  . 
Pike  

Erie  
Total.  .  .  . 

Beaver  
Blaine 

18,172  Wyandot  
4 

3,051 
10,658 
15,981 
16,388 
12,264 
2,173 
8,819 

AREA, 

Garfield 

OKLA 
2,950  e 

22,076 
17,273 
17,922 
22,530 
18,501 
27,007 
26,538 

HOMA. 

QUARE    MILES. 

Noble  

14,015  Woods.  . 
25,854  Woodward  
12,366  Indian    Reser- 
20  909       vation  

Grant  
Greer  
Kay 

Oklahoma.  .  .  . 
Pawnee  
Payne. 

Canadian.  .  .  . 
Cleveland.  .  .  . 
Ouster 

Kingfisher.  .  . 
Lincoln  
Logan  

Pottawatomie 
Roger  Mills.  .  . 
Washita  

26,412 
6,190 
15,001 

Day  
Dewey  
Total  .  . 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


153 


Baker  
Benton  
Clackamas.  .  . 
Clatsop  
Columbia.  .  .  . 
Coos  
Crook  
Curry  
Douglas  
Total 

15,597 
6,706 
19,658 
12,765 
6,237 
10,324 
3,964 
1,868 
14,565 

ORE 

AREA,    102,606 

Gilliam  3,201 
Grant  5,948 
Harney                   2  598 

GON. 

SQUARE    MILES. 

Linn  
Malheur  
Marion  
Morrow  
Multomah.  .  .  . 
Polk  
Sherman  
Tillamook.  .  .  . 
TTmatilla 

18,603 
4,203 
27,713 
4,151 
103,167 
9,923 
3,477 
4,471 
18,049 

Union  
Wallowa  
Wasco  
Washington.  .  . 
Wheeler.  . 

16,070 
5,538 
13,199 
14,467 
2,443 
13,420 

413,536 

293,697 
8,766 
30,621 
172,927 
17,304 
49,461 
12,134 
40,043 
49,086 
17,592 
49,648 
38,946 
92,181 
30,171 
160,175 
17,152 
116,413 
302,115 

24,154 
428,556 

23,634 
59,663 
19,375 
45,589 
18,966 
65,560 
51,237 
25,501 
31,685 
41,684 
340,316 

5,610 
2,988 
12,216 
4,644 
9,487 
1,349 
1,715 
13,175 
11,153 
3,839 
12,649 

16,043 
401,570 

Jackson  13,698 
Josephine  7,517 
Klamath  3,970 
Lake  2,847 
Lane  19,604 
Lincoln.     .  .     .       3,575 

Yamhill  

Adams  
Allegheny 
Armstrong.  .  .  . 
Beaver  
Bedford  
Berks  
Blair  
Bradford  
Bucks   . 

34,496 
775,058 
52,551 
56,432 
39,468 
159,615 
85,099 
59,403 
71,190 
56,962 
104,837 
7,048 
44,510 
42,894 
95,695 
34,283 
80,614 

PENNSY 

AREA,    46,000 

Clinton  29,197 
Columbia  39,896 
Crawford  63,343 
Cumberland  .  .     50,344 
Dauphin.  .          114  443 

LVANIA. 

SQUARE    MILES. 

Lackawanna.  . 
Lancaster.  .  .  . 
Lawrence  
Lebanon  
Lehigh 

193,831 
159  241 
57,042 
53,827 
93,893 
257,121 
75,663 
51,343 
57,387 
23,160 
21,161 
138,995 
15,526 
99,687 

90,911 
26,263 

Philadelphia.  1, 
Pike  
Potter  
Schuylkill.  .  .  . 
Snyder  
Somerset.  .  .  . 
Sullivan  
Susquehanna. 
Tioga  
Union.  . 

Delaware  94,762 
Elk  32,903 

Luzerne  
Lycoming.  .  .  . 
McKean  
Mercer  
Mifflin  
Monroe  
Montgomery.  . 
Montour  
Northampton. 
Northumber- 
land   
Perry  

Erie.  98,473 
Fayette  110,412 
Forest  11,039 
Franklin  54,902 
Fulton  9,924 
Greene  28,281 
Huntingdon  .  .     34,650 
Indiana  42,556 
Jefferson  59,113 
Juniata  16,054 

Butler  
Cambria  
Cameron  
Carbon  
Center  
Chester  
Clarion 

Venango.  .  . 
Warren  
Washington.  . 
Wayne  
Westmoreland. 
Wyoming  
York. 

Clearfield  
Total.  .  .  . 

6 

Bristol  
Kent  

13,144 
29,976 

RHODE 

AREA,    1,306   f 

Newport  32,599 

ISLAND. 

1QUARE    MILES. 

Providence  .  .  . 

328,683 

Washington.  .  . 

Total  .  . 

Abbeville.  .  .  . 
Aiken  
Anderson.  .  .  . 
Bamberg.  .  .  . 
Barnwell.  .  .  . 
Beaufort 

33,400 
39,032 
55,728 
17,296 
35,504 
35,495 
30,454 
88,006 
21,359 
28,616 

SOUTH  C 
AREA,  29,385 
Chesterfield.  .  .    20,401 
Clarendon.  .  .  .     28,184 
Colleton  33,452 
Darlington.  .  .  .     32,388 
Dorchester  16,294 
Edgefield              25  478 

A.ROLINA. 

SQUARE    MILES. 

Greenwood.  .  . 
Hampton  
Horry 

28,343 
23,738 
23,364 
24,696 
24,311 
37,382 
27,264 
35,181 
27,639 
30,182 

Oconee  
Orangeburg.  .  . 
Pickens  
Richland  
Saluda  
Spartanburg.  . 
Sumter  
Union  
Williamsburg  . 
York  

Kershaw  
Lancaster  .  .  . 
Laurens  
Lexington.  .  .  . 
Marion  
1  Marlboro  
|  Newberry.  .  .  . 

Berkeley.  .  .  . 
Charleston.  .  . 
Cherokee.  .  .  . 
Chester  
Total.  .  .  . 

Fairfield  29,425 
Florence  28,474 
Georgetown.  .  .     22,846 
Greenville.  .  .  .    53,490 

1 

Aurora  

4,011 

8,081 
10,379 
12,561 
15,286 
5,401 
1,790 
2,907 
4,527 
.      8,498 
6,942 
9,316 
8,770 
.       2,728 

SOUTH 
AREA,  78,932 
Davison  7,483 
Day  12,254 
Deuel  6,656 
Douglas  5,012 
Edmunds  4,916 
Fall  River.  .  .  .       3,541 
Faulk  3,547 
Grant  9,103 
Gregory  2,211 
Hamlin  5,945 
Hand  4,525 
Hanson  4,947 
Hughes.                   3  684 

DAKOTA. 

SQUARE    MILES. 

Hyde  
Jerauld  
Kingsbury.  .  .  . 
Lake  . 

1,492 
2,798 
9,866 
9,137 
17,897 
12,161 
2,632 
8,689 
6,327 
5,942 
4,907 
5,864 
23,926 
8,326 

Pennington.  .  . 
Potter  
Roberts  
Sanborn 

Beadle.  
Bonhomme.  . 
Brookings.  .  . 
Brown 

Lawrence  
Lincoln  

Spink  
Stanley  
Sully  
Turner  
Union  
Walworth.  .  .  . 
Yankton  
Indian    Reser- 
vation 

Brule  
Buffalo  
Butte  

McCook  
McPherson     . 
Marshall  
Meade  
Miner  
Minnehaha    . 
Moody  

Campbell.  .  .  . 
Charles  Mix.  . 
Clark  
Clay  
Coddington.  . 
Custer  

Hutchinson.  .  .     11,897 

Total  .. 

154 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


Anderson  .  .  . 
Bedford  
Benton  

.-   17,634 
.     23,845 
.     11,888 

AREA, 

Fentress  
Franklin  
Gibson  
Giles  . 

TENNI 
45,500 

6,106 
20,392 
39,408 
33,035 

2SSEE. 

SQUARE    MILES. 

Lake  
Lauderdale.  .  . 
Lawrence  
Lewis  

7,368 
21,971 
15,402 
4,455 
26,304 
10,838 
19,163 
17,760 
12,881 
36,333 
17,281 
18,763 
42,703 
7,491 
18,585 
36,017 
5,706 
9,587 
28,286 
13,353 
8,800 
5,366 
11,357 
16,890 

Rhea    .... 

14  318 

Roane  
Robertson.  . 
Rutherford. 
Scott  
Sequatchie  . 
Sevier  
Shelby  
Smith  . 

.    22,738 
.     25,029 
.     33,543 
.     11,077 
.       3,326 
.     22,021 
.  153,557 
19026 

Bledsoe  
Blount  

.       6,626 
.     19,206 
.     15,759 

Grainger  
Greene  
Grundy 

15,512 
30,596 
7,802 
12,728 
61,695 
11,147 
22,976 
19,246 
24,267 
25,189 
18,117 
24,208 
16,367 
6,476 
13,398 
15,039 
5,407 
18,590 
10,589 
74,302 

Lincoln  
Loudon  
McMinn  
McNairy  

Bradley  

Campbell  .  .  . 
Cannon  

.     17,317 
.     12,121 

Hamblen  
Hamilton  .... 
Hancock  
Hardeman  .  .  . 
Hardin  
Hawkins  
Haywood  .... 
Henderson  .  .  . 
Henry  
Hickman.  .  .  . 
Houston  ...  . 
Humphreys  .  . 
Jackson  
James  
Jefferson.  .  .  . 
Johnson  ...  . 
Knox  

Carroll  
Carter  
Cheatham.  .  . 
Chester  
Claiborne  .  .  . 
Clay  
Cocke  
Coffee  
Crockett  
Cumberland  . 
Davidson  .  .  . 
Decatur  
Dekalb 

.    24,250 
.     16,688 
.     10,112 
.       9,896 
.    20,696 
.      8,421 
.     19,153 
.     15,574 
.     15,867 
.      8,311 
.  122,815 
.     10,439 
16  460 

Madison  
Marion  
Marshall  

Stewart.  .  .  . 
Sullivan  . 

.     15,224 
24  935 

Sumner.  .  .  . 
Tipton 

.     26,072 
29  273 

Meigs  
Monroe  
Montgomery.  . 
Moore 

Trousdale  .  . 
Unicoi.  . 

.       6,004 
5851 

Union  
Van  Buren  . 
Warren  
Washington 
Wayne  .  . 

12,894 
3,126 
16,410 
.       22,604 
12,936 
.       32,546 
14  157 

Morgan 
Obion  . 

Overton  
Perry.  . 

Weakley  .  .  . 
White  . 

Dickson  
Dyer  
Fayette  
Total 

.     18,635 
.     23,776 
.     29,701 

Pickett 

Polk  
Putnam  ...... 

Williamson. 
Wilson  

.  .     26,429 
.  .    27,078 
.2,020,616 

Anderson  .  .  , 

.    28,015 
87 

AREA, 

Collingsworth  . 
Colorado  
Comal  
Comanche.  .  .  . 
Concho  
Cooke  
Coryell  . 

TE: 

237,504 

1,233 
22,203 
7,008 
23,009 
1,427 
27,494 
21,308 
1,002 
51 
1,591 
788 
146 
82,726 
37 
843 
15,249 
28,318 
21,311 
1,151 
1,106 
2,756 
8,483 
18,971 
381 
3,108 
50,059 
24,886 
29,966 
33,342 
51,793 
36,542 
3,708 
2,020 
1,568 
16,538 
8,674 
18,910 
4,200 
55 
44,116 
185 
8,229 

£AS. 

SQUARE  MILES. 

Glasscock  .  . 
Goliad  
Gonzales  
Gray  
Grayson  
Gregg  . 

286 
8,310 
28,882 
480 
63,661 
12,343 
26,106 
21,385 
1,680 
1,670 
13,520 
167 
3,634 
5,049 
63,786 
31,878 
377 
2,637 
14,142 
815 
19,970 
6,837 
41,355 
44 
9,146 
27,950 
25,452 
2,528 
47,295 
303 
848 
10,224 
6,094 
7,138 
1,150 
14,239 
33,819 
7,053 
8,681 
33,376 
4,103 
899 

Kerr  

4  980 

Kimble  .  . 

2,503 

Angelina.  .  .  . 

.     13,481 

King  
Kinney  .... 
Knox  
Lamar  

490 
.  .      2,447 
.  .       2,322 
48  627 

1,716 

Archer  
Armstrong  .  . 
Atascosa.  .  .  . 
Austin  
Bailey  
Bandera 
Bastrop  
Baylor  
Bee 

2,508 
.       1,205 
.       7,143 
.     20,676 
4 
.       5,332 
.    26,845 
3,052 
.      7,720 
.    45,535 
.    69,422 
.      4,703 
776 
.     17,390 
.    26,676 
.     14,861 
.     18,859 
.      2,356 
1,253 

Grimes  
Guadalupe  .  .  . 
Hale  
Hall.  
Hamilton  .... 
Hansford  .... 
Hardeman  .  .  . 
Hardin  
Harris 

Lamb  

31 

Cottle  
Crane  
Crockett  
Crosby  
Dallam 

Lampasas.  . 
Lasalle  . 

.  .      8,625 
2  303 

Lavaca  .... 
Lee  
Leon  

.  .     28,121 
.  .     14,595 
.  .     18,072 

Dallas  
Dawson  
Deaf  Smith.  .  . 
Delta  
Denton  
Dewitt  
Dickens  

Liberty  
Limestone  .  . 
Lipscomb  .  . 
Live  Oak.  .  . 
Llano  
Loving.  .  .  . 

.  .      8,102 
.  .     32,573 
790 
.  .       2  268 
.  .      7;301 
33 

Bell  
Bexar  
Blanco  
Borden 
Bosque 
Bowie  
Brazoria 
Brazos  
Brewster.  .  .  . 
Briscoe 

Harrison  
Hartley  
Haskell  
Hays  
Hemphill  .... 
Henderson  .  .  . 
Hidalgo 

Lubbock.  .  . 
Lynn  

293 

17 

Dimmit  
Donley 

McCulloch  .  . 
McLennan.  . 
McMullen.  .  . 
Madison.  .  .  . 
Marion  

.  .       3,960 
.  .    59,772 
.  .       1,024 
.  .     10,432 
.  .     10,754 
332 

Duval  
Eastland  
Ector  
Edwards  
Ellis 

Hill  
Hockley  
Hood  
Hopkins  
Houston 

Brown.       .  .  . 

.     16,019 

Burleson.  .  .  . 
Burnet  
Caldwell  
Calhoun  .  .  .  . 
Callahan 

.     18,367 
.     10,528 
.     21,765 
.       2,395 
8  768 

Martin  . 

El  Paso  
Erath  
Falls 

Mason  
Matagorda.  . 
Maverick.  .  . 

.  .       5,573 
.  .       6,097 
4,066 

Howard  
Hunt  . 

Cameron.  .  .  . 

.     16,095 
9  146 

Fannin  
Fayette 

Hutchinson  .  . 
Iron  
Jack 

Medina  
Menard.  .  .  . 
Midland  
Milam  
Mills.  .    . 

.  .       7,783 
.  .       2,011 
.  .       1,741 
.  .     39,666 
7,851 

Carson  
Cass 

469 
.    22,841 
400 
.      3,046 
.    25,154 
.       2,138 
.       9,231 
25 
.       3,430 
.     10,077 
.    50,087 

Fisher  
Floyd  
Foard 

Jackson  
Jasper  
Jeff  Davis  
Jefferson  
Johnson  
Jones  

Castro  
Chambers  .  .  . 
Cherokee.  .  .  . 
Childress.  .  .  . 
Clay  
Cochran  .  .  .  . 
Coke  
Coleman  .  .  . 
Collin.  . 

Fort  Bend.  .  .  . 
Franklin 

Mitchell  .... 
Montague.  . 
Montgomery 
Moore  
Morris   .... 

.  .       2,855 
.     24,800 
.  .     17,067 
209 
8,220 

Freestone 
Frio.  . 

Gaines  
Galveston.  .  .  . 
Garza  
Gillespie  

Karnes  
Kaufman  .... 
Kendall  
Kent  

Motley  
Nacogdoches 
Navarro.  .  .  . 

1,257 
.  .    24.663 
.  .    43,374 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


155 


Possessions 
etc} 

310,000,000 


POPULATION    OF   THE   WORLD. 


156 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


Newton.  .  . 
Nolan  
Nueces.  ...      * 

7,282 
2,611 
10,439 
267 
349 
5,905 
12,291 
21,404 
25,823 
34 
2,360 
14,447 
1,820 
3,673 
6,127 
963 
29,893 
1,847 
1,641 

Tl 

Roberts  
Robertson  .... 
Rockwall  
Runnels  
Rusk  
Sabine  
San  Augustine. 
San  Jacinto.  .  . 
San  Patricio.  . 
San  Saba  
Schleicher.  .  .  . 
Scurry.  .  
Shackelford.  .  . 
Shelby  
Sherman  
Smith  
Somervell.  .  .   . 
Starr  
Stephens  

EXAS— 

620 
31,480 
8,531 
5,379 
26,099 
6,394 
8,434 
10,277 
2,372 
7,569 
515 
4,151 
2,468 
20,452 
104 
37,370 
3,498 
11,469 
6,466 

Continued. 

Sterling  
Stonewall  
Sutton  
Swisher  
Tarrant  
Taylor  
Terry 

1,127 
2,183 
1,727 
1,227 
52,376 
10,499 
48 
1,750 
12,292 
6,804 
47,386 
10,976 
11,899 
16,266 
48 
4,647 
5,263 
25,481 
13,678 

Walker  
Waller  
Ward  
Washington.  .  . 
Webb  
Wharton  
Wheeler  
Wichita  
Wilbarger.  .  .  . 
Williamson.  .  . 
Wilson  
Winkler  
Wise  
Wood  
Yoakum  
Young  
Zapata  
Zavalla  

.....   3 

15,813 
14,246 
1,451 
32,931 
21,851 
16,942 
636 
5,806 
5,759 
38,072 
13,961 
60 
27,116 
21,048 
26 
6,540 
4,760 
792 

,048,710 

6,458 
32,456 
4,736 
4,612 
1,907 
25,239 

276,749 

26,660 
32,225 

343,641 

11,192 
11,112 
14,609 
8,843 
7,088 
37,332 
24,187 
33,527 
18,031 
22,694 
20,253 
17,121 
22,848 
14,307 
8,097 
8,469 
12,082 
23,384 
8,837 
15,524 
33.574 
9,243 
19,653 
20,437 
7,482 
854,184 

Ochiltree  
Oldham  
Orange  
Palo  Pinto.  .  .  . 
Panola  
Parker  
Farmer  
Pecos  
Polk  

Throckmorton 
Titus 

Tom  Green  .  .  . 
Travis  .  .  . 

Trinity  
Tyler  
Upshur  
Upton  
Uvalde  
Valverde  
Van  Zandt.  .  .  . 
Victoria  

Potter  
Presidio  
Rains  
Randall  
Red  River.  .  .  . 
Reeves  
Refugio  
Total  

Beaver  
Boxelder  
Cache 

3,613 
10,009 
18,139 
5,004 
7,996 
4,657 
3,400 

AREA, 

Grand  
Iron.  . 

UT 

84,476 

1,149 
3,546 
10,082 
1,811 
5,678 
2,045 
1,954 

AH. 

SQUARE    MILES. 

Rich  

1,946 
77,725 
1,023 
16,313 
8,451 
9,439 
7,361 

Uinta.  . 

Salt  Lake  
San  Juan  
Sanpete  
Sevier  
Summit  
Tooele  

Utah. 

Juab 

Wasatch  
Washington.  .  . 
Wayne  
Weber  

Carbon  
Davis  

Kane  
Millard  
Morgan  
Piute  

Emery  
Garfield  
Total 

Addison  
Bennington.  .  . 
Caledonia  
Chittenden  .  .  . 
Total  .... 

Accomac  
Albemarle.  .  .  . 
Alexandria  .  .  . 
Alleghany.  .  .  . 
Amelia     .  . 

21,912 
21,705 
24,381 
39,600 

AREA, 

Essex  
Franklin  
Grand  Isle.  .  .  . 
Lamoille  

VERU 
10,212 

8,056 
30,198 
4,462 
12,289 

1ONT. 

SQUARE    MILES. 

Orange  
Orleans  
Rutland  
Washington..  . 

19,313 
22,024 
44,209 
36,607 

Windham.  .  .  . 
Windsor  

32,570 
34,920 
20,959 
16,330 
9,037 
17,864 
9,662 
39,659 
5,595 
30,356 
5,497 
17,161 
18,217 
9,692 
15,266 
42,147 
16,709 
19,303 
5,040 
15,343 
28,519 
7,927 
4,293 
14,123 
8,996 

ARK  A, 

Dickenson  .... 
Dinwiddie.  .  .  . 
Elizabeth  City. 
Essex 

VIRG 
38,352 

7,747 
15,374 
19,460 
9,701 
18,580 
23,374 
15,388 
9,050 
25,953 
18,400 
10,793 
12,832 
9,519 
16,853 
6,214 
9,758 
37,197 
17,618 
115,112 
19,265 
.    5,647 
13,102 
5,732 
i    9,265 
6,918 

INIA. 

SQUARE    MILES. 

King  William 
Lancaster.  .  .  . 
Lee 

8,380 
8,949 
19,856 
21,948 
16,517 
11,705 
10,216 
8,239 
26,551 
8,220 
19,196 
23,078 
16,075 
4,865 
114,831 
13,770 
d  9,846 
12,366 
12,571 
13,794 
15,403 
63,414 
6,824 
15,045 
7,752 

Princess  Anne  . 
Prince  William 
Pulaski  
Rappahannock 
Richmond  .... 
Roanoke  
Rockbridge.  .  . 
Rockingham.  . 
Russell  
Scott  
Shenandoah.  .  . 
Smyth  
Southampton  . 
Spottsylvania  . 
Stafford  
Surry  
Sussex  
Tazewell  
Warren  
Warwick  
Washington.  .  . 
Westmoreland 
Wise 

Loudoun  
Louisa  
Lunenburg  .  .  . 
Madison  
Mathews  
Mecklenburg.  . 
Middlesex.  .  .  . 
Montgomery.  . 
Nansemond.  .  . 
Nelson.  ...... 
New  Kent.  .  .  . 
Norfolk  
Northampton  . 
Northumberlan 
Nottoway.  .  .  . 
Orange  
Page  

Fairfax  
Fauquier.  .... 
Floyd 

Amherst  
Appomattox.  . 
Augusta  
Bath  
Bedford  
Bland  
Botetourt  .... 
Brunswick.  .  .  . 
Buchanan.  .  .  . 
Buckingham.  . 
Campbell  
Caroline  
Carroll  
Charles  City  .  . 
Charlotte  
Chesterfield.  .  . 
Clarke  
Craig  
Culpeper  
Cumberland  .  . 
Total.  . 

Fluvanna  
Franklin  
Frederick  
Giles  
Gloucester.  .  .  . 
Goochland.  .  .  . 
Grayson  
Greene  
Greenesville.  .  . 
Halifax  
Hanover  
Henrico  
Henry  
Highland  
Isle  of  Wight,  . 
James  City.  .  . 
King  and  Quee 
King  George  .  . 

Patrick  
Pittsylvania  .  . 
Powhatan.  .  .  . 
Prince  Edward 
Prince  George  . 

Wythe.  . 

York 

..1 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


157 


WASHINGTON. 

69,994    SQUARE    MILES. 


Adams  
Asotin  
Chehalis.  .  .  . 

.  4,840 
.  3,366 
.  15,124 

Ferry  
Franklin  .  . 
Garfield.  .  . 

.  .       4,562 
486 
.  .       3,918 

Lewis  
Lincoln  ...  . 
Mason  

.     15,157 
.     11,969 
3,810 

Snohomish  .  . 
Spokane  .... 
Stevens  

23,950 
57,542 
10,543 

Chelan  
Clallam  
Clarke  
Columbia  .  . 
Cowlitz  .... 
Douglas.  .  .  . 

.  3,931 
.  5,603 
.  13,419 
.  7,128 
.  7,877 
;  4,926 

Island  
Jefferson.  . 
King  
Kitsap.  .  .  . 
Kittitas.  .  . 
Klickitat.  . 

.  .       1,870 
.  .      5,712 
.  .  110,053 
.  .       6,767 
.  .       9,704 
.  .       6,407 

Okanogan.  . 
Pacific  
Pierce  
San  Juan.  .  . 
Skagit  
Skamania  .  . 

4,689 
5,983 
55,515 
2,928 
14,272 
1,688 

Thurston  .... 
Wahkiakum  . 
Wallawalla.  . 
Whatcom  .  .  . 
Whitman  .  .  . 
Yakima  

9,927 
.      2,819 
18,680 
24,116 
25,360 
13,462 

Total  .  . 

.518.103 

WEST  VIRGINIA. 

AREA,    23,000    SQUARE    MILES. 


Barbour  
Berkeley 

14,198 
19,469 
8,194 
18,904 
7,219 
29,252 
10,266 
8,248 
13,689 
31,987 
11,762 
7,275 
20,683 
11,806 

Hancock  .  . 
Hardy  
Harrison  
Jackson  
Jefferson  
Kanawha  .... 
Lewis 

6,693 
8,449 
27,690 
22,987 
15,935 
54,696 
16,980 
15,434 
6,955 
18,747 
32,430 
26,444 
24,142 
23,023 

Mineral  
Mingo  
Monongalia.  . 
Monroe  
Morgan 

12,883 
11,359 
19,049 
13,130 
7,294 
11,403 
48,024 
9,167 
9,345 
8,572 
22,727 

Ritchie  
Roane 

.     18,901 
19  852 

Boone  
Braxton  
Brooke  
Cabell  
Calhoun  .... 
Clay  
Doddridge  .  . 
Fayette  
Gilmer  
Grant  
Greenbrier  .  .  . 
Hampshire  .  .  . 
Total 

Summers.  .  . 
Taylor. 

.     16,265 
14978 

Tucker  .  . 
Tyler  
Upshur  .... 
Wayne  .... 
Webster  .  .  . 
Wetzel  
Wirt  .  . 

.     13,433 
.     18,252 
.     14,696 
.     23,619 
.       8,862 
.     22,880 
.     10,284 
.    34,452 
.      8,380 

.  .  958,800 
.    33,006 

Nicholas  .... 
Ohio  
Pendleton    .  . 
Pleasants  .  .  . 
Pocahontas.  . 
Preston  

Lincoln  
Logan  
McDowell  .... 
Marion  
Marshall  
Mason  
Mercer  

Putnam  
Raleigh  
Randolph  .  .  . 

17,330 
12,436 
17,670 

Wood  ' 
Wyoming  .  . 

Adams  
Ashland  .... 
Barron  
Bayfield  .... 
Brown  
Buffalo  
Burnett  
Calumet  .... 
Chippewa 
Clark  
Columbia  .  .  .  . 
Crawford  
Dane  
Dodge  
Door  
Douglas  

9,141 
20,176 
23,677 
14,392 
46,359 
16,765 
7,478 
17,078 
33,037 
25,848 
31,121 
17,286 
69,435 
46,631 
17,583 
36,335 
25,043 
31,692 

AREA, 

Florence  
Fond  du  Lac.  . 
Forest  
Grant  
Green  . 

WISCC 
53,924 

3,197 
47,589 
1,396 
38,881 
22,719 
15,797 
23,114 
6,616 
17,466 
34,789 
20,629 
21,707 
17,212 
42,997 
20,959 
12,553 
16,269 
42,261 

)NSIN. 

SQUARE   MILES. 

Marathon  .  .  . 
Marinette  .  .  . 
Marquette.  .  . 
Milwaukee  .  . 
Monroe  
Oconto  
Oneida  
Outagamie  .  . 
Ozaukee  .... 
Pepin  
Pierce  
Polk  
Portage  
Price  
Racine  
Richland.  .  .  . 
Rock  
St.  Croix  

43,256 
30,822 
10,509 
330,017 
28,103 
20,874 
8,875 
46,247 
16,363 
7,905 
23,943 
17,801 
29,483 
9,106 
45,644 
19,483 
51,203 
26,830 

Sauk  

Sawyer  .  .  . 
Shawano.  . 
Sheboygan 
Taylor.  .  .  . 
Trempealeau 
Vernon  .... 
Vilas  
Walworth.  . 
Washburn.  . 
Washington 
Waukesha.  . 
Waupaca  .  . 
Waushara.  . 
Winnebago. 
Wood  

.       3,593 
.     27,475 
.     50,345 
.     11,262 
.     23,114 
.     28,351 
.       4,929 
.    29,259 
.       5,521 
.     23,589 
.     35,229 
.     31,615 
.     15,972 
.     58,225 
.     25,865 

2.069.042 

Green  Lake.  .  . 
Iowa 

Iron  
Jackson  
Jefferson  
Juneau  
Kenosha  
Kewaunee  .... 
La  Crosse  .... 
Lafayette  .... 
Langlade  
Lincoln  
Manitowoc  .  .  . 

Dunn  
Eau  Claire  .... 
Total.  . 

WYOMING. 

AREA,    97,883    SQUARE    MILES. 


Albany 


13,084 


Bighorn 4,328 


Carbon  . 

Converse 

Total 


9,589 
3,337 


Crook  .  .  .  3,137 


Fremont  . 


5,357 


Johnson 2,361 


Laramie  . 


20,181 


Natrona  .  .  . 
Sheridan.  .  . 
Sweetwater . 
Uinta  . 


1,785 

5,122 

8,455 

12,223 


Weston 


3,203 


Yellowstone  Park  .  369 


... 


.  .  .92,531 


HOW  THE  POPULATION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  ARE  SHELTERED. 


In  the  Census  year  1900  there  were 
14,430,145  dwellings,  accommodating 
16,187,715  families.  Of  this  number 
611,435  dwellings  accommodated  one 


person  each,  10,158,932  sheltered  two 
to  six  persons,  2,999,687  accommo- 
dated seven  to  ten  persons  each,  a ad 
660,091  eleven  persons  and  over. 


158 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


AREA  AND   POPULATION   OF  STATE:    1900. 


State  or 
Territory 

Land  sur- 
face in 
square 
miles, 
1900. 

Rank 
in 
popu- 
la- 
tion, 
1900. 

Population 
1900. 

State  or 
Territory 

Land  sur- 
face in 
square 
miles, 
1900. 

Rank 
in 
popu- 
la- 
tion, 
1900. 

Population 
1900. 

United  States.  . 

3,567,563 

76,303,387 

Michigan  

57,430 

9 

2,420,982 

79  205 

19 

1  7^1  °.Q4 

Continental 
U.  S  

2,970,230 

75,994,575 

Mississippi  
Missouri  

46,340 
68,735 
1  4=  01  o 

20 
5 
44 

1,551,270 
3,106,665 
243  32Q 

N.Atlantic  div 
S.Atlantic  div. 

162,103 
268,620 

21,046,695 
10  443  480 

Nebraska  
Nevada. 

76,840 
109  740 

27 
52 

1,066,300 
42  335 

N.Central  div  . 
S.Central  div.  . 
Western  div..  . 

Alabama  

753,550 
610,215 
1,175,742 

51  540 

18 

26,333,004 
14,080,047 
4,091,349 

1  828  697 

New  Hampshire 
New  Jersey  .... 
New  Mexico  .... 
New  York  
North  Carolina 

9,005 
7,525 
122,460 
47,620 
48  580 

36 
16 
45 
1 
15 

411,588 
1,883,669 
195,310 
7,268,894 
1  893  810 

Arizona  
Arkansas  
California  .  .  . 

112,920 
53,045 
156  172 

49 
25 
21 

122,931 
1,311,564 
1  485  053 

North  Dakota.  . 
Ohio  

70,195 
40,760 
38  830 

41 
4 
38 

319,146 
4,157,545 
398  331 

Colorado  
Connecticut.  .  .  . 
Delaware  
District    of    Co- 
lumbia. 

103,645 
4,845 
1,960 

60 

31 
29 
46 

42 

539,700 
908,420 
184,735 

278  718 

Oregon  
Pennsylvania.  .  . 
Rhode  Island.  .. 
South  Carolina.  . 
South  Dakota 

94,560 
44,985 
1,053 
30,170 
76  850 

35 
2 
34 
24 
37 

413,536 
6,302,115 
428,556 
1,340,316 
401  570 

Florida  

54  240 

32 

528  542 

Tennessee 

41  750 

14 

2  020  616 

Georgia  
Idaho  

58,980 
84,290 

11 
47 

2,216,331 
161,772 

Texas  
Utah  

262,290 
82,190 

6 
43 

3,048,710 
276,749 

Illinois  .  .  . 

56000 

3 

4  821  550 

Vermont 

9  135 

40 

343  641 

Indiana  

35,910 

8 

2,516,462 

Virginia  

40,125 

17 

1,854,184 

Indian  Territory 
Iowa  
Kansas  
Kentucky  
Louisiana  

31,000 
55,475 
81,700 
40,000 
45  420 

39 
10 
22 
12 
23 

392,060 
2,231,853 
1,470,495 
2,147,174 
1  381,625 

Washington  
West  Virginia  .  . 
Wisconsin  
Wyoming  
Alaska  .  .  . 

66,880 
24,645 
54,450 
97,575 
590,884 

33 
28 
13 
50 
51 

518,103 
958,800 
2,069,042 
92,531 
63,592 

Maine  
Maryland  
Massachusetts.  . 

29,895 
9,860 
8,040 

30 
26 

7 

694,466 
1,188,044 
2,805,346 

Hawaii  
Military    and 
naval  

6,449 

48 

154,001 
91,219 

POPULATION    LIVING    IN    CITIES    WITHIN  SPECIFIED    LIMITS    OF 
SIZE   AND    IN   COUNTRY   DISTRICTS:    1900. 


POPULATION. 


Divisions. 

Total. 

In  cities  of  — 

In  country 
districts. 

At  least 
100,000. 

25,000  to 
100,000. 

8,000  to 
25,000. 

4,000  to 
8,000. 

2,500  to 
4,000. 

United  States.  . 

Continental 
U.  S.  .  .  . 

N.  Atlantic  div. 
S.  Atlantic  div. 
N.  Central  div. 
S.  Central  div. 
Western  div.  .  . 

76,212,168 

14,208,347 

5,549,271 

5,286,375 

3,380,193 

2,214,1?6 

45,573,246 

75,994,575 

14,208,347 

5,509,965 

5,273,887 

3,380,193 

2,211,019 

45,411,164 

21,046,695 
10,443,480 
26,333,004 
14,080,047 
4,091,349 

7,533,280 
787,675 
4,714,117 
594,155 
579,120 

2,565,416 
514,853 
1,383,767 
591,870 
454,059 

2,226,013 
475,098 
1,957,622 
371,306 
243,848 

1,289,027 
271,894 
1,287,707 
339,324 
192,241 

738,911 
183,112 
805,714 
291,598 
191,684 

6,694,048 
8,210,848 
16,184,077 
11,891,794 
2,430,397 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


159 


POPULATION  OF  CITIES   HAVING  AT  LEAST  25,000   INHABITANTS 

IN  1900. 


Cities. 

Rank 
in 
popu- 
la- 
tion. 

Popula- 
tion. 

Cities. 

Rank 
in 
Popu- 
la- 
tion. 

Popula- 
tion. 

87 

42,728 

Houston,  Tex  

85 

44,633 

Albany  N  Y 

40 

94  151 

21 

169  164 

Allegheny  Pa 

27 

129  896 

Jackson,  Miss.                   .  . 

161 

25  180 

114 

35  416 

Jacksonville,  Fla  

143 

28  429 

Altoona  Pa 

97 

38  973 

Jersey  City,  N.  J  

17 

206  433 

Atlanta  Ga 

43 

89  872 

Johnstown,  Pa.  .  . 

112 

35936 

Atlantic  City  N  J 

149 

27  838 

Joliet,  111  

138 

29  353 

135 

30  345 

Joplin,  Mo.  . 

155 

26  023 

94 

39  441 

Kansas  City,  Kans.  

76 

51  418 

6 

508  957 

Kansas  City,  Mo  

22 

163  752 

Bay  City  Mich 

151 

27  628 

Knoxville,  Tenn  

126 

32  637 

Bayonne  N  J 

125 

32722 

LaCrosse,  Wis  

141 

28,895 

93 

39  647 

Lancaster,  Pa  

90 

41  459 

100 

38  415 

Lawrence,  Mass 

57 

62  559 

5 

560  892 

Lexington,  Ky  

153 

26369 

54 

70  996 

Lincoln,  Nebr  . 

91 

40  169 

Brockton,  Mass  

92 

40,063 

Little  Rock,  Ark  

101 

38,307 

Buffalo  N  Y 

g 

352  387 

Los  Angeles,  Cal  

36 

102,479 

30  470 

Louisville  Ky 

18 

204  731 

41 

91  886 

Lowell,  Mass.  .  . 

39 

94  969 

52 

75  935 

Lynn,  Mass  

55 

68,513 

Canton   Ohio 

132 

30  667 

McKeesport,  Pa  

116 

34,227 

Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa  
Charleston  S  C 

159 
68 

25,656 
55807 

Maiden,  Mass  
Manchester,  N.  H. 

121 
65 

33,664 
56,987 

136 

30  154 

Memphis,  Tenn  

37 

102,320 

Chelsea  Mass 

118 

34072 

Milwaukee,  Wis.  . 

14 

285,315 

Chester  Pa 

119 

33  988  i 

Minneapolis,  Minn  

19 

202,718 

Chicago  111 

2 

1  698  575 

Mobile,  Ala.  .  .               .    . 

99 

38,469 

10 

325  902 

Montgomery,  Ala 

134 

30346 

7 

381  768  i 

Nashville,  Tenn.  .  . 

47 

80,865 

Columbus,  Ohio  

28 
158 

125,560 
25  802 

Newark,  N.  J.. 
New  Bedford,  Mass  ' 

16 
58 

246,070 
62,442 

Covington   Ky. 

86 

42  938 

New  Britain,  Conn  

157 

25,998 

Dallas  Tex 

88 

42  638 

Newcastle,  Pa 

144 

28  339 

Davenport  Iowa 

115 

35  254 

New  Haven,  Conn  

31 

108,027 

Dayton,  Ohio  

45 

85  333 

New  Orleans,  La  

12 

287,104 

Denver,  Colo   ... 

25 

133  859 

Newport,  Ky  

145 

28,301 

Des  Moines  Iowa 

59 

62  139 

Newton,  Mass.  . 

123 

33  587 

Detroit  Mich 

13 

285  704 

New  York  NY* 

1 

3  437  202 

Dubuque,  Iowa 

108 

36  297 

Norfolk,  Va  

80 

46  624 

Duluth  Minn 

72 

52  969 

Oakland,  Cal 

56 

66960 

Easton,  Pa.  .  . 

160 

25  238 

Omaha  Nebr 

35 

102  555 

East  St.  Louis,  111.  .  . 

137 

29,655 

Oshkosh,  Wis. 

146 

28  284 

Elizabeth,  N.  J.  . 

74 

52  130 

Passaic  N  J 

150 

27  777 

Elmira,  N.  Y  

113 

35,672 

Paterson,  N.  J.  .  .  . 

32 

105  171 

Erie,  Pa  

73 

52733 

Pawtucket,  R  I 

96 

39  231 

Evansville,  Ind  . 

64 

59007 

Peoria  111 

67 

56  100 

Fall  River,  Mass  

33 

104  863 

Philadelphia,  Pa 

3 

1  293  697 

Fitchburg,  Mass  

128 

31,531 

Pittsburg,  Pa  

11 

321,616 

Fort  Wayne,  Tnd  

83 

45,115 

Portland,  Me. 

78 

50,145 

Fort  Worth,  Tex  
Galveston,  Tex  

152 
103 

26,688 
37,789 

Portland,  Oreg  
Providence,  R.  I  

42 
20 

90,426 
175,597 

Gloucester,  Mass.  .  . 

154 

26  121 

Pueblo,  Col 

148 

28  157 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich  

44 

87,565 

Quincy,  111  

109 

36,252 

Harrisburp,  Pa  

77 

50,167 

Racine,  Wis  ... 

140 

29,102 

Hartford,  Conn  

49 

79  850 

Reading  Pa 

50 

78  961 

Haverhill,  Mass.  .  . 

105 

37  175   ' 

46 

85050 

Hoboken,  N.  J 

63 

59  364 

Rochester  N  Y 

24 

162  608 

Holyoke,  Mass.  .  .  . 

82 

45*712 

Rockford,  111 

130 

31  051 

Honolulu,  Hawaii  

95 

39,306 

Sacramento,  Cal  

139 

29,282 

*  The  estimated  population  of  the  area  now  embraced  in  New  York  city  was  2,507,414  in 
1890  and  1,911,698  in  1880.  Increase  1890  to  1900,  929,788;  1880  to  1890,  595,716.  Per 
cent,  of  increase  1890  to  1900,  37-1;  1880  to  1890,  31.2. 


160 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


POPULATION   OF   CITIES    HAVING    AT    LEAST    25,000    INHABITANTS    IN    1900— 

Continued. 


Cities. 

Rank 
in 
Popu- 
la- 
tion. 

Popula- 
tion. 

Cities. 

Rank 
in 
Popu- 
la- 
tion. 

Popula- 
tion. 

Saginaw,  Mich.  .  . 

89 

42,345 

Syracuse  N  Y 

30 

108  374 

St.  Joseph,  Mo  
St.  Louis,  Mo  

34 
4 

102,979 
575,238 

Tacoma,  Wash  
Taunton,  Mass  

104 
131 

37,714 
31  036 

St.  Paul,  Minn  
Salem,  Mass  
Salt  Lake  City  Utah. 

23 
111 
70 

163,065 
35,956 
53,531 

Terre  Haute,  Ind  
Toledo,  Ohio  
Topeka  Kans 

107 
26 
122 

36,673 
131,822 
33  608 

San  Antonio,  Tex  
San  Francisco,  Gal.  .  .  . 

71 
9 

53,321 
342,782 

Trenton,  N.  J  
Troy,  N.  Y  . 

53 
62 

73,307 
60  651 

Savannah,  Ga  
Schenectady,  N.  Y  
Scranton  Pa 

69 
127 
38 

54,244 
31,682 
102  026 

Utica,  N.  Y  
Washington,  D.  C  
Waterbury  Conn 

66 
15 
81 

56,383 
278,718 
45  859 

Seattle,  Wash  
Sioux  City,  Iowa 

48 
124 

80,671 
33  111 

Wheeling,  W.  Va  
Wilkesbarre  Pa 

98 
75 

38,878 
51  721 

Somerville,  Mass.  .  
South  Bend,  Ind  
South  Omaha,  Nebr  

61 
110 
156 

61,643 
35,999 
26,001 

Williamsport,  Pa  
Wilmington,  Del.  ,  
Woonsocket,  R.  I  

142 
51 
147 

28,757 
76,508 
28,204 

Spokane,  Wash  
Springfield  III 

106 
117 

36,848 
34  159 

Worcester,  Mass  
Yonkers  N   Y 

29 
79 

118,421 
47  931 

Springfield,  Mass  
Springfield  Ohio  .  . 

60 
102 

62,059 
38  253 

York,  Pa  
Youngstown  Ohio 

120 
84 

33,708 
44  885 

Superior,  Wis  

129 

31,091 

DEATH  RATES  FROM  CERTAIN  CAUSES,  FOR  THE  REGISTRATION 

AREA,  1900. 


Cause. 

Death  rate 
per  100,000. 
191   9 

Cause. 
Diseases  of  the  stomach** 

Death  rate 
per  100,000. 
20  0 

Consumption*  
Heart  Disease  t 

190.5 
134  0 

Diseases  of  the  brain  

18  6 

Peritonitis  

17  5 

Diarrheal  diseasesj  
Diseases  of  the  kidneysll 

85.1 

83  7 

Unknown  causes  

16.8 

Measles  
Railroad  accidents 

13.2 
13  2 

66  6 

Cancer 

60.0 

Whooping  cough  
Suicide  
Scarlet  fever  

12.7 
11.8 
115 

Old  age  
Bronchitis 

54.0 
48.3 

47  8 

Hydrocephalus  
Drowning 

11.0 
11  0 

Debility  and  atrophy  
Inflammation  of  the  brain  and 
gitis  
Diphtheria 

45.5 
menin- 
41.8 
35.4 

Septicemia  

10.0 
9  9 

Appendicitis. 

Croup  
Diabetes.  
Burns  and  scalds 

9.8 
9.4 
8  8 

Typhoid  fever  
Premature  birth  

33.8 
33.7 
33  1 

Malarial  fever  
Cerebro-spinal  fever  
Dropsy  
Rheumatism  

8.8 
7.1 
6.9 
6.8 
3  8 

Paralysis§  
Inanition  

32.8 
27  .  3 
23.9 
22.7 

Influenza  
Diseases  of  the  liver^I  

*  Including  general  tuberculosis, 
t  Including  pericarditis. 

J  Including  cholera  morbus,  colitis,  diarrhea,  dysentery,  and  enteritis- 
!l  Including  Bright's  disease. 
§  Including  general  paralysis  of  the  insane. 

^[  Including  jaundice,  and  inflammation  and  abscess  of  the  liver. 
**  Including  gastritis. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


161 


FOREIGN   BORN   POPULATION   CLASSIFIED   BY   PRINCIPAL  COUN- 


TRIES OF  BIRTH:   1900. 


Country  of  Birth. 

Austria 

Bohemia 

Canada  (English) 

Canada  (French) 

China 

Denmark 

England 

France 

Germany 

Holland 

Hungary 

Ireland.  . 


275  907 

Country  of  Birth. 
Italy 

484  027 

156,891 

Mexico  

.    .  .        103  393 

784  741 

Norway. 

336  388 

395,066 
81,534 
153  805 

Poland  
Russia  
Scotland 

383,407 
.  .  -        423,726 
233  524 

840,513 
104,197 

Sweden  
Switzerland  

572,014 
115,593 

2,663,418 
104  931 

Wales  
Other  countries 

93,586 
273  442 

145  714 

1.615i459 

Total.  . 

.  .  10.341.276 

POPULATION  AT  LEAST  10  YEARS  OF  AGE  ENGAGED  IN  GAINFUL 

OCCUPATIONS,  CLASSIFIED  BY  SEX  AND  SPECIFIED 

OCCUPATIONS:   1900. 


Occupation.    « 

Total. 

Male. 

Female. 

All  occupations  

29,074,117 

23,754,205 

5,319,912 

Agricultural  pursuits  

10,381,765 

9,404,429 

977,336 

Agricultural  laborers  

4,410,877 
10  875 

3,747,668 
9  983 

663,209 
892 

Farmers  planters  and  overseers         

5,674,875 

5,347,169 

307  706 

61,788 

58  928 

2  860 

Lumbermen  and  raftsmen  .           

72,020 

71,920 

100 

84  988 

83056 

1  932 

Turpentine  farmers  and  laborers  

24,737 
36075 

24,456 
35  962 

281 
113 

Other  agricultural  pursuits  

5,530 

5,287 

243 

Professional  service  

1,258,739 

828,163 

430  576 

Actors,  professional  showmen,  etc  
Architects  designers  draftsmen,  etc 

34,760 
29  524 

27,903 
28  483 

6,857 
1  041 

Artists  and  teachers  of  art  

24,873 

13,852 

11,021 

Clergymen  
Dentists 

111,638 
29  644 

108,265 
28  858 

3,373 

786 

Electricians  
Engineers  (civil,  etc.)  and  surveyors  

50,717 
43,239 

50,308 
43,155 

409 
84 

Journalists  

30,038 
1  14  460 

27,845 
113  450 

2,193 
1  010 

Literary  and  scientific  persons  
Musicians  and  teachers  of  music 

19,066 
92  174 

13,082 
39815 

5,984 
52359 

Officials  (government)*  

86,607 

78,488 

8,119 

Physicians  and  surgeons  
Teachers  and  profesSors  in  colleges,  etc  
Other  professional  service  

132,002 
446,133 
13,864 

124,615 
118,519 
11,525 

7,387 
327,614 
2,339 

Domestic  and  personal  service  

5,580,657 

3,485  208 

2,095  449 

Barbers  and  hairdressers    . 

131  116 

125  542 

5  574 

Bartenders  
Boarding  and  lodging  house  keepers 

88,817 
71  281 

88,377 
11  826 

440 
59  455 

Hotel  keepers  

54797 

46  264 

8,533 

Housekeepers  and  stewards  
Janitors  and  sextons  . 

155,153 
56  577 

8,224 
48  544 

146,929 
8  033 

Laborers  (not  specified)  
Launderers  and  laundresses 

2,629,262 
385  965 

2,505,287 
50  683 

123,975 
335  282 

Nurses  and  midwives  
Restaurant  keepers  
Saloon  keepers 

120,956 
33,844 
83  746 

12,265 
28,999 
81  660 

108,691 
4,845 
2086 

Servants  and  waiters  
Soldiers,  sailors,  and  marines  (United  States) 

1,560,721 
43  235 

276,958 
43235 

1,283,763 

Watchmen,  policemen,  firemen,  etc  
Other  domestic  and  personal  service  

130,590 
34,597 

129,711 
27,633 

879 
6,964 

*  Includes  officers  of  United  States  Army  and  Navy. 


162 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


POPULATION   AT   LEAST    10   YEARS   OF  AGE   ENGAGED  IN   GAINFUL  OCCUPA- 
TIONS, CLASSIFIED  BY  SEX  AND  SPECIFIED  OCCUPATIONS:  1900— Cord inued. 


Occupation. 

Total. 

Male. 

Female. 

Trade  and  transportation  

4,766,964 

4,263,617 

503  347 

Agents.  .       .    .            

241  162 

230  606 

10  556 

Bankers  and  brokers  

73,277 

72,984 

293 

Boatmen  and  sailors  .  .  . 

78  406 

78  253 

153 

Bookkeepers  and  accountants  
Clerks  and  copyists  

254,880 
630  127 

180,727 
544  881 

74,153 
85  246 

Commercial  travelers  

92,919 

91  973 

946 

Draymen,  hackmen,  teamsters,  etc. 

538  933 

538  029 

904 

Foremen  and  overseers 

55  450 

54  032 

1  418 

Hostlers.                

64  929 

64  850 

79 

Hucksters  and  peddlers 

76  649 

73  734 

2  915 

Livery  stable  keepers.         

33  656 

33  466 

190 

Merchants  and  dealers  (except  wholesale)  
Merchants  and  dealers  (wholesale) 

790,886 
42  293 

756,802 
42  032 

34,084 
261 

Messengers  and  errand  and  office  boys  

71,622 

64  959 

6  663 

Officials  of  banks  and  companies  . 

74  072 

72  801 

1  271 

Packers  and  shippers.  .  
Porters  and  helpers  (in  stores,  etc.) 

59,545 
54  191 

39,557 
53  625 

19,988 
566 

Salesmen  and  saleswomen  
Steam  railroad  employees 

611,139 
582  150 

461,909 
580  462 

149,230 
1  688 

Stenographers  and  typewriters  

112,364 
68  919 

26,246 
68  873 

86,118 
46 

Telegraph  and  telephone  linemen  

14,757 

14J57 

Telegraph  and  telephone  operators 

75  015 

52  459 

22  556 

Undertakers  
Other  persons  in  trade  and  transportation  

16,189 
53,434 

15,866 
49,734 

323 
3,700 

Manufacturing  and  mechanical  pursuits.  . 

7  085  992 

5  772  788 

1  313  204 

Building  trades. 
Carpenters  and  joiners  

600  252 

599  707 

545 

Masons  (brick  and  stone)              .  . 

160  805 

160  638 

167 

Painters,  glaziers,  and  varnishers  

277  541 

275  782 

1  759 

Paper  hangers. 

21  990 

21  749 

241 

Plasterers  

35  694 

35  649 

45 

Plumbers  and  gas  and  steam  fitters 

97  785 

97  659 

126 

Roofers  and  slaters  

9  067 

9065 

2 

Mechanics  (not  otherwise  specified).  . 

9  392 

9  351 

41 

Chemicals  and  allied  products. 
Oil  well  and  oil  works  employees  

24  626 

24  573 

53 

Other  chemical  workers 

14  814 

12  035 

2  77Q 

Clay,  glass,  and  stone  products. 
Brick  and  tile  makers  etc 

49  933 

49  455 

478 

Glass  workers  

49  998 

47  377 

2  621 

Marble  and  stone  cutters. 

54  460 

54  317 

143 

Potters  

16  140 

13  200 

2  940 

Fishing  and  mining. 
Fishermen  and  oystermen  

68  177 

67  715 

469 

Miners  and  quarrymen  . 

563  866 

562  501 

1  365 

Food  and  kindred  products. 
Bakers  
Butchers 

79,188 
113  956 

74,860 
113  578 

4,328 
q-ro 

Butter  and  cheese  makers  

19  241 

18  593 

648 

Confectioners 

31  194 

21  980 

9  214 

Millers  

40  548 

40  362 

186 

Other  food  preparers 

28  782 

23  640 

5  142 

Iron  and  steel  and  their  products. 
Blacksmiths  ... 

226  477 

226  284 

193 

Iron  and  steel  workers 

290  611 

<>87  241 

o  qyn 

Machinists  

283  145 

282  574 

571 

Steam  boiler  makers 

33  046 

33  038 

Stove,  furnace,  and  grate  makers.  .  . 

12  473 

12  430 

43 

Tool  and  cutlery  makers 

28  122 

27  376 

746 

Wheelwrights  

13  505 

13  495 

10 

Wire  workers  .  . 

18.487 

16.701 

1.786 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


163 


POPULATION   AT    LEAST    10    YEARS  OF  AGE  ENGAGED    IN  GAINFUL  OCCUPA- 
TIONS, CLASSIFIED  BY  SEX  AND  SPECIFIED  OCCUPATIONS:  1900— Continued. 


Occupation. 

Total. 

Male. 

Female. 

Manufacturing  and  mechanical  pursuits.  —  (Continued). 
Leather  and  its  finished  products. 
Boot  and  shoe  makers  and  repairers  . 

208  912 

169  393 

39  519 

Harness  and  saddle  makers  and  repairers  

40,101 

39  506 

595 

Leather  curriers  and  tanners  
Trunk  and  leather-case  makers  etc 

42,671 
7  051 

40,917 
5  472 

1,754 
•  f"        i  579 

Liquors  and  beverages. 
Bottlers  and  soda  water  makers  etc 

10  519 

9  725 

794 

Brewers  and  maltsters  

20962 

20  687 

275 

Distillers  and  rectifiers 

3  144 

3  114 

30 

Lumber  and  its  remanufactures. 
Cabinetmakers 

35  619 

35  552 

67 

Coopers     

37  200 

37  087 

113 

Saw  and  planing  mill  employees  "... 

161,624 

161  251 

373 

Other  woodworkers  

111,273 

104  468 

6  805 

Metals  and  metal  products  other  than  iron  and  steel. 
Brass  workers  

26  760 

25  870 

890 

Clock  and  watch  makers  and  repairers  

24,120 

19  305 

4  gis 

Gold  and  silver  workers  
Tinplate  and  tinware  makers 

26,112 
70  505 

19,732 
68  730 

6,380 
1  775 

Other  metal  workers  

56  602 

54  282 

2  320 

Paper  and  printing. 
Bookbinders  

30  278 

14  646 

15  632 

Box  makers  (paper) 

21  098 

3  796 

17  302 

Engravers  

11  151 

10  698 

453 

Paper  and  pulp  mill  operatives. 

36  328 

•    26  904 

9  424 

Printers,  lithographers,  and  pressmen  

155  147 

139  166 

15  981 

Textiles. 
Bleachery  and  dye  works  operatives  

22  278 

20  493 

1  785 

Carpet  factory  operatives  .    .    . 

19  388 

10  371 

9  017 

Cotton  mill  operatives  
Hosiery  and  knitting  mill  operatives. 

246,004 
47  120 

125,788 
12  630 

120,216 
34  490 

Silk  mill  operatives  

54  460 

22023 

32  437 

Woolen  mill  operatives  

73  196 

42  566 

30  630 

Other  textile  mill  operatives  

104  619 

53  437 

51  182 

Dressmakers  

346  884 

2  090 

344  794 

Hat  and  cap  makers. 

22  733 

15  110 

7623 

Milliners  

87  859 

1  739 

86  120 

Seamstresses  

150  942 

4837 

146  105 

Shirt,  collar,  and  cuff  makers  .... 

39432 

8  491 

30  941 

Tailors  and  tailoresses 

229  649 

160  714 

68  Q35 

Other  textile  workers  
Miscellaneous  industries. 
Broom  and  brush  makers  
Charcoal,  coke,  and  lime  burners  
Engineers  and  firemen  (not  locomotive)  
Glove  makers 

29,967 

10,220 
14,448 
223,495 
12  271 

8,925 

8,643 
14,405 
223,318 
4  503 

21,042 

1,577 
43 

177 
7  768 

Manufacturers  and  officials,  etc  

243  082 

239  649 

3  433 

Model  and  pattern  makers  . 

15  073 

14  869 

204 

Photographers  ?  

26941 

23*361 

3  580 

Rubber  factory  operatives  . 

21  866 

14  492 

7  374 

Tobacco  and  cigar  factory  operatives  

131  452 

87  955 

43  497 

Upholsterers  

30  821 

28  663 

2  158 

Other  miscellaneous  industries  

471,300 

380,490 

90,810 

— From  Reports  of  the  Twelfth  Census. 


The  annals  of  the  Pasteur  Institute  state 
that  during  the  year  1902  the  number  of  per- 
sons under  treatment  for  hydrophobia  in  Paris 
was  1,106,  of  whom  only  three  died,  one  cf 
whom  had  not  completed  the  treatment  when 
he  succumbed  to  hydrophobia;  so  that  in 
reality  there  were  only  two  deaths.  Of  the 
1,106  persons  under  treatment,  nine  were 
English,  two  Spaniards,  two  Russians,  and 


one  each  Greek,  Dutch,  and  Swiss — making 
16  foreigners  to  1,089  French.  The  diminu- 
tion in  the  number  of  French  patients,  as 
compared  with  several  preceding  years,  is  ex- 
plained by  the  opening  of  anti-rabic  institutes 
at  LJls,  Marseilles,  Montpellier,  Lyons,  and 
Bordeaux,  to  one  or  other  of  which  persons 
residing  in  the  neighborhood  of  those  towns 
have  been  sent  instead  of  going  to  Paris. 


164 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


INDIANS. 


In  1902  the  area  of  Indiaii  reser- 
vations in  the  United  States  was  75,- 
148,643  acres  or  117,420  square  miles, 
and  the  population  in  1900  was  270,- 
544,  but  in  1903  the  number  had 
dwindled  to  263,233.  Indian  Territory 
is  occupied  by  76,886  Indian  inhabi- 


tants, while  43,746  live  in  Arizona 
and  13,799  in  Oklahoma,  and  19,477  in 
South  Dakota.  The  census  gives  the 
Indian  population  in  Indian  Territory 
in  1900  as  302,060,  and  the  Indian 
population  elsewhere  is  included  in  the 
census  of  the  States. 


DIVISION   OF  POPULATION 
BY   COLOR. 


COMPARISON   OF   POPULATION 
BY  OCCUPATIONS. 


FOREIGN 

FCMALCS 

WHITE 

MALES- 
CO  Lt 

!                          FEMALES 
RED 

NUMBER  OF  PENSIONERS  ON  THE  ROLLS,  FIRST  PAYMENTS,  AND 

AMOUNTS  OF  DISBURSEMENTS  FOR  PENSIONS 

FROM  1861  TO  1903. 


Year 

ending 

Number  o 

'  pensioners  or 

the  rolls. 

Total 

Cost,  mainte- 
nance, and 

June  30  — 

Invalids. 

Widows,  etc. 

Total. 

disbursements. 

expenses. 

1861  .  . 
1865  
1868  
1870  
1875  
1880  
1890  
1900  
1903  

4,337 
35,880 
75,957 
87,521 
122,989 
145,410 
415,654 
752,510 
729,356 

4,299 
50,106 
93,686 
111,165 
111,832 
105,392 
122,290 
241,019 
267,189 

8,636 
85,986 
169,643 
198,686 
234,821 
250,802 
537,944 
993,529 
996,545 

$1,072,461.55 
8,525,153.11 
24,010,981.99 
27,780,811.81 
29,683,116.63 
57,240,540.14 
106,493,890.19 
138,462,130.65 
137,759,653.71 

$553,026!  34 
600,997.86 
982,695.35 
935,027  .  28 
3,526,382.13 
3,841,706.74 
3,993,216.79 

The  following  amounts  have  been  paid  to  soldiers,  their  widows,  minor  children,  and 
dependent  relatives  on  account  of  military  and  naval  service  during  the  wars  in  which  the 
United  States  has  been  engaged: 

Revolutionary  war  (estimated) $70,000,000 . 00 

War  of  1812  (on  account  of  service,  without  regard  to  disability) 45,186,197 . 22 

Indian  wars  (on  account  of  service,  without  regard  to  disability) 6,234,414 . 55 

War  with  Mexico  (on  account  of  service,  without  regard  to  disability) 33,483,309 . 91 

War  of  the  rebellion 2,878,240,400. 17 

Warwith  Spain 5,479,268.31 


Actual  total  disbursements  in  pensions .  .  . 


$3,038,623,590. 16 

— Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United  States. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


165 


IMMIGRATION. 

NUMBER    AND    NATIONALITY    OF    IMMIGRANTS    ARRIVED    IN    THE    UNITED 
STATES  DURING  THE  YEARS  ENDING  JUNE  30,   1889,   1899,  AND   1903. 


Countries. 

1889. 

1899. 

1903. 

Countries. 

1889. 

1899. 

1903. 

Austria-Hungary  : 
Bohemia  
Hungary  
Other  Austria 
(except  Poland) 

Total  

Belgium  
Denmark  
France  
Germany  
Gibraltar  
G  reece  
Italy,  continental  . 
Sicily    and    Sar- 
dinia   

3,085 
10,967 

20,122 

62,491 

'206,611 

Azores 

1,967 

4 
12 

Greenland,  Iceland 
and    the    Faroe 
Islands  
Europe  not  speci- 
fied 

6 

5 

34,174 

2,562 
8,699 
5,918 
99,538 
13 
158 
24,848 

459 

62,491 

1,101 

2,690 
1,694 
17,476 

2,333 

t  77,419 

206,011 

3,450 

7,158 
5,578 
40,086 

'  '14,090 
230,622 

Total  Europe. 

British  North 
America 
Mexico  
Central  America  .  . 
Bermuda.  . 

434,790 

297,349 

814,507 

t 

88 
21 

4,923 
427 

t5,459 

1,322 
161 
159 

1,058 
528 
678 

West    Indies    and 
Miquelon  
South  America  .  .  . 

Total  America 

China  
Japan  
Other.  Asia  

Total  Asia  .  .  . 

Total  Oceania.  . 
Total  Africa  
All  other  countries 

Total  immigrants 

2,585 
89 

4,316 

8,170 
589 

11,023 

Malta 

Netherlands  
Norway  
Poland  
Portugal  
Roumania  
Russia  (except 
Poland)  
Finland 

6,460 
13,390 
4,922 
57 
893 

31,889 
2,027 
526 
35,415 
7,070 
252 

68,503 
65,557 
18,296 
1,181 

153,537 

1,029 
6,705 

2,054 
1,606 

j-  60,982 

385 
12,797 
1,326 
132 

10,402 
31,673 
1,724 
1,324 

45,123 

3,998 
24,461 

9,317 
9,310 

136,093 

2,080 
46,028 
3,983 
3,290 

26,219 
35,310 
6,143 
1,275 

68,947 

118 
640 
967 

1,660 

2,844 
4,468 

2,209 
19,968 
7,789 

1,725 

8,972 

29,966 

Spain  
Sweden  . 

2,196 
187 
70 

'si 

1,027 

1,349 
176 
25 

Switzerland  
Turkey  in  Europe* 
United  Kingdom: 
England  

444,427 

311,715 

857,046 

Ireland  
Scotland  
Wales. 

*  Includes  Servia,  Bulgaria,  and  Montenegro, 
t  Immigrants  from  British  North  America 
and  Mexico  not  reported. 

—  Statistical  Abstract  of  United  States. 

Total    United 
Kingdom.  . 

LABOR'S    DEATH    ROLL. 


No  less  than  4,513  lives  were  lost  in  1902 
while  in  the  ordinary  pursuit  of  their  calling 
in  the  United  Kingdom.  112,133  persons 
were  injured  in  the  same  period.  The  per- 
centage of  deaths  from  different  causes  in 
coal  mining  was  (  1  )  On  the  surf  ace,  11.3;  (2) 
Miscellaneous  underground,  28.3;  (3)  In  the 
shafts,  9.9;  (4)  By  falls  of  ground,  44.1;  (5) 
By  explosions,  6.4. 

Number 
Employed 
According 
to  Latest 
Returns. 

Killed. 

Injured. 

1898. 

1902. 

1898. 

1902. 

Factories 

3,929,213 
855,603 
97,108 
230,161 
575,834 

1  li  i 

!  I*  i 

J                       I 

575 
941 
134 
1,139 
522 
2 

837 
1,053 
119 
1,397 
468 
9 
1 
129 
42 
89 
17 
62 
290 

49,290 
4,408 
1,434 
2,354 
12,826 
135 
217 
4,070 
2,507 
616 
153 
1,491 
132 

77,118 
3,999 
1,190 
2,228 
13,735 
224 
355 
4,906 
4,235 
2,412 
123 
1,451 
157 

Mines  
Quarries.  .  . 

Shipping  (Merchant  Vessels)  
Railway  service.  . 

Workshops  
Laundries  
Docks,  wharves,  and  quays 

89 
16 
45 
20 

56 
271 

Warehouses  
Buildings  
Railway  service  (contractors'  servants).  .  .  . 
Under  notice  of  Accidents  Act,  1894  
Shipping  (Fishing  vessels,  etc.)  

Total  

3,810 

4,513 

79,633 

112,133 

— "Daily  Mail"  Year  Book. 


166 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


•980'e   VIN3H09 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


16? 


A1V1I 


168 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


s?%, 


I  ! 


4 


.  /' 
^ttl^ 

o\  A-:  X.,  f    •  v  -'••-'••;.•' 


J~ ,_._» 


MEXICO 


OKLAH 


ANNJEXED  1845 


ACCESSIONS  OF  TERRITORY  AND  TH1 
if  with    date    shows    center    ol 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


169 


iifr^tt^-^  ILLINOIS       jIND/AtfA 


CENTER    OF    POPULATION,    1790-1900. 
population  at  different  periods. 


170 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


TERRITORIAL  EXPANSION. 


There  have  been  sixteen  additions  to 
the  original  territory  of  the  Union,  in- 
cluding Alaska,  the  Hawaiian,  Philip- 
pine and  Samoan  Islands  and  Guam, 
in  the  Pacific,  and  Porto  Rico,  in  the 
West  Indies ;  and  the  Panama  strip ; 
and  the  total  area  of  the  United  States, 
including  the  noncontiguous  territory, 


is  now  fully  five  times  that  of  the  orig- 
inal thirteen  colonies. 

The  additions  to  the  territory  of  the 
United  States  subsequent  to  the  peace 
treaty  with  Great  Britain  of  1783,  are 
shown  by  the  following  table,  prepared 
by  the  General  Land  Office  of  the  In- 
terior Department : 


ADDITIONS    TO    THE    TERRITORY    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES 
FROM     1800    TO    1904. 


Territorial  Division. 

Year. 

Area  added. 

Purchase 
price. 

1803 

Square  miles. 
875,025 

Dollars. 
15  000  000 

Florida          

1819 

70,107 

*6,489,768 

Texas                                                            

1845 

389,795 

Oregon  Territory  

1846 

288,689 

Mexican  cession  

1848 
1850 

523,802 
(t) 

t!8,250,000 
10  000  000 

Gadsden  purchase  

1853 
1867 

36,211 
599  446 

10,000,000 
7  200  000 

1897 

6  740 

Porto  Rico                                                        .  . 

1898 

3  600 

1898 

175 

Philippine  Islands  

1899 
1899 

143,000 
73 

20,000,000 

Additional  Philippines  
Panama  Canal  .  • 

1901 
1903 

68 

100,000 
40  000  000 

Panama  Canal  strip  

1904 

10,000,000 

Total 

2  936  731 

137  039  768 

*  Includes  interest  payment. 

t  Of  which  $3,250,000  was  in  payment  of  claims  of  American  citizens  against  Mexico. 

j  Area  purchased  from  Texas  amounting  to  123,784  square  miles  is  not  included  in  the  column 
of  area  added,  because  it  became  a  part  of  the  area  of  the  United  States  with  the  admission  of 
Texas. 


AREA    AND   POPULATION    OF   THE   UNITED    STATES. 


The  following  table,  published  by 
the  United  States  Census  Office,  shows 
the  gross  area  and  population  of  the 


United  States  at  each  of  the  decennial 
censuses  from  1790  to  1900,  exclusive 
of  all  noncontiguous  territory. 


Year. 

Area. 

Population. 

Year. 

Area. 

Population. 

1790 

Square  miles. 
827,844 

3,929,214 

1850  . 

Square  miles. 
2,980,959 

23  191,876 

1800 

827,844 

5  308,483 

1860 

3  025  600 

31  443  321 

1810     . 
1820     
1830 

1,999,775 
2,059,043 
2  059  043 

7,239,881 
9,633,822 
12  866  020 

1870  
1880  
1890 

3,025,600 
3,025,600 
3  025  600 

38,558,371 
50,155,783 
62  622  250 

1840      

2,059,043 

17,069,453 

1900  

3,025,600 

75,994,575 

CHAPTER    VII. 


EDUCATION,  LIBRARIES,  PRINTING   AND   PUBLISHING. 


THE   VALUE    OF   AN  EDUCATION. 


In  the  annual  report  of  the  United 
States  Commissioner  of  Education 
appears  a  sheet  of  statistics  showing 
to  what  extent  higher  education,  af- 
fects success  in  life.  Particularly  it 
shows  the  pre-eminence  of  the  A.B. 
degree  man  among  the  successful,  and 
the  iuconspicuousness  of  the  self-edu- 
cated. 

The  standard  of  success  to  which 
the  educational  statistics  are  applied 
is  that  which  constitutes  eligibility  to 
the  ranks  of  the  10,000  or  so  persons 
included  in  "Who's  Who  in  America" 
— that  is,  according  to  the  editors,  "the 
most  notable  in  all  departments  of 
usefulness  and  reputable  endeavor." 
These  men  have  all  reported  the  scope 
and  method  of  their  education. 

The  United  States  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation divides  the  14,794,403  males 
over  80  years  old  in  the  United  States 
according  to  the  last  census  into  four 
educational  classes,  as  follows : 

Class  I.     Without  education  1,757,023 

Class  II.  With  only  com- 
mon school  training  or 
trained  outside  of  organ- 
ized schools 12,054,335 

Class  III.  With  regular 
high  school  training  add- 
ed    657,432 

Class  IV.  With  college  or 

higher  education  added. .  325,613 

Omitting  those  few  who  are  under 
30  years  old,  says  this  report,  the 
statements  from  10,704  notables  show 
that  they  include :  Without  educa- 
tion, none :  self-taught,  24 ;  home 
taught,  27S ;  with  common  school 
training  only,  1,066;  with  high  school 


Professor  Ramsay,  of  University 
College,  London,  in  a  letter  to  the 
"Times,"  points  out  the  remarkable 
part  which  Technical  Education  plays 
in  German  trade. 

"A  German  company  employs  no 
fewer  than  70  chemists  ;  it  is  one  which 
manufactures  no  product  of  which  it 
sells  less  than  one  hundred  tons  a  year. 


training,  1,627;  with  college  training, 
7,709,  of  whom  6,129  were  graduates. 
That  is: 

From  1800  to  1870  the  uneducated 
boy  in  the  United  States  failed  en- 
tirely to  become  so  notable  in  any  de- 
partment of  usefulness  and  reputable 
endeavor  as  to  attract  the  attention  of 
the  "WTho's  Who"  editors,  and  that 
only  24  self-taught  men  succeeded. 

A  boy  with  only  a  common  school 
education  had,  in  round  numbers,  one 
chance  in  9,000. 

A  high  school  training  increased  this 
chance  nearly  twenty-two  times. 

College  education  added  gave  the 
young  man  about  ten  times  the  chance 
of  a  high  school  boy  and  200  times  the 
chance  of  the  boy  whose  training 
stopped  with  the  common  school. 

The  A.B.  graduate  was  pre-emi- 
nently successful,  and  the  self-educa- 
ted man  was  inconspicuous. 

"From  the  nature  of  the  case,"  con- 
cludes the  compiler,  "it  cannot  be 
claimed  that  these  classifications  are 
exact,  but  they  are  based  upon  the 
fullest  statistics  ever  obtained,  and  the 
necessary  estimates  have  been  made  by 
government  experts.  It  is  also  doubt- 
less true  that  other  circumstances  con- 
tributed to  the  success  of  these  trained 
men,  but  after  all  reasonable  allow- 
ances are  made  the  figures  force  the 
conclusion  that  the  more  school  train- 
ing the  American  boy  of  that  period 
had,  the  greater  were  his  chances  of 
distinction. 

"It  is  unnecessary  to  extend  this 
inquiry  to  woman,"  he  says,  in  conclu- 
sion. "Education  is  practically  her 
only  door  to  eminence." 


Of  the  seventy  chemists  required,  20 
are  employed  in  analyzing  the  raw  ma- 
terials and  intermediate  and  finished 
products :  25  are  engaged  in  superin- 
tending the  processes  of  manufacture, 
and  the  remaining  25  are  exclusively 
employed  in  scientific  work  to  improve 
the  present  processes  of  manufacture." 
— Daily  Mail  Year  Book. 


171 


172 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


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Division. 

The  United  States.  . 

N.  Atlantic  Division. 
S.  Atlantic  Division.. 
S.  Central  Division.  . 
N.  Central  Division  , 
Western  Division  .  .  . 

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174 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


POPULATION,     ENROLLMENT,     AVERAGE     DAILY     ATTENDANCE, 
NUMBER,  AND   SEX  OF  TEACHERS. 


Division. 

Estimated 
Total 
Popula- 
tion in 
1902. 

Pupils  En- 
rolled in 
the  Ele- 
mentary 
and  Sec- 
ondary 
Common 
Schools. 

Per 

Cent, 
of  the 
Popu- 
lation 
En- 
rolled 

Average 
Dailv 
Attend- 
ance. 

Number  of  Teachers. 

Male. 

Female. 

Total. 
439,596 

The  United  States.  .... 

North  Atlantic  Division  . 
South  Atlantic  Division.  . 
South  Central  Division.  . 
North  Central  Division.  . 

78,544  816 

15,925,887 

20.28 

10,999,273 

122,392 

317,204 

21,802,750 
10,696,435 
14,715,700 
26,912,400 

3,733,683 
2,279,290 
3,156,590 
5,866,396 

17.12 
21.31 
21.45 
21.80 
20.15 

2,741,360 
1,445,797 
2,097,819 
4,101,022 
613,275 

18,069 
19,567 
30,652 
48,152 
5,952 

90,003 
31,818 
34,848 
139,691 
20,844 

108,072 
51,385 
65,500 

187,843 
26,796 

Western  Division  

4,417,531 

889,928 

AVERAGE  NUMBER  OF  DAYS  TAUGHT,  SALARIES  OF  TEACHERS, 

VALUE  OF  SCHOOL  PROPERTY,  AND  STATE  AND 

LOCAL   TAXATION,    1901-2. 


Division. 

Aver- 
age 
Num- 
ber of 
Days 
the 
Schools 
were 
Kept. 

Average 
Monthly  Sal- 
aries of 
Teachers. 

Value  of 
Public 
School  Prop- 
erty. 

Raised 
from  State 
Taxes. 

Raised 
from  Local 
Taxes. 

Raised 
from  Other 
Sources, 
State  and 
Local,  etc. 

Males. 

Fe- 
males. 

The  United  States.  . 

North  Atlantic  Div  . 
S.  Atlantic  Div  
S.  Central  Division.  . 
N.  Central  Division.. 
Western  Division.  .  . 

145 

$49.05 

$39.77 

$601,571,307 

$38,330,589 

$170,779.586 

$29,742,141 

177.3 
115.8 
100.6 
156.5 
143.9 

59.01 
30.50 
44.28 
50.85 
65.90 

40.17 
28.60 
36.88 
39.60 
53.73 

243,150,033 
25,109,903 
29,875,383 
250,303,396 
53,132,592 

12,831,775 
5,148,670 
6,398,383 
8,374,009 
5,577,752 

69,984,121 
7,842,256 
6,869,991 
74,215,693 
11,867,525 

10,847,513 
1,150,494 
1,147,567 
14,781,748 
1,814,819 

STATISTICS  OF  CITY  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS,  1901-2. 

ENROLLMENT,     AVERAGE     ATTENDANCE,     LENGTH     OF     SCHOOL 

TERM,  NUMBER  OF  TEACHERS,  AND  EXPENDITURES 

IN  CITIES  OF  8,000  INHABITANTS  AND  OVER. 


Division. 

Num- 
ber of 
City 
School 
Sys- 
terns. 

Enroll- 
ment in 
Public 
Day 
Schools. 

Average 
Daily 
Attend- 
ance. 

Aver- 
age 
Length 
of 
School 
Term. 

Numl 
Teacht 
Super 

Male. 

aer  of 
rs  and 
risors. 

Fe- 
male. 

Expendi- 
ture for 
Supervi- 
sion and 
Teaching. 

United  States..  . 

N.  Atlantic  Div.  . 
S.  Atlantic  Div.  . 
S.  Central  Div.  .  . 
N.  Central  Div.  . 
Western  Div.  .  .  . 

580 

4,174,812 

3,159,441 

187.3 

9,461 

86,308 

$66,561,505 

242 
44 
51 
205 
38 

2,046,001 
292,143 
223,538 
1,371,398 
241,732 

1,537,500 
205,948 
167,816 
1,066,804 
181,373 

188.4 
181.7 
181.5 
187.6 
186.5 

4,343 
809 
628 
3,135 
546 

42,626 
5,492 
4,149 
28,909 
5,132 

35,543,105 
3,436,613 
2,483,299 
20,729,416 
4,369,072 

Expendi- 
ture for  all 
Purposes 
( Payment 
of  Loans 
and  Bonds 
Excepted). 

$111,159,665 

59,950,666 
5,398,312 
3,539,463 

35,112,492 
7,158,732 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


175 


STATISTICS  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION,  1901-2. 

INSTRUCTORS    AND    STUDENTS    IN    PUBLIC    HIGH    SCHOOLS   AND 
IN  PRIVATE  HIGH  SCHOOLS  AND  ACADEMIES. 


Division. 

Num- 
ber. 

Public  High  Schools. 

Num- 
ber. 

Private  Secondary  Schools. 

Secondary 
Teachers. 

Secondary 
Students. 

Secondary 
Teachers. 

Secondary 
Students. 

Male. 

Fe- 
male. 

Male. 

226,914 

Fe- 
male. 

Male. 

Fe- 
male. 

Male. 

51,536 

Fe- 
male. 

United  States..  . 

N.  Atlantic  Div.  . 
S.  Atlantic  Div.  . 
S.  Central  Div.  .  . 
N.  Central  Div..  . 
Western  Div.  .  .  . 

6,292 

10,958 

11,457 

323,697 

1,835 

4,073  j  5,830 

53,154 

1,476 
436 
702 
3,333 
345 

2,960 
691 
1,037 
5,535 
735 

4,333 

568 
755 
5,084 
717 

75,888 
11,024 
16.450 
109,736 
13,816 

105,143 
16,937 
24,004 
156,714 
20,899 

650 
350 
364 
343 

128 

1,885 
629 
589 
704 
266 

2,529 
852 
735 
.1,295 
419 

20,900 
9,098 
9,805 
8,680 
3,053 

18,893 
9,610 
9,541 
11,248 
3,862 

STATISTICS  OF  HIGHER  EDUCATION,  1901-2. 

INSTRUCTORS  AND  STUDENTS  IN  PUBLIC  AND  PRIVATE  NORMAL 
SCHOOLS   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES. 


Division. 

Num- 
ber. 

Public  Normal  Schools. 

'Num- 
ber. 

Private  Normal  Schools. 

Teachers  of 
Normal 
Students. 

Students  in 
Normal 
Course. 

Teachers  of 
Normal 
Students. 

Students  in 
Normal 
Course. 

Male. 

Fe- 
male. 

Male. 

Fe- 
male. 

Male. 
445 

Fe- 
male. 

Male. 

Fe- 
male. 

United  States 

173 

1,024 

1,463 

12,209 

37,194 

109 

345 

7,484 

8,181 

N.  Atlantic  Div..  .  . 
S.  Atlantic  Div.  .  .  . 
S.  Central  Division 
N.  Central  Division 
Western  Division  .  . 

62 
25 
24 
40 

22 

325 

124 
132 
315 

128 

661 
197 
110 
366 
129 

3,255 
1,013 
1,868 
5,341 
732 

13,987 
3,070 
3,393 
13,566 
3,178 

7 
28 
27 
46 

1 

60 
53 
83 
245 
4 

88 
79 
64 
107 
7 

307 
603 
1,129 
5,431 
14 

961 
955 
1,148 
5,054 
63 

INSTRUCTORS    AND    STUDENTS    IN    COEDUCATIONAL    COLLEGES 

AND  UNIVERSITIES  AND  IN  COLLEGES 

FOR  MEN  ONLY,   1901-2. 


Division. 

Num- 
ber of 
Insti- 
tu- 
tions. 

Professors 
and 
Instructors. 

Students. 

Preparatory. 

Collegiate. 

Resident 
Graduate. 

Total 
Income. 

Male. 

Fe- 
male. 

Male. 

Fe- 
male. 

Male. 

Fe- 
male. 

21,051 

Male. 
3,895 

Fe- 
male. 

United  States. 

N.  Atlan.  Div. 
S.  Atlan.  Div. 
S.  Central  Div 
N.  Central  Div 
Western  Div.  . 

464 

9,329 

1,907 

164 
169 
305 
1,085 
184 

32,094 

14,508 

62,430 

1,456 

$25,112,169 

85 
73 
77 
190 
39 

3,000 
1,050 
878 
3,583 

818 

6,408 
3,465 
5,761 
13,871 
2,589 

960 
1,532 
3,026 
7,188 
1,802 

22,903 
6,629 
6,467 
21,993 
4,438 

2,62» 
1,081 
2,472 
12,043 
2,826 

1,696 
452 
155 
1,376 
216 

444 
36 
69 
700 
207 

9,382,226 
2,115,295 
2,172,238 
.  8,944,906 
2,497,504 

176 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


INSTRUCTORS  AND  STUDENTS  IN  SCHOOLS  OF  TECHNOLOGY  AND 

INSTITUTIONS    CONFERRING   ONLY   THE 

B.  S.   DEGREE,   1901-2. 


Division. 

Num- 
ber 
of  In- 
stitu- 
tions. 

Professors 
and 
Instructors. 

Students. 

Total 
Income. 

Preparatory. 

Collegiate 

Resident 
Graduate. 

Male. 

Fe- 
male. 

Male. 

Fe- 
male. 

*•"••  US;. 

Male. 

Fe- 
male. 

United  States  . 

N.  Atlan.  Div. 
S.  Atlan.  Div.  . 
S.  Cent.  Div   .. 
N.  Cent.  Div.  . 
Western  Div.   . 

43      i   1,292 

132 

3,058 

673 

11,667 

1,148 

141 

54 

$4,796,613 

10 

8 
5 
11 
9 

385 
250 
112 
362 
183 

13 
0 
4 
74 
41 

267 
291 
804 
1023 
673 

8 
0 
129 
230 
306 

3,022 
2,255 
1,258 
4,115 
1,017 

91 
1 
57 
683 
316 

22 
30 
25 
51 
13 

5 
0 
4 
37 

8 

1,645,180 
796,580 
425,642 
1,275,480 
653,731 

INSTRUCTORS   AND    STUDENTS    IN    COLLEGES    AND    SEMINARIES 
FOR  WOMEN  WHICH  CONFER  DEGREES,  1901-2. 


Division. 

Number 
of  Insti- 
tutions. 

Professor^  and 
Instructors. 

Female  Students. 

Total 
Income. 

Male. 

Female. 

Prepar- 
atory. 

Collegi- 
ate. 

Gradu- 
ate. 

United  States  

North  Atlantic  Div.  .  .  . 
South  Atlantic  Div.  .  .  . 
South  Central  Div  
North  Central  Div  
Western  Division  

131 

670 

1,767 

7,610 

16.534 

326 

$3,954,462 

19 
45 
46 
19 

2 

295 
203 
107 
57 
8 

459 
517 
472 
269 
50 

1,281 
2,006 
2,675 
1,423 
225 

5,376 
5,236 
4,377 
1,493 
52 

157 
77 
65 
26 
1 

1,888,799 
906,852 
646,048 
467,763 
47,000 

SUMMARY    OF    STATISTICS    OF    PROFESSIONAL    SCHOOLS 
FOR    1901-2. 


Division. 

Theological. 

Law. 

Medical. 

Schools. 

In- 
struct- 
ors. 

Stu- 
dents. 

Schools. 

In- 
struct- 
ors. 

Stu- 
dents. 

Schools. 

In- 
struct- 
ors. 

Stu- 
dents. 

United  States  

N.  Atlantic  Division.  .  . 
S  Atlantic  Division  
S.  Central  Division  .... 
N.  Central  Division  
Western  Division  

148 

1,034 

448 
128 
75 
357 
26 

*7,343 

2,915 
903 
534 
2,910 
81 

102 

18 
21 
17 
39 

7 

1,155 

t!3,912 

154 

5,029 

26,821 

52 
19 
14 
58 
5 

275 
159 
126 
537 
58 

4,598 
2,138 
796 
5,851 
529 

26 
23 
26 
67 
12 

1,136 
574 
544 
2,412 
363 

6,514 
3,609 
4,905 
10,693 
1,100 

*  108  of  these  were  women. 


1 165  of  these  were  women. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


177 


GENERAL    SUMMARY    OF    STATISTICS    OF    PROFESSIONAL    AND 
ALLIED   SCHOOLS   FOR  1901-2. 


Class. 

Schools. 

Instruct- 
ors. 

Students. 

Graduates. 

Theological  

148 

1,034 

7,343 

1,656 

Law  

102 
154 

1,155 
5,029 

13,912 
26,821 

3,524 
5,069 

Dental.  .         

56 

1,197 

8,420 

2,288 

Pharmaceutical.  .'.  . 

59 

590 

4,427 

1,379 

H 

174 

576 

141 

Nurse  training  

545 

13,252 

4,015 

Total.  

Medical  schools  included  above: 
Regular  
Homeopathic 

1,075 

123 
20 

9,179 

4,084 
649 

74,751 

24,447 
1  551 

18,072 

4,576 
342 

Eclectic  and  physio-medical  

11 

296 

823 

151 

Total  

154 

5,029 

26,821 

5,069 

ENROLLMENT    IN    SPECIAL    SCHOOLS    IN    1901-2. 

City  evening  schools  (estimated) 207,162 

Business  schools 137,247 

Schools  for  defectives 28,827 

Reform  schools 35,247 

Government  Indian  schools 24,120 

Indian  schools  (five  civilized  tribes) 13,864 

Schools  in  Alaska  supported  by  the  Government 1,741 

Schools  in  Alaska  supported  by  incorporated  municipalities  (partly  estimated) 1,700 

Orphan  asylums  and  other  benevolent  institutions 15,000 

Private  kindergartens 105,932 

Miscellaneous  (including  schools  of  music,  oratory,  elocution,  cookery,  and  various 

special  arts 50,000 


Total.  . 


620,840 


SUMMARY    OF    STATISTICS    OF    PUBLIC,    SOCIETY,    AND    SCHOOL 
LIBRARIES  OF  1,000  VOLUMES  AND  OVER   IN  1900. 

VOLUMES   AND   PAMPHLETS   ADDED   AND  BOOKS   ISSUED. 


Division. 

Periodicals. 

Volumes  Added 
During  the 
Year. 

Pamphlets 
Added  During 
the  Year. 

Books  Issued  for 
Home  Use. 

Books  Issued 
for  Use  in 
Library. 

Libraries  Re- 
porting. 

Num- 
ber. 

Libraries  Re- 
porting. 

Num- 
ber. 

Libraries  Re- 
porting. 

Num- 
ber. 

Libraries  Re- 
porting. 

Num- 
ber. 

Libraries  Re- 
porting. 

Num- 
ber. 

United  States  .  . 

N.  Atlantic  Div. 
S.Atlantic  Div.  . 
S.  Central  Div.. 
N  Central  Div.  . 
Western  Div.  .  . 

3,036 

209,412 

3,684 

2,156,992 

1,455 

549,326 

2,405 

48,410,128 

783 

9,609,632 

1,352 
245 
191 
1,010 
238 

118,731 
19,639 
6,034 
51,258 
13,750 

1,787 
265 
202 
1,161 
269 

1,128,035 
175,323 
73,320 
630,959 
194,305 

580 
122 
118 
508 
127 

269,322 
67,117 
29,914 
139,820 
43,153 

1,347 
117 
75 
711 
155 

27,105,291 
1,726,203 
420.470 
15,358,076 
3,800,088 

3S6 
48 
44 
243 
62 

3,979,467 
802,769 
165,555 
3,754,728 
907,113 

178 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SUMMARY    OF    STATISTICS    OF    PUBLIC,    SOCIETY,    AND    SCHOOL 
LIBRARIES   OF  1,000  VOLUMES  AND  OVER  IN  1900. 

SOURCES   OF   SUPPORT. CLASSIFICATION. 


Own  or  Rent 
Buildings. 

Supported  by 
Taxation  or  by 
Corporation. 

Free  or  Subscrip- 
tion. 

Circulating  or 
Reference. 

Division. 

i 

i 

<t 

k) 

U 

it 

Q. 

pj 

>.  ^ 

Q. 

.9 

o 

^j 

P§M 

g  a 

H  o 

6§ 

i 

a; 

f>P 

1 

1 

j 

| 

1 

I 

£ 

fc 

« 

£ 

^ 

CQ 

i 

i 

£ 

United  States 

1,040 

592 

3,751 

2,375 

2,870 

138 

2,734 

1,735 

914 

447 

1,148 

3,788 

N.  Atlan.  Div. 

612 

286 

1,575 

1,029 

1,329 

115 

1,417 

701 

355 

251 

459 

1,763 

S.  Atlan.  Div. 

54 

23 

344 

113 

302 

6 

88 

233 

100 

21 

128 

272 

S.  Cent.  Div.  . 

44 

19 

311 

94 

269 

11 

85 

191 

98 

14 

124 

236 

N.  Cent.  Div. 

293 

203 

1,232 

931 

793 

4 

946 

486 

296 

141 

341 

1,246 

Western  Div. 

37 

61 

289 

208 

177 

2 

198 

124 

65 

20 

96 

271 

SUMMARY    OF    STATISTICS    OF    PUBLIC,    SOCIETY,    AND    SCHOOL 
LIBRARIES   OF  1,000  VOLUMES  AND   OVER  IN  1900. 

GENERAL    CLASSIFICATION    OF    LIBRARIES. 


ii 

h 

£> 

^  "g 

O  q 

. 

.2 

. 

"c 

« 

|| 

"cr3 

§ 

Division. 

"3 

6 

i 

1 

$ 

s| 

_w 

'5 

-2 

1 

o 

I 

ci 

1 

£ 

Q 

a> 

D 

• 

o 

0) 

g 

J2 

§1     2 

§"«*-! 

o3 

c 

i 

'C 

8 

A 

o 

3 

3 

H 

V 

i 

O 

•3 

S 

1 

T!  O 
fl 

0 

1 

X 

O 

S 

United  States 

1,979 

1,725 

689 

53 

162 

120 

(13 

3,5 

43 

65 

82 

19 

15 

160 

S3 

63 

ii'ie 

N.  Atlan.  Div. 

1,172 

696 

117 

23 

74 

57 

31 

2 

0 

34 

53 

3 

2 

107 

41 

3!) 

5  ill 

S.  Atlan.  Div. 

67 

120 

112 

11) 

17 

13 

8 

2S 

5 

8 

8 

4 

2 

10 

8 

5 

i 

S.  Cent.  Div.  . 

50 

137 

133 

8 

8 

6 

3 

1 

8 

3 

4 

4 

2 

5 

i 

N.  Cent.  Div.. 

576 

634 

276 

12 

37 

38 

17 

3 

18 

22 

13 

4 

5 

28 

25 

15 

2 

3 

West.  Div.  .  .  . 

114 

138 

51 

26 

6 

4 

1 

6 

3 

4 

4 

4 

10 

S 

4 

2 

2 

SUMMARY    OF    STATISTICS    OF    PUBLIC,    SOCIETY,    AND    SCHOOL 
LIBRARIES   OF  1,000  VOLUMES  AND   OVER  IN  1900. 

CLASSIFICATION    ACCORDING    TO    SIZE. 


Number  of  Volumes  to  a  Library. 


Division. 

500,000 
and 
over. 

300,000 
to 
499,999. 

100,000 
to 
299,999. 

50,000 
to 
99,999. 

25,000 
to 
49,999. 

10,000 
to 
24,999. 

5,000 
to 
9,999. 

1,000 
to 
4,999. 

United  States  .  . 

4 

3 

47 

90 

193 

526 

866 

3,654 

N.  Atlantic  Div. 
S  Atlantic  Div 

3 
1 

2 

24 
5 

53 
11 

100 
23 

242 
60 

429 
73 

1,620 
248 

S.  Central  Div.  . 
N.  Central  Div.  . 
Western  Div.... 

"  'l  " 

1 
13 
4 

3 

18 
5 

11 
46 
13 

26 
162 
36 

46 
262 
56 

287 
1,226 
273 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


179 


180 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SUMMARY    OF    STATISTICS    OF    PUBLIC,    SOCIETY,    AND    SCHOOL 
LIBRARIES   OF  1,000  VOLUMES  AND   OVER  IN  1900. 

DISTRIBUTION    OF    LIBRARIES    AND    VOLUMES. 


Division. 

Libraries. 

Volumes. 

Population, 
Census  of 
1900. 

Number  of 
People  per 
Library. 

Books  per 
100  of  Pop- 
ulation. 

United  States  

North  Atlantic  Div  
South  Atlantic  Div.  .  .  . 
South  Central  Div  
North  Central  Div.  .  .  . 
Western  Division  

5,383 

44,591,851 

75,997,687 

14,118 

59 

2,473 
421 
374 

1,728 
387 

23,410,577 
5,303,237 
1,886,731 
11,211,710 
2,779,596 

21,045,748 
10,445,486 
14,079,861 
26,335,243 
4,091,349 

8,510 
24,811 
37,647 
15,240 
10,572 

111 
51 
13 
43 
68 

— From  Reports  of  the  Bureau  of  Education. 


tJ.539.973  Volumes 
tdded  1835  to  1900. 


7,074.  H$  Volumes 
added  1890 to  1895. 


6.576.444   Volumes- 
added  1885  to  1890 


€.689,706  Volume* 
edded  1880  to  /88S. 


THE   RELATION   OF  LIBRARIES    TO 
POPULATION. 


(  1,223.7/5  Volumes  added  1875  to  1880.  ( 


11.487.778  Volumes  in  1875. 


IN    5,383    LIBRARIES   THERE   WERE   IN 

1900,  44,591,851  VOLUMES. 


PRINTING    AND    PUBLISHING. 


There  were  18,226  publications  re- 
ported to  the  census  authorities,  while 
3,046  publications  failed  to  report. 
This  would  give  a  remarkable  total  of 
21,272  periodicals,  and  the  aggregate 
circulation  of  those  reporting  was  114,- 
229,33-1  per  issue,  while  the  aggregate 
number  of  copies  issued  during  the 
census  year  was  8,168,148,749. 


The  average  capital  of  those  en- 
gaged in  the  printing  business  is  $12,- 
574 ;  the  average  value  of  their  prod- 
ucts is  $14,569.  These  figures  compared 
with  those  of  a  previous  decade  show 
that  in  a  period  of  ten  years  an  in- 
creased capital  is  required  to  produce 
the  same  or  even  a  smaller  value  of 
products ;  this  is  largely  caused  by  an 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


181 


182 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


increase  in  wages  and  a  decrease  in 
working  hours.  In  1850  a  compositor 
in  New  York  received  $9  per  week ; 
ordinary  job  compositors  now  receive 
$19.50  per  week,  and  operators  on  ma- 
chines from  $24  to  $27,  depending  on 
the  time  of  day  or  night  they  take 
their  shift.  In  the  opinion  of  many 
large  operators,  the  number  of  wage 
earners  has  actually  increased  rather 
than  diminished.  The  introduction  of 
machine  composition  has  been  of  decid- 
ed benefit  to  the  employee,  offering  a 
new  field  for  endeavor.  There  are  few 
unemployed  men  in  the  printing  trade, 
as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  when  in 
1900  the  Typographical  Union  was 


Character   of   publication : 
News,  politics,  and  family  read- 
ing     14,867 

Religion 952 

Agriculture,  horticulture,  dairy- 
ing, and  stock-raising 307 

Commerce,  finance,    insurance, 

railroads,  and  trade 710 

General     literature,     including 

magazines 239 

Medicine  arid  surgery Ill 

Law    62 

Science  and  mechanics G6 

Fraternal    organizations 200 

Education  and  history 259 

Society,  art,  music  and  fashion  88 

Miscellaneous    365 


DIAGRAM       SHOWING       CLASSIFICATION 
OF    PAPERS. 


PROPORTION  WHICH  ADVERTISING,  SUB- 
SCRIPTION AND  SALES,  AND  BOOK 
AND  JOB  PRINTING  FORM  OF  THE 
TOTAL  VALUE  OF  ALL  PRODUCTS. 


called  upon  to  supply  150  men  for  a 
special  job  of  city  printing,  only  100 
could  be  obtained,  and  these  with  diffi- 
culty. 

A  classified  list  of  periodicals  is  giv- 
en below,  showing  how  the  list  is  di- 
vided : 

Period  of  issue: 

Daily 2,226 

Tri-weekly 62 

Semi-weekly   637 

Weekly 12,979 

Monthly 1,817 

Quarterly 237 

All  other  classes 268 


Total 18,226 


Out  of  the  18,226  publications, 
2,226  are  dailies,  with  a  circulation  of 
15,102,156;  62  are  tri-weekly,  with  a 
circulation  of  228,610;  637  are  semi- 
weekly,  with  a  circulation  of  2,832,- 
868 ;  12,979  papers  are  issued  weekly, 
with  a  circulation  of  39,852,052. 
There  are  1,817  monthly  publications, 
whose  circulation  is  39,519,897.  The 
quarterly  publications  are  mostly  de- 
voted to  special  subjects,  and  only 
number  237,  but  their  circulation  is 
very  respectable,  as  they  issue  11,217- 
422  per  number.  Semi-monthly,  semi- 
annual and  yearly  publications  num- 
ber 268,  and  have  a  circulation  of  5,- 
541,329.  Out  of  18,226  publications, 
17,194  were  printed  in  English. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


183 


•  J  f>/>0 -I 


y  eoe- 


t    B 


184 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


In  1900,  cities  of  201,000  inhabi- 
tants and  over  contained  79  per  cent 
of  the  separate  job-printing  establish- 
ments of  the  country,  and  97.7  per 
cent  of  the  total  job  product  ema- 
nated from  them. 


Ayer's  Newspaper  Directory  for 
1904  gives  later  figures,  viz. :  Daily, 
2,457 ;  tri-weekly,  50 ;  semi-weekly, 
034;  weekly,  1G,J)35 ;  fortnightly,  65; 
semi-monthly,  285;  monthly.  2,698;  bi- 
monthly, 53  ;  quarterly,  192  ;  miscel- 
laneous, 10.  Total,  23,385. 


QUANTITY  AND  COST  OF  PAPER  USED. 

Kinds.  Pounds  Cost. 


News 

Book  and  periodical. 
Job  printing 

Total .  . 


Our  figures  show  the  quantity  and 
cost  of  paper  used  and  the  average  cost 
per  pound  in  1900. 

In  this  table  is  presented  a  division 
of  the  paper  used  in  1900,  according 
to  the  several  classes  of  products 
which,  combined,  produced  the  total 


News 

Book  and  periodical 
Job  printing 


956,335,921 

202,196,263 

74,510,064 

1,233,142,248 


$22,197,0.0 
9,356,490 
6,270,306 

$37,823,856 


Average 

cost  per 

pound. 

cents. 

2.3 

4.5 

8.4 


value  of  products  of  newspaper  and 
periodical  establishments.  About  one 
and  a  quarter  billions  of  pounds  was 
used  during  the  year  in  which  the  cen- 
sus was  undertaken.  This  large  quan- 
tity was  utilized  in  the  following  pro- 
portions : 

Per  cent. 

77.6 

16.4 

6.0 


LIBRARIES    OF    THE    WORLD. 
The  following  is  a  list  of  the  principal  Libraries  of  the  world: 


Library.  City. 

Bibliotheque  nationale Paris 

British  Museum London 

Imper.  publicnaja  biblioteka St.  Petersburg.  .  .  . 

Konigliche  bibliothek Berlin 

Library  of  Congress Washington 

Kon.  Hof-  u.  Staatsbibliothek Munich 

K.  u.  k.  Hofbibliothek Vienna 

Universitats-  u.  landesbibliothek Strasburg 

Public  Library Boston 

Publicnyj  i  Rumjancovskij  musej Moscow 

Public  Library — Astor,  Lenox,  and  Tilden  Foundation. .  New  York  City.  . .  . 

Biblioteca  nacional Madrid 

Bodleian  Library Oxford 

K.  k.  Universitats-bibliothek Vienna 

Harvard  University  Library Cambridge  (U.  S.) . 

Cambridge  University  Library Cambridge  (Eng. ). 

Det  store  kongelige  bibliothek Copenhagen 

Universitilts-bibliothek Gottingen 

Universiteit  bibliotheek Amsterdam 

Kon.  bibliotheek The  Hague 


No.  of  Vols. 

.  2,602,000 
2,003,000 

.  1,329,000 
1,200,000 

.    1,000,000 

1,000,000 

900,000 

814,000 

,  812,260 
800,000 

,       787,700 

,  600,000 
600,000 
596,526 
575,889 
550,000 
550,000 
506,814 
500,000 
500,000 


THE   RAPID   EXTENSION    IN   THE   GATHERING    OF   NEWS. 


In  1886  the  New  York  World  re- 
ported the  battle  of  Majuba  Hill  in  six 
lines,  but  so  rapid  was  the  extension 
of  news  gathering  that,  fourteen  years 
later,  events  in  the  same  quarter  of 
the  globe  were  reported  to  the  great 
American  dailies  by  cable  as  fully  as 
though  close  at  hand.  The  destruction 
of  St.  Pierre,  Martinique,  in  1902,  by 


an  eruption  of  Mont  Pelee,  may  be 
mentioned  as  an  illustration  of  this 
tendency. 

The  cablegrams  which  detailed  that 
great  disaster  reached  American  news- 
papers by  way  of  Brazil,  the  Azores 
and  Great  Britain,  costing  the  recipi- 
ents from  $2  to  $4  per  word,  with  fees 
for  precedence. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 


TELEGRAPHS,    TELEPHONES,    SUBMARINE    CABLES, 
WIRELESS    TELEGRAPHY,    AND    SIGNALING. 


LAND  LINES  OF  THE  WORLD. 

Below  are  given  such  particulars  as  we  have  been  able  to  obtain  of  the  land  lines  of  tele- 
graphs throughout  the  world,  corrected  up  to  December  31,  1903: 


Countries. 

Length  of  Lines  in  Miles. 

Length  of  Conductors  in 
Miles. 

Pneu- 
matic 
Tubes 
(Yds.). 

Aerial. 

Under- 
ground. 

Total. 

Aerial. 

Under- 
ground. 

Total. 

African  Transcont'ntal  Tel.  Co.  . 
Austria  

1,595 
21,523 
6 
4,041 
1,795 
1,762 
14,677 
120 
312 
55,055 
599 
4,765 
3,263 
18,286 
9,900 
2,756 
5,481 
8,018 
1,519 
7,473 
14,000 
1,200 

"lOi" 
"9" 

1,595 
21,627 
6 
4,050 
1,795 
1,762 
14,677 
120 
312 
55,055 
599 
4,765 
3,264 
18,286 
9,902 
2,784 
5,481 
8,029 
1,519 
7,473 
14,000 
1,200 
835 
3,818 
5,474 
2.070 
2,538 
59,154 
4,461 
171 

7,626 
81,781 
44,791 
5,718 
4,008 
23,069 

698 

693 
24,370 
16,381 

1,595 
69,404 

21,318 

3,807' 
27,670 
126 
1,234 
181,883 

4J65' 
6,835 
34,794 
44,685 
13,025 
5,481 
28,763 
2,721 
13,344 

i,'350 

1,579 
'  '  '253 

1,595 
70,983 

21,571 

3,807' 
27,670 
126 
1,234 
181,883 

4,765 

83,406 
'  '3,352 

Belgium  
Bolivia  
Bosnia-Herzegovina  
Brazil        .                  

British  East  Africa  
British  Guiana  
British  India  (India  Office).  ,.  . 
British  North  Borneo 

"i" 



British  South  Africa  
Bulgaria  
Canada—  Gt.  N.-West.  Tel.  Co.  . 
Canadian  Pacific  Telegraphs  . 
Western  Union  Tel.  Co  
Government  Tel.  Service.  .  .  . 
Cape  Colony   
Ceylon  
Chile  
China  

'  '  57 
44 

2,  190 

6,835 
34,794 
44,742 
13,069 
5,481 
30,953 
2,721 
13,344 



2 
28 

'   ii' 

1,350 

Costa  Rica  
Denmark 

835 
3,811 
5,459 
2,070 
2,538 
55,157 
4,445 
171 

7,587 
77,828 
43,023 
5,717 
3,779 
23,036 

698 

(593 
24,370 
16,374 

•  •  j- 

15 

'  '3,997' 
16 

39 
3,953 
1,768 
1 
229 
33 

7' 

12,538 
8,070 

10,755 
196,657 
10,417 
171 

13,422 

276,684 
305,366 
8,590 
15,397 
117,154 

1,392 

2,079 
94,225 
78,264 

472 
41 

13,010 
8,111 

Dutch  Indies  
Ecuador  
Egypt  
France,  Continent  and  Corsica.  . 
Algeria  
French  Guiana  (Cayenne)  
French     Indo-China     (Cochin- 
China,     Cambodia,    Annam, 
Tonkin,  and  Laos)  
Germany  
Great  Britain  and  Ireland  
Greece 

'  'ia',858 
166 

68 
27,116 
104,012 
1 
761 
2,498 

'  '  '680 

10,755 
210,515 
10,583 
171 

13,490 
303,800 
409,378 
8,591 
16,158 
119,652 

1,392 

2,079 
94,225 
78,944 

'  288,828 

'  180,204 
114,400 

'  '  1,004 

Holland  
Hungary  
Indo-European     Persian     Gulf 
System  (Mekran  Coast)  
Indo-European    Teheran,    Bu- 
shire  Line  
Italy  
1  Japan  

1  Exclusive  of  20.148  nautical  miles  of  river  cables  and  39.031  miles  of  conductors. 

185 


186 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


LAND   LINES    OF   THE    WORLD— Continued. 


Countries. 

Length  of  Lines  in  Miles. 

Length  of  Conductors  in 
Miles. 

Pneu- 
matic 
Tubes 

(Yds.). 

Aerial. 

Under- 
ground. 

Total. 

Aerial. 

Under- 
ground. 

Total. 

Luxemburg  
Malay  States  (Federated)  
Mauritius.  .  . 

259 
969 
141 
20,258 
1,722 
12,441 
14,430 
7,749, 
1,694 

259 
969 
141 
20,258 
1,722 
12,441 
14,525 
7,749 
1,694 
1,074 
5,479 
2,716 
5,298 
10,269 
3,448 
76,676 
1,512 
1,689 
5,783 
2,233 
24,847 
3,052 
5,704 
3,965 
1,778 
1,403 
24,831 
246 
590 

27,497 
184,888 
4,002 
2,588 
6,066 

508 
460 
316 
31,454 

4,678 

53,'67l' 

22,672 
2,326 
2,306 
11,402 
2,820 
11,669 
20,806 
7,388 
177,148 
2,038 
3,863 
18,467 
4,496 
48,749 
3,451 
17,609 
12,912 
2,803 
2,537 
39,519 
246 
1,762 

192,566 
1,050,186 
9,894 
3,795 
9,118 

508 
1,429 
316 
31,454 
4,678 

58,'617' 
22,672 
2,326 
2,306 
11,402 
2,820 
11,669 
20,806 
7,429 
177,575 
2,049 
3,863 
18,467 
4,496 

"95" 

Natal  
Netherlands  East  India  
New  South  Wales  
New  Zealand  
Nicaragua 

41946' 

'    44 

North  American  Tel.  Co  

1,074 
5,479 

2  Peru 

2,716 

Portugal  
Queensland  . 

5,298 
10,269 

'  '  '41 
427 
11 

Roumania  
Russia  
Senegal 

3,439 
76,484 
1,501 
1,689 
5,783 
2,233 
24,481 
3,052 
5,699 
3,907 
1,778 

9 
192 
11 

366' 

'  '5' 

58 

Servia  
South  Australia  
Southern  Rhodesia. 

Spain  
Sudan  Provinces  
Sweden  
Switzerland  

323 

49,072 
3,451 

60 
1,745 
6 
5 

17,669 
14,657 
2,809 
2,542 
39,519 
246 
1,762 

200,395 
1,065,397 
9,932 
3,795 
9,118 

Tasmania 

Tunis  
Turkey 

1,398 
24,831 
246 
950 

27,344 
184,636 
4,001 

2,588 
6,066 

5 



Uganda  Protectorate  
State  Rly.  Telegraphs  . 
United  States  of  America: 
Commercial  Cable  Co  
3  Western  Union  Company.  .  .  . 
Victoria  —  Postal  Department  .  . 
Rly.  Department.  .  .  . 
Western  Australia  

Total  .  . 

153 
252 
.  1 

4,900 
'  '3,697 

7,829 
15,211 
38 

922.342 

11.367 

933.709 

3.387.716 

184.438 

3.572.154 

679.835 

1  Inclusive  of  535  miles  of  lines  and  569  miles  of  conductors  belonging  to  the  Peruvian 
Corporation. 

2  Exclusive  of  811  miles  of  miscellaneous  subaqueous  cables  and  2,320  miles  of  conductors. 

3  Exclusive  of  404.6  nautical  miles  of  cable  in  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

— Electrical  Trades  Directory. 


MILEAGE    OF   LINES   AND   WIRES,    NUMBER   OF   OFFICES,   AND 
TRAFFIC   OF   THE   WESTERN  UNION   TELEGRAPH    COMPANY. 


Year 
Ending 
June 
30— 

Miles  of 
Line. 

Miles  of 
Wire. 

Num- 
ber of 
Offices. 

Number  of 
Messages 
Sent. 

Receipts. 

Expenses. 

Profits. 

Average  per 
Message. 

Toll. 

Cents. 
104.7 
38.9 
31.2 
30.1 
31.4 

Cost. 

1868... 
J878... 
H888... 
1898..  . 
1903... 

50,183 
81,002 
171,375 
189,847 
196,517 

97,594 
206,202 
616,248 
874,420 
1,089,212 

3,219 
8,014 
17,241 
22,210 
23,120 

6,404,595 
23,918,894 
51,463,955 
62,173,749 
*69,790,866 

Dollars. 
7,004,560 
9,861,355 
19,711,164 
23,915,733 
29,167,687 

Dollars. 

4,362,849 
6,309,813 
14,640,592 
17,825,582 
20,953,215 

Dollars. 
2,641,711 
3,551,543 
5,070,572 
6,090,151 
8,214,472 

Cents. 
63.4 
25.0 
23.2 
24.7 
25.6 

*  Not  including  messages  (probably  10,000,000)  sent  over  leased  wires  or  under  railroad 
contracts. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


187 


The  greatly  increased  mileage  since 
1880  is  principally  due  to  the  fact  that 
in  1881  the  Western  Union  Telegraph 
Company  absorbed  by  purchase  all  the 
lines  of  the  American  Union  and  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  Telegraph  Corn- 


cable  companies,  operating  eight  At- 
lantic cables,  and  guarantees  5  per  cent 
annual  dividends  on  the  stock  of  the 
American  Telegraph  and  Cable  Com- 
pany ;  amount  $14,000,000. 

Besides    the    above,    there    are    new 


THE     MORSE     TELEGRAPH     CODE. 
(Used  in  the  United  States.) 


A  --  B  ----  C  --  -  D  ---  E-  F  ---  G  —  *  --  H  ----  /  --  J  ----  K 
I  -  M  --  N  --  0-  •<•  P  ----  -  0  ----  «-.  --  S  --  -  r  -  U  ---  V 
W  ---  X  ----  Y----Z-----  &  -  -  - 

/  ----    Z  -----  3  -----    *  -----   5-~  --  6  ------      7 

/  -----       9  ----   o  - 

PERIOD  ------    COMMA-  •  ---      COLON  (K.O.)  --  —         -     -        SEMICOLON  ----- 

INTERROGATE—  -  T,        -  H  ~-  __**£*'>>  ---        ~ 

PARENTHESIS  -----      OR  A  T  BEGINNING  (P.  N.)  ----  -        --     Ofl  AT  END  (P.Y.)  -----       -- 

QUOTATION-  —  -^—-  —  -—       OR  A  T  BEGINNING  (<).  N)-  —  —  —        ^—  —    OK   AT    END  (o..J.) 
QUOTATION    WITHIN    QUOTATION  (Q.X.)~  —  —   —          —  —   —  —        DASH  (o.  X.)——  -  —  —  —  —   — 

(JHOERLIHE—  _  _  -  —  _     OR  AT~ee«HiN/tiO  (l/.X.J-  -  -^        —  —  «  —  —     OR    AT    END  (u.J-)  —  —  -^       —  — 

HYPHEN(H.X.)  ----       --  -  -    DOLLAR  SIGN(S.X.)  ---       ----    DECIMAL  POINT—  — 

THE     INTERNATIONAL     TELEGRAPH     CODE. 
(The  Cable  Code.) 

tSlctcptect   at  London  -f9C3 

d  ---       e.      e-  ----     /  ----      ff  ---        *  ----       i—      j  ---- 

•ft  —  —  __        /..  __  _  _         jn  —  ^—        n  —  —  —       n  —  —  —  —  —  —         o-  —  -  —  — 

if-  —  —  —  —         -p  —  -  —  -        a/  --  —  —  —        r—  —  —       8—  —  —        I  —         •u  —  ••  <^— 

i<  -  -  —  -          -ts-  —  —  —  —         -ur  —  —  —         X—  —  —  —  —          y~~~  ~  ~™~  ~~"         z  "~~  ~""  ~ 

/  -----          £  -----        3  -----        -?  -----         S  ----- 

6  -----        7  -----      /  -----      9  -----       O  ----- 

Bar  for  fraction     --       --       --  rcmoo  --     --     --       SEMICOLON— 

COMMA  —    —    —    —  —    —    ^—  COLON  —    —    —    —    —    —  tNTCRROGATIQN  —    —    —    —  —    —    —  £  Q  UAL   —    —    —    — 

EXCLAMATION  —  —   —  —   —  ^—    —  HYPHEN  GR    DASH  —  —   —  —  •  —  ^—  PAKE  N  THE  SIS  —  —  —   ^^   ^^  —  —  — 

QUOTATION  -----  ..-  UNOCRLINC.  ------  ERROR  --------  CftOSS-' 

INVITATION    TO     TRANSMIT  ---  WAIT   ----- 

tTAort    Code     used    only    in    repetitions    and  in   text    written    entirely    infiyur 
*-  -    Z  ---    J  ----    •*  -----    S  -----    £  -----    7  ----    f  ---     9 


panics,  the  former  having  previously 
in  operation  over  12,000  miles  of  line 
and  the  latter  8.706  miles.  Capital 
stock  of  the  Western  Union,  $100,000,- 
000. 

The   Western   Union    has   exclusive 
contracts    with    several    international 


lines  of  telegraph  which  have  complied 
with  the  United  States  telegraph  act 
of  1866,  and  are  operating  wires  with 
or  without  connection  with  railway 
companies  in  many  parts  of  the  coun- 
try.— Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United 
States. 


183 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


MILEAGE    OF    LINES    AND    WIRES,    NUMBER    OF   OFFICES,    AND 
MESSAGES    SENT,    OF    THE    POSTAL   TELEGRAPH 
CABLE    COMPANY. 


Miles  of 

Poles  and 

Miles  of 

Year. 

Cable 
Operated 

Poles  and 
Cable 

Miles  of 
Wires. 

Offices. 

Messages. 

but  not 

Owned. 

Owned. 

1335 

2,811 

23,587 

260 

1,428,090 

1897  

16,011 

21,098 

178,438 

9,875 

13,628,064 

1903  

21,319 

27,482 

276,245 

19,977 

21,600,577 

The  aggregate  mileage  of  telegraph 
lines  which  carry  varying  numbers  of 
wires,  according  to  the  business  re- 
quirements of  the  localities  through 
which  they  run,  in  the  United  States 


open  for  public  business  exceeds  210,- 
000  miles,  besides  railways,  Govern- 
ment, private  and  telephonic  lines ; 
the  length  of  the  latter  not  being  ascer- 
tainable. 


STATISTICS    OF    THE    AMERICAN    TELEPHONE    AND    TELEGRAPH 

COMPANY    AND    OPERATING    COMPANIES    ASSOCIATED 

WITH  IT  ON  JANUARY  1,  FROM  1897  TO   1903. 


Data. 

1897. 

1900. 

1903. 

Exchanges                                                          

967 

1,239 

1,514 

832 

1,187 

1,861 

Miles  of  wire: 

286,632 

509,036 

1  1,109,017 

On  buildings  
Underground 

12,594 
234,801 

15,087 
489,250 

1,328,685 

Submarine.  
Total  miles  of  exchange  service  wire  
Total  circuits  

2,818 
536,845 
264,645 

3,404 
1,016,777 
422,620 

6,048 
2,443,750 
742,654 

Total  employees  
Total  subscribers  
Length  of  wire  operated  miles.  . 
Instruments  in  hands  of  licensees  under  rental  at 

14,425 
325,244 
805,711 

772  627 

25,741 
632,946 
1,518,609 

1,580,101 

50,350 
1,277,983 
3,281,662 

3  150,320 

Daily  exchange  connections  "    .  . 

2,630,071 

Q       O 

5,173,803 
8  2 

9,322,951 
7.3 

Received  in  rentals  of  telephones.  .             .dollars 

1,597,959 

2,427,038 

Dividends  paid  stockholders.                               '  ' 

3,682,949 

4,078,601 

Capital 

89  100  500 

Gross  earnings                                                         '  ' 

5,130,845 

9,534,499 

Net  earnings  

4,169,675 

5,486,058 

1  Information  not  collected  separately. 


TELEGRAPHIC    TIME    SIGNALS    SENT    OUT   AT   NOON   DAILY, 

EXCEPT   SUNDAYS   AND   HOLIDAYS,   BY   THE  U.   S. 

NAVAL    OBSERVATORY. 


The  time  service  of  the  U.  S.  Naval 
Observatory  has  continued  regularly  to 
send  out  daily  telegraphic  time  signals 
at  noon,  seventy-fifth  meridian  time, 
with  an  average  error  for  the  year  of 
only  Os  15.  The  widespread  impor- 


tance of  this  service  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  it  furnishes  absolute  standard 
time  not  only  for  navigators  at  all  the 
principal  seaports,  but  for  the  entire 
country  except  the  Pacific  Coast,  which 
gets  a  similar  signal  from  the  Naval 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


189 


Observatory  at  the  Mare  Island  Yard. 

Moreover,    all   of   this   invaluable   ser- 

| 

. 

e 

g 

I 

vice  is  rendered  to  the  country  at  no 

1          * 

55 

S 

1 

expense  whatever  to  the  Government, 

A 

4 

¥ 

inasmuch  as  it  is  merely  incidental  to 

is    * 

..: 

..: 

..: 

the   work    and    facilities    required    for 

a  $       £ 

„ 

" 

« 

the  rating  of  chronometers  for  naval 

"1      $ 

1 

| 

'D 
| 

vessels. 

\ 

To   illustrate   the  wide  distribution 

"5  1>    Ii 

I 

I 

c 

j 

3 

of  this  time  signal,  it  is  of  interest  to 

'w'f      £ 

£ 

N 

'£, 

1 

record  the  fact  that  it  goes  out  daily 

£v 

... 

.  -- 

--" 

J» 

^ 

over  the  wires  of  the  Western  Union 

*8^ 

* 

* 

" 

H 

O  • 

P-i 

Telegraph  Company,  the  Postal  Tele- 

"ii 

* 

11 

graph   Company,    the   American   Tele- 

b 8     S- 

! 

^ 

phone    and    Telegraph    Company,    the 

"'. 

ti 

P| 

electrical  department  of  the  District  of 

4  9 

t 

n 

H 

Columbia,   and   the   National    Electric 

6  % 

t 

_ 

« 

Supply  Company.     There  are  now  18 

a  v 

m 

_ 

1^ 

0 

Government  time-balls  and  some  40,- 

•°  A 

, 

a2 

i* 

000  public  and  private  clocks  corrected 

JL 
i 

. 

3  9 

< 

daily  by  naval  time  signals. 

If- 

^5 

g 

The    entire    series    of    noon    signals 

|S     . 

i| 

^ 

sent  out  daily  over  the  wires  is  shown 

p\  I 

. 

rrT»ot-kVi  i/-io  HIT       ir^       +V»r*       o  r*  r  r\  rvi  r\  o  \-\\  r  i  r\  cr      A  i  o 

!**          Q 

d  lr^ 

02 

gl  <l|JlllCclliy      111      lilt;      dCCOLLJ  JJa,IltV  1I1&      ilia," 

gram.     This  represents  the  signals  as 

• 

• 

9  5 

P 

they  would  be  recorded  on  a  chrono- 

. 

• 

•Aw 

graph,  where  a  pen  draws  a  line  upon 

fi!     : 

ej 

W 

a  sheet   of  paper   moving  along   at   a 

63       ' 

|l 

H 

uniform  rate  beneath  it,  and  is  actuat- 

IJ   • 

is 

£H 

ed  by  an  electro-magnet  so  as  to  make 

is 

11 

pq 

a  jog  at  every  tick  of  the  transmitting 

i 

II 

^ 

clock.     The  electric  connections  of  the 

e  "% 

^T; 

p 

clock  are  such  as  to  omit  certain  sec- 

IJ  g; 

11 

o 

onds,  as  shown  by  the  breaks  in  the 

... 

... 

hi 

H 

record.      These   breaks   enable   anyone 

15 

f! 

W 

who  is  listening  to  a  sounder  in  a  tele- 

H i 

B 

02 

graph  or  telephone  office  to  recognize 

M     * 

s.f 

02 

the   middle   and   end   of   each   minute, 

ft  c 

**! 

especially  the  end  of  the  last  minute, 
when  there  is  a  longer  interval  that  is 

if 

R 

<] 

followed  by  the  noon  signal.     During 

88 

<3>t 

this    last    long    interval,    or   10-second 

111 

J 

O 

break,  those  who  are  in  charge  of  time 

alls 

^P 

02 

balls  and  of  clocks  that  are  corrected 

Hi 

f  { 

w 

electrically  at  noon  throw  their  local 

III 

*! 

g 

lines  into  circuit  so  that  the  noon  sig- 

|1| 

p 

H 

nal  drops  the  time  balls  and  corrects 

f 

Q 

the  clocks. 

*i  t 

E| 

This  series  of  noon  signals  is  sent 

p  1  J 

13 

S 

continuously   over   the   wires   all   over 

J  *  V 

II 

•^ 

the  United   States   for  an   interval  of 

1p9  § 

is 

o 

five    minutes     immediately     preceding 

•&N  a 

a 

noon.      For   the    country    east   of    the 

'w  jo   °  9 

-- 

— 

-• 

-- 

-5  c 

i 

Rocky  Mountains  the  signals  are  sent 

Hi 

el 

HH 

H 

out  by   the   Observatory   at  Washing- 
ton and  end  at  noon  of  the  75th  meri- 

if! 

I] 

dian,  standard  time,  corresponding  to 

•&•* 

11  a.  m.  of  the  90th  meridian  and  10 

*  i  "3 

i 

a.  m.  of  the  105th  meridian.     For  the 

111 

J|M 

country  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 

Ifl 

i)  ** 

they  are  sent  out  by  the  Observatory  at 

ill 

j|| 

the  Mare  Island  Navy  Yard,  Califor- 

v^   °    M  f* 

nia,  and  end  at  noon  of  the  120th  meri- 
dian, the  standard  time  meridian  of  the 

Pacific  Coast.     The  transmitting  clock 

190 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


that  sends  out  the  signals  is  corrected 
very  accurately,  shortly  before  noon, 
from  the  mean  of  three  standard  clocks 
that  are  rated  by  star  sights  with  a 
meridian  transit  instrument.  The 
noon  signal  is  seldom  in  error  to  an 
amount  greater  than  one  or  two  tenths 
of  a  second,  although  a  tenth  more 


may  be  added  by  the  relays  in  use  on 
long  telegraph  lines.  Electric  trans- 
mission over  a  continuous  wire  is 
practically  instantaneous.  For  time 
signals  at  other  times  than  noon,  simi- 
lar signals  can  be  sent  out  by  telegraph 
or  telephone  from  the  same  clock  that 
sends  out  the  noon  signal. 


STANDARD  TIME 


The  desirability  of  using  a  uniform 
standard  of  time,  independent  of  local 
time,  was  recognized  at  a  very  early 
date.  The  differences  of  local  time 
arise  from  the  use  of  solar  motion  as 
a  time-measurer.  We  call  the  time  noon 
when  the  sun  is  opposite  the  meridian 
of  the  place  where  we  are  living,  and 
in  consequence  of  ±he  sun's  motion 
from  east  to  west,  the  more  easterly 
of  two  places  will  have  the  earlier 
time,  the  difference  in  hours  being  ex- 
actly l-15th  of  the  longitudinal  differ- 
ence in  degrees.  In  other  words,  15 
degrees  of  longitude  correspond  to  a 
time  difference  of  one  hour.  Peculiar 
difficulties  were  encountered  in  this 
country  on  account  of  its  vast  longi- 
tudinal extent,  and  the  inconvenience 
became  very  serious  with  the  exten- 
sion of  the  railroad  and  telegraph  sys- 
tems. 

The  movement  which  resulted  in  the 
adaption  of  the  present  time  system 
may  be  said  to  have  originated  in  a 
report  on  the  subject  by  the  Ameri- 
can Meteorological  Society,  which  was 
submitted  at  a  meeting  of  the  General 
Time  Convention  held  on  Oct.  13, 
1881,  proposing  a  single  standard  for 
the  whole  country  and  suggesting  the 
hour  theory  as  an  alternative  proposi- 
tion. The  matter  was  referred  to  the 
secretary,  Mr.  W.  T.  Allen,  and  com- 
munications were  invited  from  parties 
interested.  The  proposal  to  fix  one 
standard  of  time  for  the  whole  country 
was  supported  by  many  competent  au- 
thorities;  but,  although  there  was 
much  to  recommend  it  from  a  scien- 
tific point  of  view,  it  was  found  to  be 
impracticable  on  account  of  the  many 
discrepancies  which  would  occur  be- 
tween time  by  the  clock  and  solar 
time.  The  system  which  found  most 
favor,  and  was  finally  adopted,  pro- 
posed the  division  of  the  country  into 
four  time  sections,  each  of  15  degrees 
longitude  (7%  degrees  or  30  minutes 
on  each  side  of  the  meridian),  com- 
mencing with  the  75th  meridian.  In- 
side each  of  these  sections  time  was  to 


be  uniform,  the  time  of  each  section 
differing  from  that  next  to  it  by  ex- 
actly one  hour.  A  scheme  was  drawn 
up  in  accordance  with  these  principles, 
and  at  a  meeting  of  the  convention 
held  in  April,  1883,  the  following-  reso- 
lutions were  adopted  : 

(1.)  That  all  roads  now  using  Bos- 
ton, New  York,  Philadelphia,  Balti- 
more, Toronto,  Hamilton,  or  Wash- 
ington time  as  standard,  based  upon 
meridians  east  of  those  points  or  ad- 
jacent thereto,  shall  be  governed  by  the 
75th  meridian  or  Eastern  time  (4  min- 
utes slower  than  New  York  time.) 

(2.)  That  all  roads  now  using  Co- 
lumbus, Savannah,  Atlanta,  Cincin- 
nati, Louisville,  Indianapolis,  Chicago, 
Jefferson  City,  St.  Paul,  or  Kansas 
City  time,  or  standards  based  upon 
meridians  adjacent  thereto,  shall  be 
run  by  the  90th  meridian  time,  to  be 
called  Central  time,  one  hour  slower 
than  Eastern  time  and  9  minutes  slow- 
er than  Chicago  time. 

(3.)  That  west  of  the  above-named 
sections  the  roads  shall  be  run  by  the 
105th  and  the  120th  meridian  times 
respectively,  two  and  three  hours 
slower  than  Eastern  time. 

(4.)  That  all  changes  from  one  hour 
standard  to  another  shall  be  made  at 
the  termini  of  roads  or  at  the  ends  of 
divisions. 

The  advantages  of  this  method  of 
reckoning  time  are  obvious.  Every 
town,  instead  of  regulating  its  business 
by  its  own  local  time,  uses  the  time  of 
the  nearest  of  the  standard  meridians, 
and  the  difference  in  time  in  actual  use 
in  any  two  cities  will  be  an  exact  num- 
ber of  hours,  instead  of  a  number  of 
hours,  minutes  and  seconds.  A  trav- 
eler, therefore,  wishing  to  reset  his 
watch,  need  only  change  the  hour, 
without  paying  any  attention  to  the 
minutes.  Having  proceeded,  e.  g., 
from  New  York  to  any  town  within 
the  Central  time  zone,  he  has  simply 
to  set  his  watch  one  hour  slow  of  New 
York  time,  and  need  not  compare  it 
with  any  of  the  local  clocks. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


191 


192 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


n,  Ger- 
and in 


ow 


tzerland,  Italy,  Denmar 
behind  Paris  time  (see 

5  minutes  slower  than 


B    «  *£     3e 

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Belgium,  Holl 
Mid-Europea 
t  of  Turkey,  o 
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conds  differe 


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art 
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Brit 
rvi 
nd 
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SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


193 


SUBMARINE   TELEGRAPHS.' 


The  submarine  telegraphs  of  the 
world  number  1,815.  Their  aggregate 
^  length  is  nearly  221.292,441  miles; 
/  their  total  cost  is  estimated  at  $300,- 
f  000.000.  and  the  number  of  messages 
annually  transmitted  over  them  at 
more  than  6,000,000.  All  the  grand  di- 
visions of  the  earth  are  now  connected 
by  their  wires,  and  from  country  to 
country  and  island  to  island  the 
thoughts  and  words  of  mankind  are 
instantaneously  transmitted.  Darkest 
Africa  now  converses  daily  with  en- 
lightened Europe  or  America,  and  the 
great  events  of  the  morning  are  known 
in  the  evening  throughout  the  inhabi- 
ted world.  In  August,  1902,  authority 
was  granted  to  the  Commercial  Pacific 
Cable  Company  of  the  United.  States 
to  construct  a  cable  line  from  the  Pa- 
cific coast  of  the  United  States  to  the 
Hawaiian  Islands,  Guam,  and  the 
Philippine  Islands,  and  the  Asiatic 
coast,  with  a  branch  line  to  Japan. 
The  first  message  was  sent  over  it 
July  4,  1903. 

The  British  Pacific  cable  was  com- 
pleted on  October  31st  and  was  opened 
for  traffic  on  December  8th,  1902.  The 
cable  is  "all  British,"  and  runs  from 
Vancouver,  on  the  west  coast  of  Can- 
ada, to  Fanning  Island,  Fiji,  and  Nor- 
folk Island  in  the  Pacific,  and  thence 
by  means  of  two  cables  to  New  Zea- 
land and  Queensland  respectively.  Its 
total  length  is  about  7,800  miles. 

The  developments  in  the  construc- 
tion, laying  and  operating  of  subma- 
rine cables  and  in  their  availability  for 
general  public  use  have  quite  kept  pace 
with  their  extension  throughout  the 
civilized  world.  From  a  mere  gutta- 
percha  coated  wire  the  submarine  con- 
ductor of  electricity  has  developed  in  a 
half  century  into  a  great  cable  having 
a  central  copper  core  surrounded  by 
numerous  layers  of  non-conducting 
material  and  protected  by  a  steel  wire 
wound  spirally  about  it,  and  in  turn 
further  protected  by  waterproof  and 
insect-proof  wrappings.  From  a  steam- 
er-towed ocean  barge  the  facilities  for 
laying  have  developed  to  a  fleet  of 
nearly  fifty  steam  vessels,  with  every 
facility  for  laying,  picking-up,  splicing, 
and  repairing  the  cable  lines.  From  a 
speed  rate  of  three  words  per  minute, 
which  was  made  on  the  first  trans-At- 
lantic cables,  the  speed  of  transmission 
has  been  accelerated  to  fifty  words  per 
minute,  and  even  more  than  that,  with 


the  automatic  transmitters  now  coming 
into  use  with  cable  lines,  while  by  the 
duplexing  of  the  cables  their  carrying 
capacity  is  doubled.  From  a  cost  to 
the  sender  of  $100  per  message,  which 
was  originally  charged  on  the  first 
trans-Atlantic  cables,  the  rate '  from 
New  York  to  London  and  the  great 
cities  on  the  continent  of  Europe  has 
fallen  to  25  cents  per  word.  From 
several  hours  required  for  the  trans- 
mission of  a  message  and  receipt 
of  a  response,  the  time  has  been  so  re- 
duced that  messages  from  the  Execu- 
tive Mansion  to  the  battlefield  at  San- 
tiago were  sent  and  a  response  received 
within  twelve  minutes,  while  a  message 
sent  from  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives in  Washington  to  the  House  of 
Parliament  in  London  in  the  chess 
match  of  1898  was  transmitted  and  the 
reply  received  in  thirteen  and  one-half 
seconds. 

The  effect  of  this  ready  and  inexpen- 
sive method  of  transmitting  thoughts 
and  words  from  continent  to  continent 
throughout  the  civilized  world  is  ap- 
parent in  the  rapid  development  of  in- 
ternational commerce  since  it  began. 
The  first  successful  cable  line  between 
the  United  States  and  Europe  was 
put  into  operation  in  1866.  In  that 
year  our  commerce  with  Europe 
amounted  to  $652,232,289 ;  in  1876,  to 
$728,959,053:  in  1886,  to  $898,911,- 
504;  in  1896,  to  $1,091,682,874,  and 
in  1898,  to  $1,279,739,936,  while  our 
commerce  with  the  whole  world,  which 
in  1866  amounted  to  $783,671,588,  had 
by  1902  reached  the  enormous  sum  of 
$2,285,000,000. 

During  the  last  seven  years  Ger- 
many has  laid  7,375  miles  of  ocean 
cables,  at  a  cost  of  about  $6,- 
000,000.  In  1898  a  cable,  73  miles 
long,  was  laid  between  Sassnitz  and 
Trelleborg,  and  German  Southwest 
Africa  was  connected  with  the  exist- 
ing cable  system  by  a  line  154  miles 
long;  and  in  1900  the  first  German- 
American  cable  was  laid  between  Em- 
den  and  New  York,  by  the  Azores,  a 
distance  of  4,813  miles.  About  the 
same  time  the  first  German  cables 
along  the  Chinese  coast  were  laid  ;  one 
of  these  was  from  Tsin-tau  (Kiao- 
chau)  to  Chifu,  285  miles  long,  and 
the  second  connected  the  former  place 
with  Shanghai  and  is  438  miles.  In 
1901  a  fifth  cable  connecting  Germany 
and  England  was  laid,  as  well  as  a 


*  From  the  Summary  of  Commerce  and  Finance  for  July,  1902,      The  figures  are  now  some- 
what larger. 


194 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


telephone  cable  from  Fehmarn  to  La- 
land.  A  second  German  cable  to  New 
York  by  the  Azores  has  been  com- 
menced and  will  be  completed  before 
the  end  of  1904,  while  a  line  to  Vigo, 
1,300  miles  in  length,  has  been  made. 
Germany  is  contemplating  an  extension 
of  her  cables  by  constructing  lines  be- 
tween Alenado  and  Guam,  in  the  Car- 
oline Islands,  and  the  Pelew  Islands 
and  Shanghai. 

An  International  Telegraph  Con- 
ference opened  in  London,  May  26th, 
1903,  all  the  States  adhering  to  the 
International  Telegraph  Convention 
being  represented.  The  Conference  re- 


vised the  rules  as  to  the  use  of  code 
and  cipher  language  in  international 
telegraphy.  The  decision  of  the  last 
Conference,  that  code  telegraphy 
should,  after  a  certain  date,  be  limited 
to  the  words  contained  in  the  official 
vocabulary  prepared  by  the  Interna- 
tional Telegraph  Bureau,  has  been  re- 
scinded. In  future,  any  combination 
of  letters  not  exceeding  ten  in  number 
will  be  passed  as  a  code  word,  provided 
that  it  is  pronounceable  according  to 
the  usage  of  any  of  the  languages  to 
which  code  words  have  hitherto  been 
limited — namely,  English,  French,  Ger- 
man, Dutch,  Italian,  Spanish,  Portu- 


SUMMARY  OF  CABLES  OWNED  BY  GOVERNMENT  ADMINISTRATIONS. 

Partly  extracted  from  the  Official  Documents  issued  by  the  International  Bureau  of 
Telegraphic  Administrations,  Berne.  With  "The  Electrician's"  corrections  to  date  and 
additions. 


Country. 

No.  of 
Cables 
with  One 
or  More 
Cores. 

Length  in  Nautical  Miles. 

Of 
Cables. 

Of 
Conductors. 

Argentine  Republic  
Austria  

13 

47 
1 
12 
23 
5 

157 
1 
26 
2 
1 
156 
7 
1  56 
3 
2 
189 
i  177 
46 
32 
5 
36 
103 
1 
1 
147 
16 
322 
4 
19 
12 
1 
1 
3 
15 
i  17 
2 
4 
21 
1 
1 

1,378 

59  .  824 
224  .  250 
211.000 
54.514 
37.779 
84.000 

2,168.013 
0  .  538 
334.750 
66.300 
113.000 
171.100 
891.490 
4,913.824 
1,567.238 
1,697.326 
2,796.695 
2,265.830 
54.931 
241.543 
7,837.770 
1,063.088 
2,154.883 
1.930 
1.000 
51.789 
285.682 
291.489 
115.050 
52.100 
328  .  282 
70.157 
3.000 
49.360 
1,771.346 
208.488 
9.827 
4.750 
346.558 
4.500 
3.750 

138.544 
235.339 
211.000 
279.856 
66.414 
95.000 

1,711.885 
0.538 
334.750 
66.300 
113.000 
880.300 
891.490 
5,847.200 
1,567.238 
1,697.326 
5,654.977 
7,551.994 
54.931 
780.449 
7,837.770 
1,112.458 
2,851.173 
1.930 
1.000 
108.459 
290.466 
375.787 
115.050 
67.520 
408  .  387 
70.157 
3.000 
49.360 
1,771.346 
368.431 
13.400 
19.000 
368.734 
4.500 
3.750 

Bahamas.  .  .  . 

Belgium  

Brazil  

British  Guiana  . 

British  India,  Indo-European  Telegraph  Department 
Government  Administration.  . 

Bulgaria.  .  .  . 

Canada 

Ceylon  and  India  (Joint)  
China.  .  .  . 

Denmark  
Dutch  Indies. 

France  and  Algeria  
France  (West  Africa)  

French  Indo-China  (Cochin  China,  Tonquin,  and  Amoy) 
Germany  

Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  .  .  '.  
Greece.  .  .  . 

Holland  

Inter-Colonial  System.  .. 

Italy  ... 

Japan.  .  . 

Macao  

New  Caledonia.  .  . 

New  South  Wales.  .  . 

New  Zealand  

Norway  

Portugal.  .  .  . 

Queensland  

Russia  in  Europe,  and  the  Caucasus  .  . 

Russia  in  Asia.  .  . 

Senegal.  .  . 

South  Australia.  .    .  . 

Spain.  .  . 

Sweden  

Switzerland  

Tasmania.  .  .  . 

Turkey  in  Europe  and  Asia.  .  .  . 

Victoria.  .  .  . 

Western  Australia  

Total  

32,609.748         44,006.813 

Including  half  of  Cables  owned  jointly  with  other  Administrations. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


195 


guese.  and  Latin.  Other  combinations 
of  letters  will  be  counted  at  five  let- 
ters to  the  word;  the  prohibition  of  let- 
ter cipher  which  has  hitherto  prevailed 
being  removed.  These  alterations,  to- 
gether with  a  number  of  other  changes 


in  the  detailed  regulations,  take  effect 
on  July  1st,  1904.  The  above  informa- 
tion is  taken  from  Reports  of  the  Bu- 
reau of  Statistics,  Department  of 
Commerce  and  Labor,  and  Hazell's 
Annual. 


SUMMARY     OF     CABLES     OWNED     BY     PRIVATE     COMPANIES. 


Private  Companies. 

No.  of 
Cables 
with  One 
or  More 
Cores. 

Length  of 
Cables 
in  Nautical 
Miles. 

10 
15 
14 
1 
9 
15 
11 
4 
32 
10 
3 
1 
3 
2 
2 
139 
34 
2 
14 
28 
] 
2 
3 
3 

"3" 

2 
1 
1 
6 
7 
24 
27 
8 

437 

3,031.000 
1,326.000 
9,507.660 
337.147 
53  .  940 
7,500.500 
13,212.310 
7,846.747 
12,102.423 
1,162.000 
6,057.868 
1,111.979 
723.460 
3,099.958 
1,265.300 
39,749.360 
24,802.240 
1,053.150 
9,068.052 
7,003.000 
849  .  960 
137.678 
22.000 
1,529.000 

"  iW.  boo 

2,065.224 
927.770 
1,389.000 
1,470.867 
1,975.100 
4,639.000 
17,283.000 
7,351.000 

Amazon  Telegraph  Companv. 

Anglo-American  Telegraph  Company 

Black  Sea  Telegraph  Company  
Canadian  Pacific  Railroad  Company.  .  . 

Central  and  South  American  Telegraph  Company  
Commercial  Cable  Company  

Commercial  Pacific 

Compagnie  Francaise  des  Cables  T(51egraphiques.  ...                            .  . 

Cuba  Submarine  Telegraph  Company.  .  . 

Deutsch  Atlantische  Telegraphen-Gesellschaft  

Deutsche  See-Telegraphen-Gesellschaft.  . 

Direct  Spanish  Telegraph  Company  
Direct  United  States  Cable  Company 

Direct  West  India  Cable  Company  

Eastern  Telegraph  Company  

Eastern  Extension,  Australasia  and  China  Telegraph  Company  
Europe  and  Azores  Telegraph  Company.  . 

Eastern  and  South  African  Telegraph  Company  . 

Great  Northern  Telegraph  Company  

Halifax  and  Bermuda  Cable  Company.  .  . 

India  Rubber,  Gutta  Percha  and  Telegraph  Works  Company  
Indo-European  Telegraph  Company  
Mexican  Telegraph  Company 

Pacific  and  European  Telegraph  Company 

River  Plate  Telegraph  Company  

South  American  Cable  Companv  

Spanish  National  Submarine  Telegraph  Companv  

United  States  and  Hayti  Telegraph  and  Cable  Company  
West  African  Telegraph  Company  
West  Coast  of  America  Telegraph  Company.  . 

West  India  and  Panama  Telegraph  Company 

1  Western  Telegraph  Company  

Western  Union  Telegraph  Company 

Total  

188,682.693 

1  Including  London  Platino-Brazilian  and  Montevidean  and  Brazilian  Companies. 


GENERAL     SUMMARY. 


Ownership. 

No.  of 
Cables 
with  One 
or  More 
Cores. 

Length  of 
Cables  in 
Nautical 
Miles. 

Government  Administrations  
Private  Companies 

1,378 
437 

32.609.748 
188  682  693 

Total  

1.815 

221,292.441 

— Electrical  Trades  Directory. 


196 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


jr 
\ 


SUBMARINE     CABLES    AW 
explanation  of  letters  and  numbe 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


197 


rERNATIONAL   DATE   LINE. 

\m   on    the    above  map,  see   page    199.] 


198 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


MISCELLANEOUS    INFORMATION    PERTAINING    TO    SUBMARINE    TELEGRAPH 
LINES,    THEIR    CONSTRUCTION    AND    OPERATION,    1902. 


Leagth  of  first  successful  cable, 

miles 25 

Length  of  first  successful  Atlan- 
tic cable,  miles 2,134 

Length  of  direct  United  States 

cable  (Ballinskelligs  Bay,  Ire- 
land, to  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia), 

miles 2,564 

Length  of  French  cable  (Brest, 

France,  to  Cape  Cod,  Massa- 
chusetts), miles 3,250 

Distance  from  San  Francisco  to 

Hawaii,  miles 2,089 

Distance  from  Hawaii  to  Wake 

Island,  miles 2,040 

Distance  from  Wake  Island  to 

Guam,  miles 1,290 

Distance  from  Guam  to  Manila, 

miles 1,520 

Distance  from  Manila  to  Asiatic 

Coast,  miles -630 

Depth  of  water  in  which  first  suc- 
cessful cable  was  laid,  feet ....  120 
Depth  of  Atlantic  cable  lines.feet.  14,000 
Greatest  depth  at  which  cable 

has  been  laid    between  Haiti 

and  Windward  Islands,  feet  .  .  18,000 

Greatest  depth  between  San 

Francisco  and  Hawaii,  feet.  .  .  18,300 

Greatest  depth  between  Hawaii 

and  Manila  (estimated),  feet.  .  19,600 

Capital  of  first  Atlantic  cable 

company $1,750,000 

Contract  price  of-  cable  for  first 

Atlantic  line $1,125,000 

Contract  price  of  cable  for  first 

successful  Atlantic  cable  line .  .  $3,000,000 
Present  cost  per  mile  of  cable 

(estimate  by  Bright) $750 

Cost  of  laying  per  mile,  average . .  $375 

Number  of  words  per  minute  sent 

on  first  line 3 

Number  of  words  per  minute  on 

first  successful  Atlantic  cable 

line  at  beginning 8 

Number  of  words  per  minute  on 

first  successful  Atlantic  cable 

line  after  experimental  stage .  .  15 

Present  rate  of  speed  (without 

duplex) 25 


Present  rate  by  automatic  sys- 
tem (without  duplex) 50 

Increased  use  of  wire  by  duplex- 
ing, per  cent 90 

Number  of  cables  laid  across  the 

North  Atlantic 16 

Number  now  working 13 

Average  life  of  cable,  years 25 

Original  rates  for  messages,  first 
Atlantic  lines  (minimum  20 
words  or  less) $100 

On  first  reduction  (minimum,  20 

words  or  less ) $50 

Original  word  rate,  without  mini- 
mum   $1 

Present  word  rate,  without  mini- 
mum   $0 . 25 

Length  of  telegraph  cables  of  the 

world,  miles 193,000 

Length  of  land  lines  of  the  world 
(1898)  (estimate  by  Bright), 
miles See  page  185 

Cost  of  cable  lines  of  the  world 

(estimate  by  Bright) $250,000,000 

Cost  of  land  lines  of  the  world 

(estimate  by  Bright) $310,000,000 

Total  length  of  telegraph  wires, 
land  and  cable  (estimate  by 
Bright),  miles 2,300,000 

Number  of  cable  messages  sent 

annually  (estimate  by  Bright) .  6,000,000 

Per  cent  of  world's  lines  built  by 

governments 10 

Per  cent  built  by  private  enter- 
prise   90 

Time  of  message  and  answer, 
Washington  to  Santiago  battle- 
field and  return,  minutes 12 

Time  of  message,  Washington  to 
London  and  reply  in  chess 
match  of  1898,  seconds 13$ 

Number  of  cables  owned  by 

nations 1,380 

Length  of  cables  owned  by 

nations,  miles 21,528 

Number  of  cables  owned  by  pri- 
vate companies 370 

Length  of  cables  owned  by  pri- 
vate companies,  miles. 171,679 

Longest  single  line  without  inter- 
mediate landing,  miles 3,250 


THE   CABLE   ALPHABET. 


^/vr-O/^'t-^^ 
f       r      f      I      u      IT       w     jc      y       z. 


The  cut  above  shows  the  Morse  Code  as  recorded  by  a  syphon  recorder.  Syphon 
recorders  are  used  for  receiving  cable  messages.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  spaces  are 
represented  by  horizontal  lines,  dots  by  loops  above  the  space  lines,  and  dashes  by  loops 
below  the  space  lines. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


199 


SUBMARINE   CABLES   AND   INTERNATIONAL  DATE   LINE. 


The  International  Date  Line  is  an 
imaginary  line  drawn  through  the  Pa- 
cific Ocean  irregularly,  but  trending 
generally  in  a  north  and  south  direc- 
tion. The  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean 
are  separated  in  such  a  way  that  all 
those  which  lie  to  the  east  of  it  carry 
the  same  date  as  the  United  States, 
while  all  those  on  the  west  of  it  use 
the  same  date  as  Japan  and  Australia. 
Our  map  on  pages  19G  -and  197  shows 
this  date  line. 


The  submarine  cable  connections 
that  are  marked  with  letters  represent 
the  telegraph  cables  that  are  owned 
and  operated  by  sovereign  states. 
Those  that  are  marked  with  numbers 
represent  telegraph  cables  that  are 
owned  and  operated  by  private  com- 
panies. The  explanation  of  the  names 
of  the  countries  that  the  letters  rep- 
resent and  of  the  names  of  the  com- 
panies that  the  numbers  stand  for  is 
subjoined  : 


A.  Austria. 

B.  Belgium. 

Br.  Great  Britain. 

C.  China. 

C.  C.  Cochin  China. 

D.  Denmark. 
F.  France. 


GOVERNMENTS. 

G.  Germany. 

Gr.  Greece. 

I.  Italy. 

J.  Japan. 

M.  Mexico. 

N.  Netherlands. 


Sw.      Sweden. 

T.         Turkey. 

U.  S.   United  States. 

P.        Portugal. 

R.        Russia. 

S.        Spain. 


PRIVATE    COMPANIES. 


1.  L>irect  Spanish  Telegraph  Company. 

2.  Halifax  and  Bermuda  Cable  Company. 

3.  Spanish  National  Submarine  Telegraph 

Company. 

4.  West  African  Telegraph  Company. 

5.  Black  Sea  Telegraph  Company. 

6.  Great  Northern  Telegraph  Company. 

7.  Eastern  Telegraph  Company. 

8.  Eastern   and   South   African  Telegraph 

Company. 

9.  Eastern     Extension,    Australasia,     and 

China  Telegraph  Company. 

10.  Anglo-American  Telegraph  Company. 

11.  Direct  United  States  Cable  Company. 

12.  Compagnie  Francaise  des  Cables  Te"l<5- 

graphiques. 

13.  Western  Union  Telegraph  Company. 

14.  The  Commercial  Cable  Company. 

15.  Brazilian    Submarine   Telegraph   Com- 

pany. 


16.  African  Direct  Telegraph  Company. 

17.  Cuba  Submarine  Telegraph  Company. 

18.  West    India    and    Panama    Telegraph 

Company. 

19.  Deutsche  See-Telegraphen-Gesellschaft 

20.  Western    and    Brazil    Telegraph    Com- 

pany. 

21.  River  Plate  Telegraph  Company. 

22.  Mexican  Telegraph  Company. 

23.  Central  and  South  American  Telegraph 

Company. 

24.  West  Coast  of  America  Telegraph  Com- 


pany. 
A 

pa 
27.  United  States  and  Hayti  Telegraph  and 


. 

25.  South  American  Cable  Company. 

26.  Europe  and  Azores  Telegraph  Company. 


Cable  Company. 

28.  Direct  West  India  Cable  Company. 

29.  The    Pacific    Commercial   Cable  Com- 

pany. 


WIRELESS    TELEGRAPHY. 


Wireless  telegraphy  is,  in  theory, 
closely  allied  to  heliography,  or  signal- 
ing with  flashes  of  light.  The  light 
used,  however,  is  produced  electrically 
and  is  invisible  to  the  naked  eye,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  it  is  made  up  of  very 
long  waves,  called  Hertzian  waves, 
which  vibrate  too  slowly  to  affect  the 
retina.  The  eye  can  only  discern 
waves  which  make  from  4,000  billions 
to  7,000  billions  vibrations  per  min- 
ute. However,  the  Hertzian  ray  re- 
sembles light  in  that  it  can  be  reflected 
by  a  metallic  plate  and  can  be  refract- 
ed by  a  prism  of  pitch,  can  be  brought 
to  a  focus  with  a  pitch  lens,  and  may 
be  polarized.  Owing  to  the  great 
length  of  the  Hertzian  waves,  almost 
all  substances  are  transparent  to  them. 
The  Hertzian  w^ves  were  discovered 
by  Professor  Heinrich  Hertz,  a  young 


German  philosopher,  during  his  ex- 
periments with  the  spark  discharge  of 
Leyden  jars  and  of  the  Ruhmkorff  coil 
in  1886  and  1887. 

He  found  that  when  a  spark  leaped 
the  gap  between  the  terminals,  electric 
oscillations  took  place  in  these  termi- 
nals which  set  up  magnetic  waves  in 
the  surrounding  space,  capable  in  turn 
of  setting  up  similar  oscillations  in 
any  adjacent  conductor  lying  at  an 
angle  to  them.  The  waves  were  detect- 
ed by  using  a  "resonator,"  which  was 
merely  a  circle  or  a  rectangle  of  cop- 
per wire  formed  with  a  gap  in  one  side. 
When  the  induction  coil  was  in  opera- 
tion and  the  resonator  was  held  near 
the  coil,  a  tiny  stream  of  sparks  would 
leap  across  the  resonator  gap.  To  bet- 
ter understand  this  phenomenon  take 
as  a  crude  example  two  vertical  rods 


200 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


in  a  pool  of  water  and  on  each  a  float 
free  to  slide  vertically  on  the  rod. 
Now,  if  one  of  these  floats  be  moved 
up  and  down  upon  its  rod,  it  produces 


A  TYPICAL  WIRELESS  TELEGRAPH 
STATION. 

waves  in  the  water  just  as  the  electric 
oscillation  produces  waves  in  the 
ether.  These  spread  out  in  all  directions 
and  on  reaching  the  other  float  cause 


it  to  oscillate  up  and  down,  just  as  the 
magnetic  waves  produce  electric  os- 
cillations in  the  resonator. 

Without  going  into  a  detailed  his- 
tory of  the  development  of  wireless 
telegraphy  from  Hertz's  experiments,  it 
may  be  stated  that  the  essential  differ- 
ence between  the  apparatus  used  by 
Hertz  in  his  experiments  and  the  sev- 
eral systems  now  commonly  in  use  lies 
in  the  receiver.  The  transmitter  is 
practically  the  same.  A  vertical  wire 
called  the  antenna  is  connected  to  one 
terminal  of  the  coil,  and  the  other  ter- 
minal is  connected  with  the  earth,  the 
purpose  being  to  increase  the  electrical 
capacity  of  the  terminal  rods  and  pro- 
duce larger  waves.  Instead  of  produc- 
ing the  oscillations  by  means  of  an  in- 
duction coil,  they  are  now  ordinarily 
produced  by  a  dynamo  and  a  step-up 
transformer  except  for  telegraphing 
over  short  distances.  But  even  with 
these  changes  we  would  not  be  able  to 
telegraph  over  any  appreciable  distance 
if  dependent  upon  the  Hertz  resonator 
for  receiving  a  message,  for,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  the  waves  spread  out  in 
all  directions  from  the  transmitting 
antenna,  the  receiving  antenna  is  acted 
upon  by  a  very  small  proportion  of 
the  power  expended  by  the  transmitter, 
and  this  proportion  decreases  very  rap- 
idly as  the  distance  between  the  trans- 
mitter and  the  receiver  increases.  In 
order  then  to  detect  the  rays  at  long 
distances,  a  very  sensitive  instrument 
called  the  "coherer"  has  been  invent- 
ed. The  coherer  in  its  usual  form 
consists  of  a  glass  tube  with  two  metal 
pistons  fitted  therein  between  which  a 
quantity  of  nickel  filings  is  placed. 
The  latter  forms  an  imperfect  electri- 
cal contact  between  the  pistons,  and 
takes  the  place  of  the  spark  gap  in 
the  receiving  antenna.  When  the  os- 
cillations are  set  up  in  the  antenna  by 
the  Hertzian  waves,  due  to  their  high 
pressure  or  voltage,  they  break  through 
the  imperfect  contact  of  the  coherer, 
causing  the  filings  therein  to  cohere  or 
string  together  and  thus  produce  a 
much  better  electric  path  through  the 
coherer.  The  action  is  microscopic 
and  cannot  be  detected  with  the  naked 
eye.  However,  the  coherer,  aside  from 
being  a  part  of  the  antenna  circuit,  is 
also  made  a  part  of  a  local  battery  cir- 
cuit, which  contains  a  telegraph  re- 
ceiver, and  whenever  the  electric  os- 
cillations open  a  good  path  through 
the  filings  for  the  local  circuit,  the 
telegraph  instrument  will  be  energized 
by  the  local  battery  only.  In  order 
to  break  this  path  after  the  oscillations 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


201 


have  ceased,  or,  in  other  words,  to 
cause  the  filings  to  decohere,  they  are 
constantly  jarred  apart  by  means  of 
the  "tapper,"  which  is  in  reality  an 
electric  bell  with  the  gong  removed 
and  the  clapper  striking  the  coherer 
tube  instead.  Carbon  granules  may  be 
substituted  for  metallic  filings,  and  in 
this  case  no  tapper  is  necessary,  the 
coherer  being  self-restoring. 

In  transmitting  messages  a  tele- 
graph key  in  the  primary  circuit  of  the 
induction  coil  is  operated  according  to 
the  usual  Morse  code,  and  this  causes 
sparks  to  leap  the  spark  gap  at  corre- 
sponding intervals.  These  signals  will 
then  be  transmitted  by  the  Hertzian 
waves  to  the  receiving  station,  where 
they  will  be  recorded  by  the  telegraph 


SPARK 
GAP 


INDUC  TION  COIL 


TRANSMITTING  KEY 


•  GROUND 


TRANSMITTER. 

receiver.  The  coherer  is  not  by  any 
means  the  only  wave  detector  in  use. 
Every  wireless  telegraph  company  has 
one  or  more  different  types  of  detect- 
ors, but  for  the  most  part  they  are  all 
based  on  the  principle  of  the  imperfect 
contact.  Marconi's  "magnetic  detect- 
or" is  a  notable  exception.  The  pres- 
ent efforts  of  inventors  in  the  field  of 
wireless  telegraphy  are  directed  mainly 
to  the  development  of  a  system  which 
will  not  allow  one  equipment  to  inter- 
fere with  or  suffer  interference  from 
any  other  equipment.  This  is  essential 
in  order  to  prevent  unauthorized  per- 
sons from  intercepting  and  reading  the 
messages.  They  aim  to  effect  this  re- 
sult by  synchronizing  or  tuning  the 
transmitting  and  receiving  stations  so 
that  they  will  give  oscillations  and  re- 
spond to  oscillations  of  a  certain  pe- 


riodicity only.  Up  to  the  present  time 
these  efforts  have  met  with  only  par- 
tial success. 

PRINCIPAL        SYSTEMS        OF        WIRELESS 
TELEGRAPHY. 

The  best  known  systems  of  wireless 
telegraphy  in  the  United  States  are  the 
Marconi,  the  De  Forest  and  the  Fes- 
senden  systems,  and  one  or  two  sys- 


COHERER 


LOCAL 
CIRCUIT 


BATTERY 


TELEPHONE 


GROUND^ 

RECEIVER. 

terns  used  by  the  Government.  In 
England,  aside  from  the  Marconi  sys- 
tem, are  the  Lodge-Muirhead  and  the 
Orling-Armstrong  systems.  The  Slaby- 
Arco  and  the  Braun-Siemens-Halske 
systems  are  used  in  Germany.  In 
France,  Branley,  Rochefort,  Tissot 
and  Captain  Ferrie  have  made  impor- 
tant developments,  and  in  Russia  Po- 
poff  early  invented  a  system  very  simi- 
lar to  that  of  Marconi. 

THE    MARCONI   SYSTEM. 

The  Marconi   system,   developed   by 
Signor    Guglielmo    Marconi,    a    young 


202 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


Italian  inventor,  is  the  pioneer  sys- 
tem of  Hertzian  wave  telegraphy.  In 
1896  Marconi  accepted  an  invitation 
from  the  British  Telegraph  Depart- 
ment to  make  experiments  with  his 
system  in  England.  In  the  spring  of 

1899  the    first    wireless    message    was 
transmitted  across  the  English  channel. 
On  November  15,  1899,  the  first  daily 
newspaper   ever   published   on   an   At- 
lantic liner  was  issued  on  the  steamer 
St.  Paul,  containing  news  transmitted 
from  shore  by  wireless  telegraphy.     In 

1900  the  system  was  adopted   by   the 
British    Admiralty    and    installed    on 
their  battleships  and  cruisers.    On  De- 
cember 12,  1901,  Marconi  succeeded  in 
sending  the  signal  for  the  letter  "S" 
across  the  Atlantic  from  Poldhu,  Corn- 
wall,   to    St.    John's,    Newfoundland. 
But  his  experiments  were  interrupted 
by   a   cable   company   which   owned   a 
monopoly  of  all  telegraph  communica- 
tions with  Newfoundland.     In  March, 


1902,  Marconi  crossed  the  Atlantic  on 
the    "Philadelphia,"    which    had    been 
equipped    with    his    instruments,    and 
was    able   to   receive    intelligible   mes- 
sages at  a  distance  of  1,551  miles  from 
the  Poldhu  station.    In  October  of  the 
same  year  Marconi   sailed  from  Eng- 
land   to    Nova    Scotia,    and    received 
messages     from    his     Poldhu     sta.tion 
throughout  the  voyage.     On   January 
18,    1903,    the    first    wireless   message 
from    the    United    States   to    England 
was    sent    by    President    Roosevelt   to 
King  Edward.     In   March,    1903,   the 
Marconi    Company   undertook   to   fur- 
nish the  London   "Times"   with  daily 
wireless   despatches   from    the   United 
States,    but    they    were    discontinued 
after  a  couple  of  despatches  had  been 
sent.       The    Italian    Government,    in 

1903,  voted  $160,000  for  the  erection 
of  a  Marconi  station"  in  Italy  to  com- 
municate with  this  country. 


STATIONS     EQUIPPED     WITH     MARCONI     APPARATUS. 


Country. 

Location. 

Operated  by 

Belgium  

Nieuport  

Bel 
Mai 

Ita 

Bri 

Noi 

Mai 

Llo 
Br 

Ma 
Ita 

Ma 
Ma 
Pri 

gian  Gover 
-coni  W.  T. 
ian  Goven 

tish  Goverr 
th  German 

-coni  W.  T. 

ds 
ish  Goven 

coni  W.  T 
ian  Goven 

rconi  W.  T 
rconi  W.  T 
vate 

nment 
Co.  of  Canada 
iment 

iment 
Lloyd  S.  S.tCo. 

Co.,  Lim  ted 

iment 

%• 

Co.,  Limited 
iment 

Co.,  Limited 
Co.,  Limited 

Table  Head,  Cape  Breton  
Pekin                         

China  -j 

Tientsin 

Borkum  Isle  
Borkum  Riff  
Caister                                   

f 

Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land    (List    incom- 
plete)   

Fraserburgh  

Frinton                                          ... 

Haven,  Poole  Harbor  

Holyhead  
Poldhu 

Withernsea  
Fastnet  Rock 

Malin  Head  
Inishtrahull  

Holland  

Culver  Cliff  
Dover.  .                                

Plymouth  

Portland  
Portsmouth.                       

Roches  Point  
Scilly  Islands  

Amsterdam  
Darignano  

Italy  (List  incomplete) 

Montenegro  
United  States  

Maddalena                   .          

Palmaria  
Pisa.  
Punta  di  Bela 

Rome  
San  Vito  
Bari  
Antivari  
Great  Neck,  Long  Island  

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


203 


On  the  preceding  page  is  a  list  of 
stations  equipped  with  Marconi  ap- 
paratus and  operated  under  arrange- 
ment with  stations  owned  and  con- 
trolled by  Marconi  Wireless  Telegraph 
Company  of  America  and  affiliated 
Marconi  companies. 

There  are  also  wireless  telegraph 
stations  equipped  with  Marconi  appa- 
ratus and  operated  by  the  British  Gov- 
ernment at  Bermuda,  Gibraltar  and 
Malta. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  wireless 
telegraph  offices  on  shore  owned  and 
controlled  by  Marconi  Wireless  Tele- 
graph Company  of  America  and  af- 
filiated Marconi  companies: 
Babylon.  .  Long  Island,  New  York, 

U.  S.  A. 

Belle  Isle Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.Canada. 

Chateau  Bay  .  .  .  Canadian  Labrador. 
Crookhaven  .  ..  .  County  Cork,  Ireland. 

Fame  Point Province  Quebec,  Canada. 

Heath  Point Province  Quebec,  Canada. 

Liverpool Lancashire,  England. 

Lizard  Point.  .  .  .Cornwall,  England. 
New  York  City.  .Pier  14,   North  River,  New 
York  City,  U.  S.  A. 

Niton Isle  of  Wight,  England. 

North  Foreland.  Kent,  England. 

Rosslare County  Wexford,  Ireland. 

Sagaponack Long     Island,     New    York, 

U.  S.  A. 

Siasconset Nantucket     Island,     Massa- 
chusetts, U.  S.  A. 

South  Wellfleet.  .Cape     Cod,     Massachusetts, 
U.  S.  A. 

The  following  points  are  in  course 
of  construction : 

Canso Nova  Scotia. 

Cape  Race Newfoundland. 

Point  Amour.  .    .Canadian  Labrador. 
Sable  Island.  .  .  .Canada. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  Transat- 
lantic liners  equipped  with  Marconi 
apparatus : 

ALLAN  LINE. — Bavarian, Parisian,  Tunisian. 

AMERICAN  LINE. — New  York,  Philadel- 
phia, St.  Louis,  St.  Paul. 

ATLANTIC  TRANSPORT  LINE. — Minneapolis, 
Minnehaha,  Minnetonka. 

COMPAGNIE  GENERALE  TRANSATLANTIQUE. 
— La  Bretagne,  La  Champagne,  La  Lorraine, 
La  Savoie,  La  Touraine. 

CUNARD  LINE. — Aurania,  Campania,  Car- 
pathia,  Etruria,  Ivernia,  Lucania,  Pannonia, 
Saxonia,  Umbria. 

HAMBURG-AMERICAN  LINE. — Auguste  Vic- 
toria, Bliicher,  Deutschland,  Fiirst  Bis- 
marck, Moltke. 

HOLLAND-AMERICAN  LINE.* — Amsterdam, 
Maasdam,  Noordam,  Potsdam,  Rhyndam, 
Rotterdam,  Statendam. 

ITALIAN  ROYAL  MAIL  LINE. — Lombardia, 
Sardegna. 

NORTH  GERMAN  LLOYD  LINE. — Grosser 
Kurfurst,  Kaiser  Wilhelm  der  Grosse,  Kaiser 
Wilhelm  IT,  Kaiserin  Maria  Theresia,  Kron- 
prinz  Wilhelm. 

RED  STAR  LINE. — Finland,  Kroonland, 
Vaderland,  Zeeland. 

*In  course  of  equipment. 


All  commissioned  ships  of  British 
and  Italian  Royal  Navies  are  equipped 
with  the  Marconi  apparatus. 


THE    DE    FOREST    SYSTEM. 

The  American  De  Forest  Wireless 
Telegraph  Company  has  developed 
from  the  inventions  of  Dr.  Lee  de  For- 
est, a  young  Yale  graduate.  His  system 
differs  from  that  of  Marconi  chiefly 
in  the  receiver.  At  first  an  instrument 
called  the  "anti-coherer,"  or  "respond- 
er,"  was  used  in  place  of  the  coherer. 
The  action  of  this  instrument  was  just 
the  reverse  of  the  coherer,  that  is,  a 
good  path  was  normally  provided  for 
the  local  circuit,  but  this  path  was 
broken  by  the  electric  oscillations  in 
the  antenna.  The  anti-coherer  was 
later  replaced  by  another  instrument, 
which  acts  electrolytically  to  a  large 
extent.  This  instrument,  like  the  co- 
herer, normally  offers  a  resistance  to 
the  current  in  the  local  circuit,  but  this 
resistance  is  broken  down  by  the  elec- 
tric oscillations  in  the  antenna.  An- 
other difference  between  the  systems 
lies  in  the  fact  that  the  De  Forest  com- 
pany uses  a  telephone  receiver  in  the 
local  circuit  instead  of  the  telegraph 
receiver  for  receiving  the  signals.  Sig- 
nals by  the  De  Forest  system  can  be 
transmitted  at  the  rate  of  twenty-five 
to  thirty  words  per  minute.  The  De 
Forest  Company  has  established  a 
score  of  stations  along  the  Atlantic 
coast,  and  several  along  the  Great 
Lakes.  Late  in  1903  the  De  Forest 
Company  entered  into  a  contract  with 
the  London  "Times"  to  furnish  news 
of  the  Russo-Japanese  war.  The 
steamer  "Haimun"  was  equipped  wfth 
wireless  telegraph  apparatus,  and  ren- 
dered valuable  service  in  reporting 
naval  operations  and  engagements. 
These  reports  were  sent  by  wireless 
telegraphy  to  Wei-hai-Wei  and  thence 
by  cable  to  London.  In  July,  1904, 
the  United  States  Government  closed 
a  contract  with  the  De  Forest  Com- 
pany for  a  series  of  stations  in  the 
West  Indies  and  Panama.  These,  it 
is  stated,  are  to  form  links  in  a  chain 
of  De  Forest  stations  which  will  con- 
nect New  England  with  Japan,  China 
and  the  Philippines.  The  chain  is  to 
follow  the  Atlantic  coast  to  Key  West, 
and  thence  run  via  Porto  Rico  to 
Panama.  From  Panama  it  will  follow 
the  Pacific  coast  to  Seattle,  thence  via 
the  Aleutian  Islands  to  Japan,  Wei- 
hai-Wei,  China  and  the  Philippines,  re- 
turning to  San  Francisco  through 
Guam  and  Hawaii.  Under  the  terms 


204 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


of  the  contract,  commercial  messages 
are  to  be  interchangeable  between  all 
stations  equipped  with  the  De  Forest 
system,  whether  operated  by  the  Gov- 
ernment or  the  De  Forest  Company. 


The  following  is  a  list  of  wireless 
telegraph  stations,  equipped  with  De 
Forest  apparatus,  and  now  complete 
and  in  operation  for  the  transmission 
of  wireless  messages : 


Station. 


Buffalo 

Cape  Hatteras 

Chicago 

Cleveland 

Dallas 

Fort  Worth 

Havana 

Highlands  of  Navesink.  .  . 

Key  West 

New  York 

Providence 

Quogue 

Louisiana  Purchase  Ex- 
position Tower  (and 
9  other  stations) 

Springfield 

Toronto.     .  , 

Washington 

Block  Island. 

Point  Judith 

Bocas  del  Toro 

Port  Limon 

Cape  Nome 

St.  Michael's 

Four  stations 

Farraione  Islands  (4  sta- 
tions)  

Wei-hai-wei.  . 


Location. 


New  York 

North  Carolina 

Illinois  (3  stations) 

Ohio 

Texas 

Texas 

Cuba 

New  Jersey 

Florida 

New  York  City,  42  Broadway 

Rhode  Island 

Long  Island,  N.  Y 

St.  Louis,  Mo 

Illinois 

Canada 

District  of  Columbia 

Rhode  Island 


Panama.  .  .  . 
Costa  Rica. . 
Alaska.  . 


Operated  by 
De  Forest  Company 


Artillery  Districts. 

Pacific  Coast 

China.  .  .  . 


Providence  Journal  Company 
United  Fruit  Company 
Signal  Corps,  U.  S.  Army 


U.  S.  Weather  Bureau 
London  Times. 


The  following  steamers  are  equipped  with  De  Forest  apparatus: 


Steamer. 

Location. 

Operated  by 

Str.  Wolvin  
'     Haimun  
Tug  Savage  

.  .  .  Great  Lakes  
.  .  .  China  Sea.  .'-...  
.  .  .  North  Atlantic  ports  

U.  S.  Steel  Corporation 
London  Times 
B.  &  0.  Ry. 

The  following  De  Forest  stations  have  been  erected  or  are  in  course  of 
erection: 


Station. 

Location. 

Operated  by 

Atlantic  City 

New  Jersey 

E 

L 
E 

e  Fo( 

S.  C 
aster 

•est  Com 

•overnnK 
n  Telegrs 

oany 

jnt 
Lph  and  Cable  Co. 

Baltimore  
Boston.  .  . 

Maryland  
Massachusetts  
Washington  
New  Jersey  
Michigan  
Missouri.  .  . 

Cape  Flattery  
Cape  May  
Detroit. 

Kansas  City  
Lewes  
Mobile 

Delaware  
Alabama  
New  York 

Newburgh  
New  Haven  
Port  Huron.  
Poughkeepsie  
Seattle  
Sedalia 

Connecticut  
Michigan  
New  York  
Washington  
Missouri  
Cuba  
Panama.  .  :  
Florida  
West  Coast  

Guantanamo  
Panama  
Pensacola  
Porto  Rico  
Azores  Islands  (5  stations)  . 

Steamers. — Six  vessels  of  the  United  States  Navy. 


FLAGS  AND  PENNANTS  TO  BE  USED  IN  THE  INTERNATIONAL  CODE. 


w 


•'CODE  FLAG  "  AND 
'ANSWERING  PENNANT.' 


When  used  as  the  "Code 
Flag  "  it  is  to  be  hoisted  under 
the  ensign. 


When  used  as  the  "An- 
swering Pennant"  it  is  to  be 
hoisted  at  the  masthead  or 
where  beat  seen. 


To  open  communication  by  the  old  Code, 
show  the  ensign  with  the  pennant  under  it 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


205 


INTERNATIONAL  WIRELESS  TELEGRAPHY  CONFERENCE. 


On  account  of  the  rival  systems  in  use 
in  this  country  and  the  different  coun- 
tries of  Europe,  it  was  decided  to  hold 
an  international  conference,  at  which 
rules  could  be  formulated  to  control 
them.  The  conference  met  at  Berlin 
in  August,  1903.  The  following  rules 
were  adopted,  applying  to  the  exchange 
of  messages  between  vessels  at  sea  and 
coast  stations : 

Any  fixed  station  whose  field  of  ac- 
tion extends  to  the  sea  is  styled  a 
coast  station. 

Coast  stations  are  bound  to  receive 
and  transmit  telegrams  originating 
from  or  intended  for  vessels  at  sea 
without  any  distinction  of  wireless 
telegraph  system  used  by  the  latter. 

Contracting    parties     shall    publish 


any  technical  information  likely  to  fa- 
cilitate or  expedite  communication  be- 
tween coast  stations  and  ships  at  sea. 

The  wireless  station  must,  unless  it 
should  be  absolutely  impossible,  accept 
in  preference  requests  for  help  that 
may  come  from  vessels. 

The  service  of  wireless  telegraph  sta- 
tions must  be  organized  as  far  as  prac- 
ticable so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the 
service  of  other  stations. 

The  protocol  was  signed  by  the 
United  States,  Germany,  Austria, 
Spain,  France  and  Russia.  Great 
Britain  and  Italy  were  unable  to  sign. 
The  general  feeling  of  the  conference 
was  decidedly  against  monopolization 
of  the  wireless  telegraph  business  by 
any  one  company. 


NEW  INTERNATIONAL   CODE   OF   SIGNALS. 


The  new  International  Code  of  Sig- 
nals came  into  use  on  January  1,  1901. 
and  its  distinguishing  sign  will  hence- 
forward be  the  code  pennant  hoisted  in 
the  ordinary  way. 

Illustrations  of  the  new  signals  are 
given  in  the  plate,  together  with  rules 
for  signals  of  distress  in  the  text. 

It  is  not  now  necessary  to  tie  the 
fly  of  the  Code  Pennant  to  the  hal- 
yards, as  was  previously  required  when 
beginning  to  signal.  When  hoisted 
under  the  ensign,  it  denotes  a  signal 
taken  from  the  International  Code. 
When  hoisted  by  itself  at  the  mast- 
head it  is  the  Answering  Pennant. 


Communication  may  then  be  com- 
menced, and  any  message  following  in 
this  page,  or  found  under  the  heading 
"Danger  or  Distress"  in  the  Interna- 
tional Code  Signal  Book,  may  be  ex- 
changed, strictly  following  the  Inter- 
national Commercial  Code  and  the  in- 
structions given  above. 

The  International  Code  Signal  de- 
scribed above,  asking  to  open  com- 
munication, should  be  shown  in  every 
case  of  distress  by  the  shore  sta- 
tion, for  it  may  be  that  the  vessel  has 
the  International  Code,  but,  until  see- 
ing this  signal,  will  not  know  that  she 
can  use  it. 


SIGNALS    ADOPTED    FROM    AND    TO 
MERCIAL  CODE   SIGNAL  BOOK 

Q    f  In  distress  ;  want  immediate  assistance. 

Q    r  We  are  coming  to  your  assistance. 

E  I  Do    not  attempt    to  land  in   your  own 
Y  (      boats. 


BE  FOUND  IN  INTERNATIONAL  COM- 
OF  1899,  REFERRED  TO  ABOVE. 


Damaged  rudder;  can  not  steer. 


TJ 

j 

T)       \ 

f  Engines  broken  down;  I  am  disabled. 
J    I 

j-)   !•  You  are  standing  into  danger. 

V   ) 

z    j-  Heavy  weather  coming;  look  sharp. 

F 


I  J 

E  V 

D  f 

Tl  ) 

I  V 

F  J 


Bar  is  impassable. 
Cast  oft. 

Make  fast  —  to  — 


W 


Slack  away. 


TC   ) 

rj,   r  Shift  your  berth.    Your  berth  is  not  safe. 

TC    * 

p   j-  Hold  on  until  high  water. 

"K"   ) 

f  Remain  by  the  ship. 

g  j-  Abandon  the  vessel  as  fast  as  possible. 


K 


Landing  is  impossible. 


P  i  Look  out  for  rocket  line  (or,  line). 

K  I  Endeavor  to  send  a  line  by  boat  (cask, 

A  f     kite,  raft,  etc.). 

C  I  No  assistance  can  be  rendered ;    do  the 

X  )      best  you  can  for  yourselves. 

K  I  Lookout  will  be  kept  on  the  beach  all 

G  j      night. 


206 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


INTERNATIONAL  COMMERCIAL  CODE  SIGNALS— Continued. 


j  Lights,  or  Fires  will  be  kept  at  the  best 
f     place  for  coming  on  shore. 

j-  Keep  a  light  burning. 

)  Do  not  abandon  the  vessel  until  the  tide 
j      has  ebbed. 

j- 1  am  on  fire. 

I  I  am  sinking  (or,  on  fire) ;  send  all  avail- 
f     able  boats  to  save  passengers  and  crew. 

j-Want  assistance;  mutiny. 

j-  Want  immediate  medical  assistance. 

I  Want  a  boat  immediately  (if  more  than 
j      one,  number  to  folloiv). 
I  Want  a  tug  (if  more  than  one,  number  to 
f      follow). 


I  must  abandon  the  vessel. 


r  Want  a  pilot. 

>  What  is  name  of  ship  or  Signal  Station 
f      in  sight? 

I  Repeat  ship's  name;  your  flags  were  not 
f      made  out. 

(Signal  not  understood,  though  the  flags 
i"      are  distinguished. 


I  can  not  make  out  the  flags  (or,  signals). 

Assent — Yes. 
Negative — No. 


DISTRESS  SIGNALS. 
(Article  31  of  International  Rules.) 


When  a  vessel  is  in  distress  and  requires 
assistance  from  other  vessels  or  from  the 
shore  the  following  shall  be  the  signals  to  be 
used  or  displayed  by  her,  either  together  or 
separately,  namely: 

In  the  daytime — 

(1)  A.  gun  or  other  explosive  signal  fired  at 
intervals  of  about  a  minute 

(2)  The  International  Code  signal  of  dis- 
tress indicated  by  N  C. 

(3)  The    distance    signal,    consisting    of    a 
square  flag,  having  either  above  or  below  it  a 
ball  or  anything  resembling  a  ball. 

(4)  The  distant  signal,  consisting  of  a  cone, 


point  upward,  haying  either  above  it  or  below 
it  a  ball  or  anything  resembling  a  ball. 

(5)  A  continuous  sounding  with  any  fog- 
signal  apparatus. 

At  night— 

(1)  A  gun  or  other  explosive  signal  fired  at 
intervals  of  about  a  minute. 

(2)  Flames  on  the  vessel  (as  from  a  burn- 
ing tar  barrel,  oil  barrel,  and  so  forth). 

(3)  Rockets  or  shells  throwing  stars  of  any 
color  or  description,  fired  one  at  a  time,  at 
short  intervals. 

(4)  A  continuous  sounding  with  any  fog- 
signal  apparatus. 


LIST  OF  WEATHER  BUREAU  STATIONS  ON  THE  UNITED  STATES 
SEACOAST   TELEGRAPHIC   LINES. 

ATLANTIC  COAST. 

Nantucket,  Massachusetts. 

Narragar-sett  Pier,  Rhode  Island. 

Block  Island,  Rhode  Island. 

Norfolk,  Virginia. 

Cape  Henry,  Virginia. 

Currituck  Inlet,  North  Carolina. 

Kitty  Hawk,  North  Carolina. 

Hatteras,  North  Carolina. 

Sand  Key,  Florida. 
PACIFIC  COAST. 

Tatoosh  Island,  Washington. 

Neah  Bay,  Washington. 

East  Clallam,  Washington. 

Twin  Rivers,  Washington. 

Port  Crescent,  Washington. 

North  Head,  Washington. 

Point  Reyes  Light,  California. 

San  Francisco,  California. 

Southeast  Farallone,  California. 
LAKE  HURON. 

Thunder  Bay  Island,  Michigan. 

Middle  Island,  Michigan. 

Alpena,  Michigan. 

Of  the  above  stations  the  following,  and 
also  Juoiter,  Florida,  are  supplied  with  Inter- 
national Code  Signals,  and  communication 
can  be  had  therewith  for  the  purpose  of  ob- 


taining information  concerning  the  approach 
of  storms,  weather  conditions  in  general,  and 
for  the  purpose  of  sending  telegrams  to  points 
on  commercial  lines. 

Nantucket,  Massachusetts. 
Block  Island,  Rhode  Island. 
Cape  Henry,  Virginia. 
Kitty  Hawk,  North  Carolina. 
Sand  Key,  Florida. 
Tatoosh  Island,  Washington. 
Hatteras,  North  Carolina. 
Neah  Bay,  Washington. 
Point  Reyes  Light,  California. 
Southeast  Farallone,  California. 

Any  message  signaled  by  the  International 
Code,  as  adopted  or  used  by  England,  France, 
America,  Denmark,  Holland,  Sweden,  and 
Norway,  Russia,  Greece,  Italy,  Germany, 
Austria,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Brazil,  re- 
ceived at  these  telegraphic  signal  stations, 
will  bs  transmitted  and  delivered  to  the  ad- 
dress on  payment  at  the  station  of  the  tele- 
graVii;  cha-ge.  All  messages  received  from 
or  aid'-essed  to  the  War,  Navy,  Treasury, 
State,  Interior,  or  other  official  department 
at  Washington,  are  telegraphed  without 
charge  over  the  Weather  Bureau  lines. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


207 


SPECIAL  DISTANT  SIGNALS. 


Made  by  a  single  hoist  followed  by  the  STOP  signal. 
numerically   for   reading  off  a   signal. 


Arranged 


1* 

£ 
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60          C  « 
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fegl  . 

sill 

al,  or  hoist 
re  conspicu- 
>n. 

nguish  your 
le  nearer,  or 
ant  Signals. 

i 

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irricane,  or, 
sxpected. 

1 

;lared,  or, 
ommenced  ? 

1 
Is 

1 

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torpedoes  ; 
mined. 

:  torpedo 

i 

B 

^        S—V 
g         &80<S 

K      -g«a 

|    SII3 

op,  Bring- 
nearer;  I 
thing  im 
communic 

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it  in  a  mo 
ous  positi< 

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Typhoon  < 

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Has  war  c 

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208 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


IV 

N' 


32  Enemy  is  closing  with  you, 
or,  You  are  closing  with 
the  enemy. 

42  Keep  a  good  look-out,  as  it 
is  reported  that  enemy's 
men-of-war  are  going  about 
disguised  as  merchantmen. 


412  Proceed  on  your  voyage. 


The  information  relative  to  the  In- 
ternational Code  is  taken  from  the 
thirty-fifth  annual  list  of  the  merchant 
vessels  of  the  United  States  and  is 
published  by  the  Bureau  of  Naviga- 
tion, Department  of  Commerce  and 
Labor. 


THE    FOLLOWING    DISTANT   SIGNALS    MADE    WITH    FLAG    AND    BALL,   OR    PENNANT    AND 
BALL,  HAVE  THE  SPECIAL  SIGNIFICATION   INDICATED  BENEATH  THEM. 


tr- 

I". 

r 

ir 

You  are  running  into 

Fire,  or,  Leak;  want  im- 

Short of  provisions. 

Aground;  want  immedi- 

danger. 

mediate  assistance. 

Starving. 

ate  assistance. 

SEMAPHORES. 

There  are  many  semaphores  established  on 
the  French,  Italian,  Portuguese,  and  some  on 
the  Spanish  and  Austrian  coasts,  where  only 
the  international  Code  of  Signals  is  now  used. 
Where  practicable  these  semaphores  have 
means  of  communicating  by  telegraoh  with 
ea?h  other  and  with  the  chief  metropolitan 
lines  and  foreign  stations. 

Passing  ships  are  able  to  exchange  commu- 
nication with  the  semaphores,  and  when  re- 
quired their  messages  are  forwarded  to  their 
destination  according  to  the  fixed  tariff.  On 
the  coasts  of  Great  Britain  there  are  signal 
stations  which  offer  the  same  facilities  to 
passing  vessels. 

BOAT  SIGNALS. 
The  Symbols  for  Boat  Signals  are — 

1.  Two  square  flags,  or  handkerchiefs,  or 
pieces  of  cloth. 

2.  Two  long  strips  of  cloth,  or  parts  of  a 
plank,  or  pieces  of  wood  longer  than  broad. 


3.  Two  balls  or  hats,  or  round  bundles,  or 
buckets. 

With  these  any  of  the  Distance  Signals  can 
be  made— holding  the  Symbol  at  arm's 
length:  and  the  Signal  is  to  be  made  from 
right  to  left  and  read  from  left  to  right,  thus : 


Equivalent  to 
Ball  above  Pen- 
nant, or,  "You 
are  running  into 
danger." 


In  making  Boat  Signals  it  is  important  to 
use  only  the  proper  means  to  attract  atten- 
tion, and  to  avoid  those  that  may  occasion 
confusion  or  misinterpretation. 


CYCLONES. 

[Pilot  Chart,  Hydrographic  Office.] 


"RULE  1. — //  the  squalls  freshen  without  any 
shift  of  wind,  you  are  on  or  near  the  storm 
track:  heave  to  on  the  starboard  tack  and 
watch  for  some  indications  of  a  shift,  observ- 
ing the  low  clouds  particularly;  if  the  barom- 
eter fall  decidedly  (say  half  an  inch)  without 
any  shift,  and  if  wind  and  sea  permit,  run  off 
with  the  wind  on  the  starboard  quarter  and 
keep  your  compass  course. 

"RULE  2.— //  the  wind  shift  to  the  right,  you 
are  to  the  right  of  the  storm  track,  put  the 
ship  on  the  starboard  tack  and  make  as  much 
headway  as  possible  until  obliged  to  lie-to 
(starboard  tack). 


"RULE  3. — //  the  wind  shift  to  the  left,  you 
are  to  the  left  of  the  storm  track:  bring  the 
wind  on  the  starboard  quarter  and  keep  your 
compass  course  if  obliged  to  lie-to,  do  so  on 
the  port  tack. 

"GENERAL  RULES,  GOOD  FOR  ALL  NORTH- 
ERN HEMISPHERE  STORMS. — In  scudding 
always  keep  the  wind  well  on  the  starboard 
quarter,  in  order  to  run  out  of  the  storm. 
Always  lie- to  on  the  coming-up  tack.  Use  oil 
to  prevent  heavy  seas  from  breaking  on 
board." 


LIFE-SAVING  SIGNALS. 


The  following  signals  recommended  by  the 
late  International  Marine  Conference  for 
adoption  by  all  institutions  for  saving  life 
from  wrecked  vessels,  have  been  adopted  by 
the  Life-saving  Service  of  the  United  States. 

1.  Upon  the  discovery  of  a  wreck  by  night, 
the  life-saving  force  will  burn  a  red  pyro- 


technic light  or  a  red  rocket  to  signify,  "You 
are  seen;  assistance  will  be  given  as  soon  as 
possible." 

2.  A  red  flag  waved  on  shore  by  day,  or  a 
red  light,  red  rocket,  or  red  Roman   candle 
displayed  by  night,  will  signify,  "Haul  away." 

3.  A  white  flag  waved  on  shore  by  day,  or  a 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


209 


white  light  slowly  swung  back  and  forth,  or  a 
white  rocket  or  white  Roman  candle  fired  by 
night,  will  signify,  "Slack  away." 

4.  Two  flags,  a  white  and  a  red,  waved  at 
the  same  time  on  shore  by  day,  or  two  lights, 
a  white  and  a  red,  slowly  swung  at  the  same 


time,  or  a  blue  pyrotechnic  light  burned  by 
night,  will  signify,  "Do  not  attempt  to  land 
in  your  own  boats;  it  is  impossible." 

5.  A  man  on  shore  beckoning  by  day,  or 
two  torches  burning  near  together  by  night, 
will  signify,  '  'This  is  the  best  place  to  land." 


THE   WEATHER   BUREAU. 


The  Weather  Bureau  furnishes, 
when  practicable,  for  the  benefit  of  all 
interests  dependent  upon  weather  con- 
ditions, the  "Forecasts"  which  are  pre- 
pared daily  at  the  Central  Office  in 
Washington,  D.  C.,  and  certain  des- 
ignated stations.  These  forecasts  are 


telegraphed  to  stations  of  the  Weather 
Bureau,  railway  officials,  postmasters 
and  many  others,  to  be  communicated 
to  the  public  by  means  of  flags  or 
steam  whistles.  The  flags  adopted  for 
this  purpose  are  five  in  number,  and  of 
the  forms  and  colors  indicated  below  : 


No.  1. 
White  Flag. 


Clear  or  fair 
weather. 


EXPLANATION    OF    WEATHER    FLAGS. 
No.  2.  No.  3.  No.  4. 

Blue  Flag.  White  and  Blue  Black  Triangular 


Flag. 


Rain  or 
Snow. 


Local  Rain 
or  Snow. 


I  Temperature. 


No.  5. 

White  Flag  with  black 
square  in  center. 


Cold  Wave. 


When  number  4  is  placed  above 
number  1,  2  or  3  it  indicates  warmer ; 
when  below,  colder ;  when  not  dis- 
played, the  temperature  is  expected  to 


remain  about  stationary.  During  the 
late  spring  and  early  fall  the  cold- 
wave  flag  is  also  used  to  indicate  an- 
ticipated frosts. 


EXPLANATION   OF   WHISTLE   SIGNALS. 


A  warning  blast  of  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  seconds  duration  is  sounded  to 
attract  attention.  After  this  warning 
the  longer  blasts  (of  from  four  to  six 
seconds  duration)  refer  to  weather, 
and  shorter  blasts  (of  from  one  to 
three  seconds  duration)  refer  to  tem- 
perature ;  those  for  weather  are  sound- 
ed first. 

Blasts.  Indicate. 

One  long Fair  weather. 

Two  long Rain  or  snow. 

Three  long Local  rain  or  snow. 

One  short Lower  temperature. 

Two  short.  . Higher  temperature. 

Three  short Cold  wave. 

By  repeating  each  combination  a 
few  times,  with  intervals  of  ten  sec- 
onds, liability  to  error  in  reading  the 
signals  may  be  avoided. 

As  far  as  practicable  the  forecast 
messages  will  be  telegraphed  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  Weather  Bureau ;  but 
if  this  is  impracticable,  they  will  be 
furnished  at  the  regular  commercial 
rates  and  sent  "collect."  In  no  case 
will  the  forecasts  be  sent  to  a  second 
address  in  any  place  except  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  applicant. 

Persons  desiring  to  display  the  flags 
or  sound  the  whistle  signals  for  the 
benefit  of  the  public  should  communi- 


cate with  the  Weather  Bureau  offi- 
cials in  charge  of  the  climate  and  crop 
service  of  their  respective  States,  the 
central  stations  of  which  are  as  fol- 
lows : 

Montgomery,  Ala. ;  Phoenix,  Ariz. ; 
Little  Rock,  Ark. ;  San  Francisco, 
Cal. ;  Denver,  Colo. ;  Jacksonville, 
Fla. ;  Atlanta,  Ga. ;  Boise,  Idaho ; 
Springfield,  111. ;  Indianapolis,  Ind. ; 
Des  Moines,  Iowa ;  Topeka,  Kan. ; 
Louisville,  Ky.  ;  New  Orleans,  La. ; 
Baltimore,  Md.  (for  Delaware  and 
Maryland)  ;  Boston,  Mass,  (for  New 
England )  ;  Lansing,  Mich. ;  Minneapo- 
lis, Minn. ;  Vicksburg,  Miss. ;  Colum- 
bia, Mo. ;  Helena,  Mont. ;  Lincoln, 
Nebr. ;  Carson  City,  Nev. ;  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J. ;  Santa  Fe,  N.  Mex. ; 
Ithaca,  N.  Y. ;  Raleigh,  N.  C. ;  Bis- 
marck, N.  Dak. ;  Columbus,  Ohio ; 
Oklahoma,  Okla.  (for  Oklahoma  and 
Indian  Territories)  ;  Portland,  Oreg. ; 
Philadelphia,  Pa.;  Columbia,  S.  C. ; 
Huron,  S.  Dak. ;  Nas'hville,  Tenn. ; 
Galveston,  Tex.;  Salt  Lake  City, 
Utah;  Richmond,  Va. ;  Seattle, 
Wash. ;  Parkersburg,  W.  Va.  ;  •  Mil- 
waukee, Wis.  ;  Cheyenne,  Wyo. 

WILLIS  L.  MOORE, 
Chief  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau. 


CHAPTER    IX. 


PATENTS,    TRADE    MARKS,    COPYRIGHTS. 


PATENTS    IN   RELATION   TO   MANUFACTURES. 


The  value  of  our  patent  system  is 
eloquently  outlined  by  Senator  Platt, 
of  Connecticut.  In  speaking  on  a  bill 
for  the  reorganization  of  the  Patent 
Office,  he  said  : 

"To  my  mind,  the  passage  of  the 
act  of  183G  creating  the  Patent  Office 
marks  the  most  important  epoch  in  the 
history  of  our  development — I  think 
the  most  important  event  in  the  his- 
tory of  our  Government  from  the  Con- 
stitution until  the  Civil  War.  The  es- 
tablishment of  the  Patent  Office 
marked  the  commencement  of  that 
marvelous  development  of  the  re- 
sources of  the  country  which  is  the  ad- 
miration and  wonder  of  the  world,  a 
development  which  challenges  all  his- 
tory for  a  parallel ;  and  it  is  not  too 
much  to  say  that  this  unexampled 
progress  has  been  not  only  dependent 
upon,  but  has  been  coincident  with,  the 
growth  and  development  of  the  patent 
system  of  this  country.  Words  fail  in 
attempt-ng  to  portray  the  advance- 
ment of  this  country  for  the  last  fifty 
years.  We  have  had  fifty  years  of 
progress,  fifty  years  of  inventions  ap- 
plied to  the  every-day  wants  of  life, 
fifty  years  of  patent  encouragement, 
and  fifty  years  of  a  development  in 
wealth,  resources,  grandeur,  culture, 
power  which  is  little  short  of  miracu- 
lous. Population,  production,  business, 
wealth,  comfort,  culture,  power,  gran- 
deur, these  have  all  kept  step  with  the 
expansion  of  the  inventive  genius  of 
the  country ;  and  this  progress  has 
been  made  possible  only  by  the  inven- 
tions of  its  citizens.  All  history  con- 
firms us  in  the  conclusion  that  it  is 
the  development  by  the  mechanical  arts 
of  the  industries  of  a  country  which 
brings  to  it  greatness  and  power  and 
glory.  No  purely  agricultural,  pas- 
toral people  ever  achieved  any  high 
standing  among  the  nations  of  the 
earth.  It  is  only  when  the  brain 
evolves  and  the  cunning  hand  fashions 
labor-saving  machines  that  a  nation 
begins  to  throb  with  new  energy  and 


life  and  expands  with  a  new  growth. 
It  is  only  when  thought  wrings  from 
nature  her  untold  secret  treasures  that 
solid  wealth  and  strength  are  accumu- 
lated by  a  people." 

When  the  Japanese  Government  was 
considering  the  establishment  of  a  pat- 
ent system,  they  sent  a  commissioner 
to  the  United  States  and  he  spent 
several  months  in  Washington,  every 
facility  bemg  given  him  by  the  Com- 
missioner of  Patents.  One  of  the  ex- 
aminers said :  "I  would  like  to  know 
why  it  is  that  the  people  of  Japan 
desire  to  have  a  patent  system." 

"I  will  tell  you,"  said  Mr.  Taka- 
hashi.  "You  know  it  is  only  since 
Commodore  Perry,  in  1854,  opened  the 
ports  of  Japan  to  foreign  commerce 
that  the  Japanese  have  been  trying  to 
become  a  great  nation,  like  other  na- 
tions of  the  earth,  and  we  have  looked 
about  us  to  see  what  nations  are  the 
greatest,  so  that  we  could  be  like 
them ;  and  we  said,  'There  is  the 
United  States,  not  much  more  than  a 
hundred  years  old,  and  America  was 
not  discovered  by  Columbus  yet  four 
hundred  years  ago' ;  and  we  said, 
'What  is  it  that  makes  the  United 
States  such  a  great  nation?'  And  we 
investigated,  and  we  found  it  was  pat- 
ents, and  we  will  have  patents." 

The  examiner,  in  reporting  this  in- 
terview, added :  "Not  in  all  history 
is  there  an  instance  of  such  unbiased 
testimony  to  the  value  and  worth  of 
the  patent  system  as  practiced  in  the 
United  States." 

The  demonstration  thus  given  the 
commercial  world  during  the  last  half 
century  of  the  effect  of  beneficent 
patent  laws  has  led  to  their  modifica- 
tion in  all  the  chief  industrial  coun- 
tries, and  the  salient  feature  of  our 
system — a  preliminary  examination  as 
to  novelty  and  patentability  prior  to 
the  grant  of  a  patent — has  in  late 
years  been  incorporated  into  the  pat- 
ent systems  of  many  foreign  countries, 
as,  for  instance,  Austria,  Canada,  Den- 


211 


212 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


mark,  Germany.  Japan,  Norway,  Rus- 
sia, Sweden,  and  Switzerland. 

The  discoverer  of  new  products  of 
value  in  the  arts  and  the  inventor  of 
new  processes,  or  improved  machines, 
adds  to  public  wealth,  and  his  right  to 
the  product  of  his  brain  is  now  recog- 
nized by  the  laws  of  all  civilized  na- 
tions. The  word  "patent"  had  its 
origin  in  royal  grants  to  favored  sub- 
jects of  monopolies  in  trade  or  manu- 
facture ;  but  now  the  word  is  used  in 
a  restricted  sense  to  cover  improve- 
ments in  inventions.  A  few  patents 
for  inventions  were  granted  by  the 
provincial  governments  of  the  Ameri- 
can colonies  and  by  the  legislatures  of 
the  States,  prior  to  the  adoption  of  the 


PRINCIPAL   FIELDS    OF   INVENTIVE 
ENDEAVOR. 

Federal  Constitution.  On  the  5th  of 
September,  1787,  it  was  proposed  to 
incorporate  in  a  constitution  a  patent 
and  copyright  clause.  The  germinat- 
ing principle  of  this  clause  of  the 
Constitution  has  vitalized  the  nation, 
expanded  its  powers  beyond  the  wild- 
est dreams  of  its  fathers,  and  from  it 
more  than  from  any  other  cause,  has 
grown  the  magnificent  manufacturing 
and  industrial  development  which  we 
to-day  present  to  the  world. 

In  the  early  days  the  granting  of  a 
patent  was  quite  an  event  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  State  Department,  where 
the  clerical  part  of  the  work  was  then 
performed.  It  would  be  interesting  to 
see  Thomas  Jefferson,  the  Secretary  of 
War,  and  the  Attorney-General,  criti- 
cally examining  the  application  and 
scrutinizing  each  point  carefully  and 
rigorously.  The  first  year  the  major 


ity  of  the  applications  failed  to  pass 
the  ordeal,  and  only  three  patents  were 
granted.  In  those  days  evu'y  step  in 
the  issuing  of  a  patent  was  taken  with 
great  care  and  caution,  Mr.  Jefferson 
always  seeking  to  impress  upon  tho 
minds  of  his  officers  and  the  public 
that  the  granting  of  a  patent  was  a 
matter  of  no  ordinary  importance. 
Prior  to  1836  there  was  no  critical 
examination  of  the  state  of  the  art 
preliminary  to  the  allowance  of  a 
patent  application.  Since  the  act  of 
1836  there  have  been  various  enact- 
ments modifying  and  improving  the 
law  in  matters  of  detail.  In  1861  the 
term  for  a  patent  was  increased  from 
fourteen  to  seventeen  years,  and  in 
1870  the  patent  law  was  revised,  con- 
solidated and  amended ;  but  in  its  sa- 
lient features  the  patent  system  of  to- 
day is  that  of  the  law  of  1836.  The 
subject  of  patents  is  admirably  treat- 
ed by  Mr.  Story  B.  Ladd,  of  the  Cen- 
sus Office,  and  we  are  indebted  to 
Bulletin  No.  242  for  most  interesting 
matter  herewith  presented. 

The  growth  of  the  number  of  pat- 
ents granted  in  the  United  States  to 
citizens  of  foreign  countries,  is  a  strik- 
ing feature,  and  shows  the  high  es- 
teem in  which  this  country  is  held  by 
the  world  at  large  as  a  field  for  the 
exploitation  of  invention.  The  per 
cent,  of  patents  to  foreign  inventors 
has  more  than  doubled  during  each 
period  of  twenty  years  since  1860. 

The  majority  of  these  foreign  pat- 
entees are  citizens  of  the  great  manu- 
facturing countries ;  four-fifths  of 
them  are  from  England,  France,  Ger- 
many, and  Canada ;  the  number  from 
the  latter  country  being  largely  aug- 
mented by  reason  of  her  proximity  to 
the  United  States.  The  patents  to 
foreign  inventors,  1890-1900,  were  dis- 
tributed as  follows : 


Country. 

Number 
of 
Patents. 

Per  Cent. 

Canada  
England.  . 

3,135 
7,436 

.14.0 
32  0 

France  

2,163 

9.0 

Germany  
All  other  countries  

5,788 
4,561 

25.0 
20.0 

100.0 


This  marked  growth  in  the  number 
of  patents  to  aliens  is  explained  by  the 
very  liberal  features  of  our  patent 
system.  Foreigners  stand  here  on  an 
equal  footing  with  citizens  of  this 
country,  and  they  are  neither  sub- 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


213 


jected  to  restrictions  in  the  matter  of 
annuities  or  taxes  payable  after  the 
grant  of  a  patent,  nor  required  to 
work  an  invention  in  this  country  to 
maintain  it  in  force,  as  is  the  case  in 
most  foreign  countries. 

Moreover,  the  thorough  examination 
made  by  our  Patent  Office  as  to  the 
novelty  of  an  invention  prior  to  the 
allowance  of  an  application  for  a  pat- 
ent— an  examination  that  includes  not 
only  the  patents  and  literature  of  our 
own  country  bearing  on  the  art  or  in- 
dustry to  which  the  invention  relates, 
but  the  patents  of  all  patent-granting 
countries  and  the  technical  literature 
of  the  world — and  the  care  exercised 
in  criticising  the  framing  of  the  claims 
have  come  to  be  recognized  as  of  great 
value  in  the  case  of  inventions  of 
merit,  and  hence  the  majority  of  for- 
eign inventors  patenting  in  this  coun- 
try take  advantage  of  this  feature  of 
our  patent  system,  and  secure  the  ac- 
tion of  the  Patent  Office  on  an  appli- 
cation for  a  patent  before  perfecting 
their  patents  in  their  own  and  other 
foreign  countries,  taking  due  precau- 
tion to  have  their  patents  in  the  dif 
ferent  countries  so  issued  as  to  se- 
cure the  maximum  term  in  each,  so  far 
as  possible.  This  practice  holds  now 
in  the  case  of  probably  nine-tenths  of 
the  alien  inventions  patented  in  this 
country. 

The  working  of  an  invention  has 
never  been  required  under  our  patent 
laws,  though  in  most  foreign  coun- 
tries, with  the  exception  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, an  invention  must  be  put  into 
commercial  use  in  the  country 
within  a  specified  period  or  the  pat- 
ent may  be  declared  void.  In  the  case 
of  patents  for  fine  chemicals  and  like 
products,  which  require  a  high  order 
of  technical  knowledge  and  ability  for 
their  inception,  and  skilled  workmen 
for  their  manufacture,  the  effect  of  this 
requirement,  that  the  industry  must  be 
established  writhin  the  country,  has 
been  most  salutary  in  building  up 
chemical  industries  within  the  home 
country,  to  some  extent  at  the  ex- 
pense of  other  countries  where  the 
working  of  a  patent  is  not  obligatory. 
This  shows  most  strongly  in  the  case 
of  carbon  dyes  and  in  the  patents  for 
chemicals  of  the  class  known  as  car- 
bon compounds,  which  includes  nu- 
merous pharmaceutical  and  medicinal 
compounds  of  recent  origin,  aldehydes, 
alcohols,  phenols,  ethers,  etc.,  and 
many  synthetic  compounds,  as  vanil- 
lin, artificial  musk,  etc. 

There  are  many  extensive  industries 


which  are  entirely  the  creation  of  pat- 
ents, and  can  be  readily  differentiated 
from  the  great  mass  of  manufactures ; 
for  example,  certain  industries  based 
upon  chemical  inventions  and  discov- 
eries, as  oleomargarine,  which  now  em- 
ploys $3,023,040  of  capital,  and  sup- 
plies products  to  the  value  of  $12,499,- 
812 ;  glucose,  which  uses  $41,011,345 
of  capital,  and  gives  products  to  the 
value  of  $21,693,656;  wood  pulp, 
which,  starting  with  the  ground-wood 
pulp  patent  of  Voulter,  in  1858,  and 
following  with  the  soda  fiber  and  sul- 
phite fiber  processes,  is  now  the  chief 
material  employed  in  paper  manufac- 
ture, with  products  aggregating  $18,- 
497,701 ;  high  explosives,  which,  start- 
ing with  the  nitroglycerin  patent  of 
Nobel,  in  1865,  now  includes  dynamite, 
the  pyroxylin  explosives,  and  smoke- 
less powder,  with  products  aggregating 
$11,233,396;  while  the  electrical  indus- 
tries, which  now  touch  all  fields  of  in- 
dustrial activity,  power  and  transpor- 
tation, lighting  and  heating,  electro- 
chemical processes,  telegraphy  and 
telephony,  employ  directly  and  indi 
rectly  capital  extending  into  the  bil- 
lions, and  are  the  creation  of  patents. 
The  rubber  industry  was  insignifi- 
cant prior  to  the  discovery  by  Charles 
Goodyear  of  the  process  of  vulcaniza- 
tion, while  now  the  products  in  the 
shape  of  rubber  and  elastic  goods  and 
rubber  boots  and  shoes  amount  to  $93, 
716,849.  Bicycles  and  tricycles  em- 
ploy $29,783,659  of  capital,  with  prod- 
ucts valued  at  $31,915,908.  Manu- 
factured ice  employs  $38,204,054  of 
capital,  with  a  return  in  products  of 
$13,874,513. 

Phonographs  and  graphophones, 
starting  in  1877,  now  show  the  use  of 
$3,348,282  of  capital,  and  products  to 
the  value  of  $2,246,274.  Photography, 
including  the  manufacture  of  materi- 
als and  apparatus  as  well  as  the  prac- 
tice of  the  art — all  the  outcome  of  in- 
vention— is  now  represented  by  7,706 
establishments,  with  a  combined  capi- 
tal of  $18,711  339,  and  products  to  the 
value  of  $31,038,107.  The  manufac- 
ture of  sewing  machines  employs  $18,- 
739,450  of  capital,  and  supplies  prod- 
ucts to  the  value  of  $18,314,490.  The 
manufacture  of  typewriters  and  sup- 
plies, within  three  decades,  has  be- 
come an  industry  that  employs  $8.- 
400,431  of  capital,  and  gives  products 
to  the  value  of  $6,932,029.  These  are 
but  examples  of  what  may  be  consid- 
ered as  patent-created  industries. 

If  we  attempt  to  enumerate  the  in- 
dustries which,  existing  prior  to  the 


214 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


period  of  patent  growth,  have  been 
revolutionized  by  inventions,  a  cata- 
logue of  all  of  the  old  industries  is 
virtually  required.  The  returns  for 
the  manufacture  of  agricultural  im- 
plements for  the  present  census 
show  715  establishments,  with  a  capi- 
tal of  $157,707,951,  giving  employ- 
ment to  46,852  wage-earners,  who  re- 


a  patented  improvement  which  has 
produced  a  new  or  better  article,  or 
cheapened  the  cost  of  manufacture. 

The  great  iron  and  steel  industry 
as  it  exists  to-day  is  the  product  of 
countless  inventions  which  permeate 
every  branch  thereof,  and  include 
many  revolutionizing  inventions,  as, 
for  example,  the  Bessemer  process. 


ceive  $2,450,880  in  wages,  and  manu- 
factured products  to  the  value  of  $101,- 
207,428 ;  and,  in  the  entire  range  of 
agricultural  implements  and  machines 
now  manufactured,  every  one,  from 
hoe  or  spade  to  combined  harvester 
and  thrasher,  has  been,  e'ther  in  the 
implement  or  machine  itself,  or  in  the 
process  of  manufacture,  the  subject  of 


The  blast  furnaces,  rolling  mills  and 
forges  and  bloomeries.  reported  at  the 
present  census  comprise  608  establish- 
ments, with  a  capital  of  $573,391.663, 
employing  222,490  wage-earners,  with 
$120,820,276  paid  in  wages,  and  sup- 
plying products  to  the  value  of  $803,- 
968273.  A  prohibition  of  the  use  of 
the  patented  inventions  of  the  last  halt' 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


215 


century  would  stop  every  one  of  these 
establishments. 

The  same  may  likewise  be  said  of 
the  textile  industry,  the  manufactures 
of  leather,  of  lumber,  chemicals,  etc., 
and  the  railway  system  in  its  entirety, 
from  the  rail  to  the  top  of  the  smoke- 
stack, and  from  the  pilot  to  the  rear 
train  light  or  signal,  is  an  aggregation 
of  American  inventions. 

Without  attempting  to  touch  upon 
the  industries  which  have  been  revo- 
lutionized or  expanded  by  patents,  the 
summaries  which  follow  aim  to  show 
the  growth  of  patents  which  have  gen- 
erally sprung  from  industries. 

The  closing  decades  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  have  witnessed  the 
most  extraordinary  development  of 


manufactures  and  commerce  known  in 
our  history.  Industrial  demand  and 
invention  go  hand  in  hand.  They  act 
and  react,  being  interdependent.  Any 
change  in  industrial  conditions  creat- 
ing a  new  demand  is  at  once  met  by 
the  invention  of  the  means  for  supply- 
ing it,  and  through  new  inventions  new 
industrial  demands  are  every  year  be- 
ing created.  Thus  through  the  process 
of  evolution  the  industrial  field  is 
steadily  expanding,  and  a  study  of  the 
inventions  for  any  decade  will  point 
out  the  lines  of  industrial  growth  for 
the  succeeding  decade. 

The  following  figures  give  an  idea 
of  the  development  of  American  inven- 
tions during  the  past  fifty-four  years : 


NUMBER  OF  PATENTS    FOR  INVENTIONS    ISSUED   DURING  EACH   CALENDAR 

YEAR,  AND  NUMBER  OF  LIVE  PATENTS  AT   THE  BEGINNING 

OF  EACH  CALENDAR  YEAR. 


Year. 

Number 
of  Patents 
Issued  Dur- 
ing the 
Year. 

Number 
of  Live 
Patents. 

Year. 

Number 
of  Patents 
Issued  Dur- 
ing the 
Year. 

Number 
of  Live 
Patents. 

1850  
1851  
1S52 

884 
757 
890 

6,987 
7,769 
8  099 

1877  
1878  
1879 

12,920 
12,345 
12,133 

155,200 
168,011 
177,737 

1353  
1854  
1855 

846 
1,759 
1  892 

8,474 
8,928 
10  251 

1880  
1881  
1882 

12926 
15,548 
18,135 

186,408 
195,325 
206,043 

1856  
1857 

2,315 
2,686 

11,673 
13  518 

1883  
1884 

21,196 
19,147 

218,041 
230,360 

1858  
1850  
1860.  .  . 

3,467 
4,165 
4,363 

15,714 
18,714 
22,435 

1885  
1886  
1887.  . 

23,331 
21,797 
20,429 

237,204 
247,991 
256.831 

1861  
1862.  
1863..  . 

3,010 
3,221 
3,781 

26,252 
28,795 
31,428 

1888  
1889  
1890  

19,585 
23,360 
25,322 

265,103 
273,001 

284  161 

1864  
1865.  . 

4,638 
6,099 

34,244 
38,034 

1891  
1892 

22,328 
22,661 

297,867 
307,965 

1866.  .  . 

8,874 

43,415 

1893  

22,768 

317,335 

1867  
1868.  .  . 

12,301 
12,544 

51,433 

62  929 

1894  
1895 

19,875 
20  883 

325,931 
332  886 

1861.. 

12,957 

73,824 

1896  

21,867 

341,424 

1870  
1871. 

12,157 
11,687 

85,005 
94  910 

1897  
189S 

22,098 
20  404 

351,158 
360  330 

1872.  .  . 
1873  
1874  
1875 

12,200 
11,616 
12,230 
13  291 

104,022 
112,937 
120,551 
128  547 

1839  
1900  
1901  
1902 

23,296 
24,660 
25,558 
27  136 

365,186 
370,347 
373,811 
380  222 

1876.  .  . 

14,172 

141,157 

1903!  '.  ' 

31,046 

393,276 

The  theory  of  the  patent  law  is  sim- 
ple. The  country  is  enr.ched  by  inven- 
tions and  offers  for  them  a  small 
premium  :  this  premium  is  a  seventeen 
years'  monopoly  of  their  fruit — no 
more,  no  less.  Having  purchased  the 


invention  for  this  insignificant  price, 
the  purchase  is  consummated  by  the 
publication  in  the  patent  records  of  the 
details  of  the  invent;on  so  that  he  who 
runs  may  read.  The  whole  thing  is 
a  strictly  business  transaction,  and 


216 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


this  character  is  emphasized  by  the 
fact  that  the  inventor  is  required  to 
pay  for  the  clerical  and  expert  labor 
required  to  put  his  invention  into 
shape  for  issuing.  His  patent  fees  are 
designed  to  cover  this  expense,  and  do 
so,  with  a  considerable  margin  to 
•spare.  Thus  the  people  of  the  United 
States  are  perpetually  being  enriched 
by  the  work  of  inventors,  at  absolutely 
no  cost  to  themselves. 

The  inventor  does  not  work  for  love 
nor  for  glory  alone,  but  in  the  hopes 
of  a  return  for  his  labor.  Glory,  and 
love  of  his  species,  are  elements  actuat- 
ing his  work,  and  in  many  cases  he 
invents  because  he  cannot  help  himself, 
because  his  genius  is  a  hard  task  mas- 


ter and  keeps  him  at  work.  But  none 
the  less,  the  great  incitement  to  inven- 
tion is  the  hope  of  obtaining  a  valua- 
ble patent,  and  without  this  induce- 
ment inventions  would  be  few  and  far 
between,  and  America  would,  without 
the  patent  system,  be  far  in  arrears 
of  the  rest  of  the  world,  instead  of 
leading  it,  as  it  does  to-day.  The  few 
pregnant  sentences  of  the  patent  stat- 
utes, sentences  the  force  of  whose 
every  word  has  been  laboriously  ad- 
judicated by  our  highest  tribunal,  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States, 
are  responsible  for  America's  most 
characteristic  element  of  prosperity, 
the  work  of  her  inventors,  to  whom  be- 
longs the  credit. 


DISTINGUISHED  AMERICAN   INVENTORS. 


Benjamin  Franklin ;  b.  Boston, 
1706;  d.  1790;  at  12,  printer's  appren- 
tice, fond  of  useful  reading ;  27  to  40, 
teaches  himself  Latin,  etc.,  makes  va- 
rious useful  improvements ;  at  40, 
studies  electricity ;  1752,  brings  elec- 
tricity from  clouds  by  kite,  and  invents 
the  lightning  rod. 

Eli  Whitney,  inventor  of  the  cotton- 
gin  ;  b.  Westborough,  Mass.,  1765 ;  d. 
1825  ;_  went  to  Georgia  1792  as  teach- 
er;  1(93,  invents  the  cotton-gin,  prior 
to  which  a  full  day's  work  of  one  per- 
son was  to  clean  by  hand  one  pound 
of  cotton ;  one  machine  performs  the 
labor  of  five  thousand  persons;  1800, 
founds  Whitneyville,  makes  firearms, 
by  the  interchangeable  system  for  the 
parts. 

Robert  Fulton:  b.  Little  Britain, 
Pa.,  1765 ;  d.  1825 ;  artist  painter ;  in- 
vents steamboat  1793 ;  invents  subma- 
rine torpedoes  1797  to  1801 ;  builds 
steamboat  in  France  1803 ;  launches 
passenger  boat  Clermont  at  N.  Y. 
1807,  and  steams  to  Albany;  1812, 
builds  steam  ferryboats ;  1814,  builds 
first  steam  war  vessel. 

Jethro  Wood,  inventor  of  the  mod- 
ern cast-iron  plough  ;  b.  White  Creek, 
N.  Y.,  1774;  d.  1834:  patented  the 
plough  1814 ;  previously  the  plough 
was  a  stick  of  wood  plated  with  iron  ; 
lawsuits  against  infringers  consumed 
his  means ;  Secretary  Seward  said : 
"No  man  has  benefited  the  country 
pecuniarily  more  than  Jethro  Wood, 
and  no  man  has  been  as  inadequately 
rewarded." 

Thomas  Blanchard ;  b.  1788,  Sutton, 
Mass. ;  d.  1864  ;  invented  tack  machine 
1806 ;  builds  successful  steam  carriage 
1825 ;  builds  the  stern-wheel  boat  for 


shallow  waters,  now  in  common  use  on 
Western  rivers ;  1843,  patents  the 
lathe  for  turning  irregular  forms,  now 
in  common  use  all  over  the  world  for 
turning  lasts,  spokes,  axe-handles, 
gun-stocks,  hat-blocks,  tackle-blocks, 
etc. 

Ross  Winans,  of  Baltimore ;  b.  1798, 
N.  J. ;  author  of  many  inventions  re- 
lating to  railways ;  first  patent,  1828 ; 
he  designed  and  patented  the  pivoted, 
double  truck,  long  passenger  cars  now 
in  common  use.  His  genius  also  as- 
sisted the  development  of  railways  in 
Russia. 

Cyrus  H.  McCormick.  inventor  of 
harvesting  machines  :  b.  Walnut  Grove, 
Va.,  1809;  in  1851  he  exhibited  his  in- 
vention at  the  World's  Fair,  London, 
with  practical  success.  The  mowing 
of  one  acre  was  one  man's  day's  work ; 
a  boy  with  a  mowing  machine  now  cuts 
10  acres  a  day.  Mr.  McCormick's 
patents  made  him  a  millionaire. 

Charles  Goodyear,  inventor  and  pat- 
entee of  the  simple  mixture  of  rubber 
and  sulphur,  the  basis  of  the  present 
great  rubber  industries  throughout  the 
world  ;  b.  New  Haven,  Conn.,  1800 ;  in 
1839,  by  the  accidental  mixture  of  a 
bit  of  rubber  and  sulphur  on  a  red-hot 
stove,  he  discovered  the  process  of  vul- 
canization. The  Goodyear  patents 
proved  immensely  profitable. 

Samuel  F.  B.  Morse,  inventor  and 
patentee  of  electric  telegraph ;  b. 
Charlestown,  Mass.,  1791;  d.  1872; 
artist  painter;  exhibited  first  drawings 
of  telegraph  1832;  half-mile  wire  in 
operation  1835;  caveat  1837;  Congress 
appropriated  $30,000  and  in  1844  first 
telegraph  line  from  Washington  to 
Baltimore  was  opened  ;  after  long  con- 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


217 


tests  the  courts  sustained  his  patents 
and  he  realized  from  them  a  large  for- 
tune. 

Elias  Howe,  inventor  of  the  modern 
sewing  machine ;  b.  Spencer,  Mass., 
1819 ;  d.  1867 ;  machinist ;  sewing  ma- 
chine patented  1846 ;  from  that  time 
to  1854  his  priority  was  contested  and 
he  suffered  from  poverty,  when  a  deci- 
sion of  the  courts  in  his  favor  brought 
him  large  royalties,  and  he  realized 
several  millions  from  his  patent. 

James  B.  Eads  ;  b.  1820  ;  author  and 
constructor  of  the  great  steel  bridge 
over  the  Mississippi  at  St.  Louis,  1867, 
and  the  jetties  below  New  Orleans, 
1876.  His  remarkable  energy  was 
shown  in  1861  when  he  built  and  de- 
livered complete  to  the  Government,  all 
within  sixty-five  days,  seven  iron-plat- 
ed steamers,  600  tons  each ;  subse- 
quently other  steamers.  Some  of  the 
most  brilliant  successes  of  the  Union 
arms  were  due  to  his  extraordinary 
rapidity  in  constructing  these  vessels. 

Prof.  Joseph  Henry  ;  b.  Albany,  N. 
Y.,  1799 ;  d.  1878 ;  in  1828  invented  the 
present  form  of  the  electro-magnet 
which  laid  the  foundation  for  practi- 
cally the  entire  electrical  art  and  is 
probably  the  most  important  single 
contribution  thereto.  In  1831  he  dem- 
onstrated the  practicability  of  the  elec- 
tric current  to  effect  mechanical  move- 
ments and  operate  signals  at  a  distant 
point,  which  was  the  beginning  of  the 
electro-magnetic  telegraph  ;  he  devised 
a  system  of  circuits  and  batteries, 
which  contained  the  principle  of  the 
relay  and  local  circuit,  and  also  in- 
vented one  of  the  earliest  electro-mag- 
netic engines.  He  made  many  scien- 
tific researches  in  electricity  and  gen- 
eral physics  and  left  many  valuable 
papers  thereon.  In  1026  he  was  a 
professor  in  the  Albany  Academy ;  was 
Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy  at 
the  College  of  New  Jersey  in  1832,  and 
in  1846  was  chosen  secretary  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  at  "Washing- 
ton, where  he  remained  until  his  death. 
Prof.  Henry  was  probably  the  greatest 
of  American  physicists. 

Dr.  Alexander  Graham  Bell,  the  in- 
ventor of  the  telephone;  b.  1847  at 
Edinburgh,  Scotland,  moved  to  Can- 
ada 1872  and  afterward  to  Boston ; 
heie  he  became  widely  known  as  an  in- 
structor in  phonetics  and  as  an  au- 
thority in  teaching  the  deaf  and  dumb  ; 
in  1873  he  began  the  study  of  the 
transmission  of  musical  tones  by  tele- 
graph ;  in  1876  he  invented  and  pat- 
ented the  speaking  telephone,  which 
has  become  one  of  the  marvels  of  the 


nineteenth  century  and  one  of  the 
greatest  commercial  enterprises  of  the 
world ;  in  1880  the  French  Govern- 
ment awarded  him  the  Volta  prize  of 
$10,000  and  he  has  subsequently  re- 
ceived the  ribbon  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor  from  France  and  many  honor- 
ary degrees,  both  at  home  and  abroad ; 
Dr.  Bell  still  continues  his  scientific 
work  at  his  home  in  Washington  and 
has  made  valuable  contributions  to  the 
phonograph  and  aerial  navigation. 

[Prof.  Bell  is  now  generally  known 
as  Dr.  Bell,  out  of  respect  for  his 
honorary  degree.] 

Thomas  A.  Edison  ;  b.  1847,  at  Mi- 
lan, Ohio ;  from  a  poor  boy  in  a  coun- 
try village,  with  a  limited  education, 
he  has  become  the  most  fertile  inventor 
the  world  has  ever  known  ;  his  most 
important  inventions  are  the  phono- 
graph in  1877,  the  incandescent  elec- 
tric lamp,  1878;  the  quadruplex  tele- 
graph, 1874-1878;  the  electric  pen, 
1876;  magnetic  ore  separator,  1880, 
and  the  three-wire  electric  circuit, 
1883;  his  first  patent  was  an  electric 
vote-recording  machine,  taken  in  1869, 
since  which  time  more  than  700  pat- 
ents have  been  granted  him ;  early  in 
life  Edison  started  to  run  a  newspaper, 
but  his  genius  lay  in  the  field  of  elec- 
tricity, where  as  an  expert  telegrapher 
he  began  his  great  reputation ;  his 
numerous  inventions  have  brought 
him  great  wealth  ;  a  fine  villa  in  Llew- 
ellyn Park,  at  Orange,  N.  J.,  is  his 
home,  and  his  extensive  laboratory 
near  by  is  still  the  scene  of  his  con- 
stant work ;  he  is  the  world's  most 
persevering  inventor. 

Captain  John  Ericsson;  b.  1803  in 
Sweden  ;  d.  in  New  York,  1889 ;  at  10 
years  of  age,  designed  a  sawmill  and 
a  pumping  engine ;  made  and  patented 
many  inventions  in  England  in  early 
life ;  in  1829  entered  a  locomotive  in 
competition  with  Stephenson's  Rocket ; 
in  1836  patented  in  England  his 
double-screw  propeller  arid  shortly 
after  came  to  the  United  States  and 
incorporated  it  in  a  steamer;  in  1861, 
built  for  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment the  turret  ironclad  Monitor ;  was 
the  inventor  of  the  hot-air  engine 
which  bears  his  name ;  also  a  torpedo 
boat  which  was  designed  to  discharge 
a  torpedo  by  means  of  compressed  air 
beneath  the  water ;  he  was  an  indefati- 
gable worker  and  made  many  other  in- 
ventions ;  his  diary,  kept  daily  for  40 
years,  comprehended  14,000  pages. 

Charles  F.  Brush  ;  b.  near  Cleveland. 
Ohio,  1849;  prominently  identified 
with  the  development  of  the  dynamo, 


218 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


the  arc  light  and  the  storage  battery, 
in  which  fields  he  made  many  impor- 
tant inventions ;  in  1880  the  Brush 
Company  put  its  electric  lights  into 
New  York  City  and  has  since  extended 
its  installations  into  most  of  the  cities 
and  towns  of  the  United  States ;  in 
1881,  at  the  Paris  Electrical  Exposi- 
tion, he  received  the  ribbon  of  the  Le- 
gion of  Honor. 

George  Westinghouse,  Jr. ;  b.  at 
Central  Bridge,  N.  Y.,  1846;  while 
still  a  boy  he  modeled  and  built  a 
steam  engine  ;  his  first  profitable  inven- 
tion was  a  railroad  frog ;  his  most  no- 
table inventions,  however,  were  in 
railroad  airbrakes,  the  first  patents 
for  which  were  taken  out  in  1872 ;  the 
system  now  known  by  his  name  has 
grown  to  almost  universal  adoption 
and  constitutes  a  great  labor  saving 
and  life  saving  adjunct  to  railroad 
transportation ;  Mr.  Westinghouse, 
whose  home  is  at  Pittsburg.  was  one 
of  the  earliest  to  develop  and  use  nat- 
ural gas  from  deep  wells ;  in  late  years 
he  has  made  and  patented  many  in- 
vent'ons  in  electrical  machinery  for 
the  development  of  power  and  light, 
and  has  commercially  developed  the 
same  on  a  large  scale. 

Ottmar  Mergenthaler ;  b.  1854,  at 
Wiirtemberg,  Germany ;  d.  1899 ;  in- 


ventor of  the  linotype  machine ;  his 
early  training  as  a  watch  and  clock 
maker  well  fitted  him  for  the  painstak- 
ing and  complicated  work  of  his  life, 
which  was  to  make  a  machine  which 
would  mold  the  type  and  set  it  up  in 
one  operation ;  in  1872  Mergenthaler 
came  to  Baltimore  and  entered  a  ma- 
chine shop,  in  which  he  subsequently 
became  a  partner;  the  first  linotype 
machine  was  built  in  1886  and  put  to 
use  in  the  composing  room  of  the  New 
York  Tribune ;  to-day  all  large  news- 
paper and  publishing  houses  are 
equipped  with  great  batteries  of  these 
machines,  costing  over  $3,000  each, 
and  each  performing  the  work  of  five 
compositors. 

The  first  recorded  patent  granted  by 
the  United  States  Government  bears 
date  July  31,  1790,  issued  to  Samuel 
Hopkins,  for  making  pot  and  pearl 
ashes.  Two  other  patents  were  grant- 
ed in  that  year.  In  the  following  year, 
1791,  thirty-three  patents  were  grant- 
ed. Among  them  were  six  patents  to 
James  Rumsay  and  one  to  John  Fitch 
for  inventions  relating  to  steam  en- 
gines and  steam  vessels.  For  the  sin- 
gle year  of  1876  the  number  of  pat- 
ents and  caveats  applied  for  was  al- 
most 20,000. 


PROGRESS  OF  INVENTIONS. 


Below  is  given  in  chronological  or- 
der a  list  of  important  inventions  be- 
ginning with  the  16th  century,  with 


the  title  of  -the  invention,  the  year  it 
was  made,  the  name  of  the  inventor 
and  his  nativity  : 


Inventions. 

Date. 

Inventor. 

Nativity. 

Discoveries  of  electrical  phenomena  
Won  the  title  of  "founder  of  the  science  of 
electricity." 
Screw  printing-press  
Spirally  grooved  rifle  barrel  
Iron  furnaces.             ... 

J  1560 
11603 

1620 
1620 
1621 

William  Gilbert 

Blaew 
Koster 

England 

Germany 
England 

The  u^e  of  steam 

1630 

Lord  Dudley 

England 

The  first  authentic  reference  in  English  liter- 
ature to  the  use  of  steam  in  the  arts. 
Bay  Psalm  Book,  first  book  published  in  the 
Colonies.  .  .                                        .    .  .  * 

1640 

David  Ramseye 

England 
Mass. 

Barometer  
Steam  engine,  atmospheric  pressure  
Machine  for  generating  electricity.  .  . 

1643 
1663 
1681-6 

Torricelli 
Thomas  Newcomen 
Otto  von  Guericke 

Italy 
England 
Germany 

First  paper  mill  in  America  
First  steam  engine  with  a  piston 

1690 
1690 

William  Rittenhouse 
Denys  Papin 

Penna. 
Frauce 

The  manufacture  of  nlate  glass  established     .  . 
First  to  discover  difference  between  electric 

1695 
{  1696 
I  1736 

Stephen  Gray 

France 
England 

The  first  practical  application  of  the  steam 
engine 

1702 

Thomas  Savery 

England 

First  newspaper  in  America,  "Boston  News 
Letter". 

1704 

John  Campbell 

Mass. 

First  to  produce  electric  spark  .  . 

j  1708 

Dr,  J.  Wall 

England 

1  1716 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


219 


PROGRESS  OF  INVENTIONS—  Continued. 

Inventions 

Date. 

•-       Inventor. 

Nativity. 

1709 
J  1718 
1  1772 
1725 
(1727 
1  1772 
1731 
1733-9 
1733 
1743 
1745 
1750 
1752 
1763 
1767 
1769 

1773 

1774 
1775 
1777 
1779 
1782 
1783 
1783-4 

1784 
1785 
1786 
1787 
1788 
1790 

1790 
1791 
1792 
1794 
1796 
1800 
1800 
1801 
1801 
1801 
1801 
1802 
1802 
1802 
1803 
1803 
1804 

1804 
1804 
1805 
1805 
1803 
1807 
1807 
1807 
1803 
1808 

1808 
1809 
1810 
1811 
1812 
1812 

1814 

Fahrenheit 
John  Cantor 

Benjamin  Franklin 
Martin  de  Planta 

William  Ged 
Cisternay  du  Fay 
John  Kay 
Platt  &  Keen 
Kleist 
Abraham  Darby 
Benjamin  Franklin 
James  Hargreaves 

Richard  Arkwright 

Samuel  Crampton 
Jeremiah  Wilkinson 
Miller 
Branchard  &  Magurier 
James  Watt 
J.  E.  &  J.  M.  Montgolfier 
Henry  Cort 

James  Small 
James  Cartwright 
John  Fitch 
Oliver  Evans 
Andrew  Meikle 

Wm.  Nicholson 
Samuel  Bentham 
Wm.  Murdoch 
Eli  Whitney 
Alois  Senef  elder 
Louis  Robert 
Volta 
Richard  Trevithick 
M.  J.  Brunei 
M.  J.  Jacquard 
Richard  Scott 
William  Symington 
Wedgwood  &  Davy 
J.  Bramah 
William  Horrocks 
Wise 
Richard  Trevithick 

John  Stevens 
Lucas 
John  Edwards 
Luigi  Brugnatelli 
Jeandeau 
Robert  Fulton 
A.  J.  Forsvth 
F.  A.  Winsor 
Newberry 
Sir  Humphry  Davy 

John  Stevens 
Sommering 
Frederick  Koenig 
Thornton  &  Hall 
J.  B.  Ritter 
Zamboni 

Frederick  Koenig 

Danzig 
England 

Utd.  States 
France 

Scotland 
France 
England 
England 
Germany 
England 
Utd   States 
England 
England 
England 

England 
Utd.  States 
England 
France 
Scotland 
France 
England 

Scotland 
England 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
England 
England 

England 
England 
England 
Utd.  States 
Germany 
France 
Italy 
England 
England 
France 
England 
England 
England 
England 
England 
England 
England 

Utd.  States 
England 
England 
Italy 
France 
Utd.  States 
Scotland 
England 
England 
England 

Utd.  States 
Germany 
Germany 
Utd.  States 
Germany 
Italy 

Germany 

Electrometer,  the  well-known  pith  ball  

Electrical  glass  plate  machine  

Stereotyping     .                                   .    .        

First  to  discover  that  electricity  is  of  two  kinds. 
Flying  shuttle  in  weaving  

Rotary  3-color  printing-press  (multi-color).  .  .  . 
Electric  or  Leyden  Jar  

Substitution  of  coke  for  coal  in  melting  iron  .  .  . 
Lightning  conductor  

Spinning  jenny    .                                         

Pianoforte,  nlayed  in  public  in  England  in  .... 
Drawing  rolls  in  a  spinning  machine  
The  introduction  of  the  "Hollander"  or  beat- 
ing engine  for  pulping  rags  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  paper  .  .  . 

Cut  nails 

Embryo  bicycle  .        

Steam  engine,  the  basis  of  the  modern  engine  .  . 
Gas  balloon.  .  .                    

Puddling  iron 

Plow,  with  cast-iron  mold  board,  and  wrought- 
and  cast-iron  shares  

Power  loom  
First  steamboat  in  the  United  States  
Steam  road  wagon  (first  automobile). 

Grain  threshing  machine  
Hobby  horse,  forerunner  of  bicycle  
Rotary  steam  power  printing-press,  the  first 
idea  of  
Wood  planing  machine  . 

Gas  first  used  as  an  illuminant  
Cotton  gin.  . 

Art  of  lithogranhy 

Machine  for  making  continuous  webs  of  paper. 
Electric  battery  discovered            .  . 

Steam  coach  

Wood  mortising  machine 

Pattern  loom 

First  fire-proof  safe  
Steamboat  on  the  Clyde,  "Charlotte  Dundas". 
First  photographic  experiments  
Planing  machine  
The  application  of  steam  to  the  loom 

Steel  pen  
Steam  locomotive  on  rails.  . 

Application  of  twin-screw  propellers  in  steam 
navigation.  .    .      .             

Process  of  making  malleable-iron  castings  
First  life  preserver 

Electro-plating.  ... 

Knitting  machine,  the  latch  needle  in  the  .... 
Steamboat  navigation  on  the  Hudson  River.  .  . 
Percussion  or  detonating  compound  
First  street  gas  lighting  in  England 

Band  wood  saw. 

Voltaic  arc  

First  steamboat  to  make  &   trip  to  sea,  the 
'  'Phoenix".  . 

Multi-wire  telegraphy.  .  
Revolving  cylinder  printing-press.  . 

Bree^h-l^ar'ing  shotgun 

Storage  battery  

Dry  pile  (prototype  of  dry  battery)  .  . 

First    practical    steam    rotary    printing-press, 
paper  printed  on  both  sides  

220 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


PROGRESS  OF   INVENTIONS— Continued. 


Inventions. 

Date.                   Inventor. 

Nativity. 

Firsst  locomotive  in  United  States  
First  circular  wood  saw  made  in  this  country  .  . 
Heliography  

1814 
1814 
1814 
1814 
1815 
1815 
1816 
1816 

1817 
1819 
1819 
1819 
1820 
1820 

1821 
1822 
1822 
1822 
1823 
1823 
1823 
1825 
1825 

1825 
1826 

1826 
1827 
1827 
1827 
1827 

1827 
1828 
1828 
1828 
1828 
1828 

1829 

1829 
1829 
1830 
1831 
1831 
1832 
1832 
1832 
1832 
1832 
1832 
1833 

1833 
1834 
1834 
1834 
1835 
1836 
1836 

1836 
j  1836 
1  1841 
1837 

George  Stephenson 
Benjamin  Cummings 
Jos.  N.  Niepce 
Sir  David  Brewster 
Sir  Humphry  Davy 
S.  Clegg 
Brunei. 
Baron  von  Drais 

George  Clymer 
Laennec 
H.  C.  Oersted 
Thomas  Blanchard 
Andre  Ampere 
Bohenberg 

Michael  Faraday 
Schweigger 
P.  Force 
Charles  Babbage. 
Prof.  Seebeck 
Michael  Faraday 
Ibbetson 
Joseph  Aspdin 
Sturgeon 

Barlow 

George  S.  Ohm 
John  Walker 
Friedrich  Wohler 
George  S.  Ohm 

Cowper  &  Applegarth 
J.  B.  Neilson 
William  Woodworth 
Joseph  Henry 
Sequin 
John  Thorp 

Samuel  Rust 

A.  C.  Becquerel 
Brathwaite  &  Ericsson 
Michael  Faraday 
G.  J.  Guthrie 
Prof.  S.  F.  B.  Morse 
Saxton 
Wm.  Sturgeon 
Justus  von  Liebig 
M.  W.  Baldwin 
Sir  Henry  James 
George  Stephenson 

Obed  Hussey 
Cyrus  H.  McCormick 
M.  H.  Jacobi 
Runge 
H.  Burden 
J.  P.  Daniell 
Edmund  Davy 

Samuel  Colt 
John  Ericsson 

Henry  Craufurd 

England 
Utd.  States 
France 
England 
England 
England 
England 
Germany 

Utd.  'States 
France 
Germany 
Utd.  States 
France 
Germany 

England 
Germany 
Utd.  States 
England 
England 
England 
England 
England 
England 

England 

Germany 
Utd.  States 
Germany 
Germany 

England 
Scotland 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
France 
England 

Utd.  States 

France 
England 
England 
Scotland 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
England 
Germany 
Utd.  States 
England 
England 

Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Russia 
Germany 
Utd.  States 
England 
England 

Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 

England 

Kaleidoscope.  .     

Dry  gas  meter  
Knitting  machine.  .  .  . 

'  '  Draisine  "  bicycle  
1  'Columbian  "  press,  elbowed  pulling  bar,  num- 
ber of  impressions  per  hour,  50  
Stethoscope.                           .    .             

Electro-magnetism  discovered   . 

Lathe  for  turning  irregular  wood  forms  
The  theory  of  electro-dynamics  first  propounded 
Electroscope  
The  conversion  of  the  electric  current  into  me- 
chanical motion  

Galvanometer.  .      „                       

Calculating  machine  
Discovery  of  thermo-electricity.  . 

Liquefaction  and  solidification  of  gas  
Water  gasr  discovery  of  
Portland  cement  
Electro-magnet  
First  passenger  railway,  opened  between  Stock- 
ton and  Darlington,  England  

Electrical  spur  wheel  

First  railroad  in  United  States,  near  Quincy, 

The  law  of  galvanic  circuits  formulated  
Friction  matches  
The  reduction  of  aluminum  
Law  of  electrical  resistance  
Improved  rotary  printing-press,  London  Times, 
5,000  impressions  per  hour  
Hot  air  blast  for  iron  furnaces.  . 

Wood  planing  machine  
Spool  electro-magnet  ,  

Tubular  locomotive  boiler  
Spinning  ring  frame.  .  .  . 

The  "Washington"  printing-press,  lever  mo- 
tion and  knuckle  joint  for  a  screw,  number 
of  impressions  per  hour,  200  

First    steam    locomotive    in    United    States, 
'  '  Stourbridge  Lion" 

Double  fluid  galvanic  battery  
First  portable  steam  fire  engine  •. 
Magneto-electric  induction  
Chloroform  
First  conception  of  electric  telegraph  
First  magneto-electric  machines  
Rotary  electric  motor   .  .  . 

Chloral-hydrate  
Locomotive,  "Old  Ironsides,"  built  
Link-motion  for  locomotives 

Adoption  of  steam  whistle  for  locomotives.  .  .  . 
Reciprocating  saw-tooth  cutter  within  double 
guard  fingers  for  reapers  

'  'McCormick"  reaper  
Rotary  electric  motor  .  ,  . 

Carbolic  acid  discovered  
Horseshoe  machine 

Constant  electric  battery  
Acetylene  gas  discovered  
The  revolver;  a  device  "for  combining  a  num- 
ber of  long  barrels  so  as  to  rotate  upon  a  spin- 
dle by  the  act  of  cocking  the  hammer  "  

The  ealvani/ing  of  iron.  .  . 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


221 


PROGRESS  OF  INVENTIONS— Continued. 


Inventions. 

Date. 

Inventor. 

Nativity. 

Indicator-telegraph  
Photographic  carbon  printing  
Babbitt  metal 

1837 
1838 
1839 

Cooke  &  Wheatstone 
Mungo  Ponton 
Isaac  Babbitt 

England 
France 
Utd.  States 

Vulcanization  of  rubber  
The  first  boat  electrically  propelled.  . 

1839 
1839 

Charles  Goodyear 
Jacobi 

Utd.  States 
Germany 

Daguerreotype  

1839 

Louis  Daguerre 

K  ranee 

(First  to  produce  a  direct  photographic  posi- 
tive in  the  camera  by  means  of  highly  polished 
silver  surfaced  plate  exposed  to  the  vapors  of 
iodine  and  subsequent  development  with  mer- 
cury vapor.) 
Making  photo-prints  from  paper  negatives  
(First   production   of  positive  proofs   from 
negatives.) 
Photographic        portraits         (Daguerreotype 
process.  )  
First  incandescent  electric  lamp 

1839 

1839 
1840 

Fox  Talbot 

Profs.  Draper  &  Morse 
Grove 

England 

Utd.  States 
England 

Celestial  photography  
Artesian  well  
Pneumatic  caissons 

1840 
1840 
1841 

Draper 
M   Triger 

Utd.  States 
Paris 
France 

Pianoforte  automatically  played  
Water  gas,  utilization  of 

1842 
1842 

M.  Seytre 
Selligne 

France 
France 

Steam  hammer  
Typewriting  machine  
p'irst  telegram  sent  
The  use  of  nitrous  oxide  gas  as  an  anaesthetic  .  . 
The  electric  arc  light  (gas  retort  carbon  in  a 
vacuum)  
First  telegraphic  message,  Washington,  Balti- 

1842 
1843 
1844 
1844 

1844 
1844 

James  Nasmyth 
Charles  Thurber 
Prof.  S.  F  B.  Morse 
Dr.  Horace  Wells 

Leon  Foucault 
Prof   S   F  B  Morse 

Scotland 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 

France 
Utd.  States 

Automatic  adjustment  of  electric  arc  light  car- 
bons. .  .  . 

1845 

Thomas  Wright 

England 

Double  cylinder  printing-press.  
Pneumatic  tire.  
Sewing  machine  

1845 
1845 
1846 

R.  Hoe  &  Co. 
R.  W.  Thompson 
Elias  Howe 

Utd.  States 
England 
Utd.  States 

Printing  telegraph  

1846 

House 

Utd.  States 

Suez  canal  started.  .  .  . 

1846 

De  Lesseps 

France 

1846 

Utd.  States 

Electric  cautery,  .... 

1846 

Crusell 

Russia 

Artificial  limbs.  .  . 

1846 

Gun  cotton  
First  pianoforte  keyboard  player.  . 

1846 
1846 

Schi'mbein 

Germany 
France 

Chloroform  in  surgery  
Nitro-glycerine  
Time-lock  

1847 
1847 
1847 

Dr.  Simpson 
Sobrero 
Savage 

Scotland 
Utd.  States 

Hoe's  lightning  press,  capable  of  printing  20,000 
impressions  per  hour.  .  . 

1847 

Richard  M.  Hoe 

Utd.  States 

Match-making  machinery  

1848 

A.  L.  Dennison 

Utd.  States 

Breech  gun-lock,  interrupted  thread  
Magazine  gun  
Steam  pressure  gauge  
Lenticular  stereoscope  
Latch  needle  for  knitting  machine  
"  'Corliss  "  engine  

1849 
1849 
1849 
1849 
1849 
1849 

Chambers 
Walter  Hunt. 
Bourdon 
Sir  David  Brewster 
J.  T.  Hibbert 
G.  H.  Corliss 

Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
France 
England 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 

Printing-press,  curved  plates  secured  to  a  ro- 
tating cylinder 

1849 

Jacob  Worms 

France 

Mercerized  cotton  
Collodion  process  in  photography.  .  .  . 

1850 
1850 

John  Mercer 
Scott  Archer 

England 
England 

American  maphine-made  watches. 

1850 

Utd.  States 

Electric  locomotive  
Self-raker  for  harvesters  
Breech-loading  rifle.  ... 

1851 
1851 
1851 

Dr  Page 
W.  H.  Seymour 

Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd  States 

Icemaking  machine  
Ophthalmoscope  
The  Ruhmkorff  coil  
Fire-alarm  telegraph  .  . 

1851 
1851 
1851 
1852 

J.  Gorrie 
Helmholtz 
Ruhmkorff 

Utd.  States 
Germany 
Germany 
Utd  States 

Reticulated  screen  for  half-tone  photographic 
printing  
Soda  process  of  making  pulp  from  wood  
Laws  of  magneto-electric  induction  
Laws  of  electro-statics.  .  .  .  

1852 
1853 
1853 
1853 

Fox  Talbot 
Watt  &  Burgess 
Michael  Faraday 
Michael  Faraday 

England 
Utd.  States 
England 
England 

222 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


PROGRESS  OF  INVENTIONS— Continued. 


Inventions. 

Date. 

Inventor. 

Nativity. 

1853 

Michael  Faraday 

Duplex  telegraph  
Photographic  roll  films.  .  .  . 

1853 
1854 

Gintl 
Melhuish 

Austria 
England 

Diamond  rock  drill  

1854 

1854 

Herman 
A    B   Wilson 

Utd.  States 
Utd   States 

Magazine  firearm 

1854 

Smith  &  Wesson 

Utd  State* 

Fat  decomposed  by  water  or  steam  at  high  tem- 
perature, since  largely  used  in  soap  making.  . 
Safety  matches  
Iron-clad  floating  batteries  first  used  in  Cri- 

1854 
1855 

1855 

R.  A.  Tilghman 
Lundstrom 

Utd.  States 
Sweden 

Cocaine.  -                         

1855 

Gaedeke 

Process  of  making  steel,  blowing  air  through 
molten  pig  iron  

1855 

Sir  Henry  Bessemer 

Dryplate  photography  .. 

1855 

Dr.  J.  M   Taupenot 

Bicycle  
Sleeoing  car  .  .                                           .             . 

1855 
1856 

Ernst  Michaux 
Woodruff 

France 
Utd   States 

Aniline  dyes  
Printing  machine  for  the  blind  (contains  ele- 
ments of  the  present  typewriting  machine)  .  . 
Regenerative  furnace  
Refining  engine  in  paper  pulp  making.  .  .  . 

1856 

1856 
1856 
1856 

Perkins 

Alfred  E.  Beach 
Wm.  Siemens 
T.  Kingsland 

England 

Utd.  States 
England 
Utd   States 

Coal-oil  first  sold  in  the  United  States  
First     sea-going    iron-clad    war    vessel,     the 
"Glorie" 

1857 

1857 

Messrs.  Stout  &  Hand 

Utd.  States 

Ground  wood  pulp  
Inclined  elevator  and  platform  in  the  reaper.  .  . 
Cable  car  
Breech-loading  ordnance.                             .      .    . 

1858 
1858 
1858 
1858 

Henry  Voelter 
J.  S   Marsh 
E.  A.  Gardner 
Wright  &  Gould 

Germany 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd   States 

1858 

Giffard 

First  Atlantic  cable  

1858 

Cyrus  Field 

Utd  States 

Great  Eastern  launched 

1859 

1860 

Gaston  Plante" 

1860 

Philip  Reis 

Ammonia  absorption  ice  machine  
Improved  stereotyping  process  
Shoe-sewing  machine     

1860 
1861 
1861 

F   P.  E.  Carre 
Charles  Craske 
George  McKay 

France 
Utd.  States 
Utd  States 

Dnven  well,  a  tube  with  a  pointed  perforated 

1861 

Col   N  W   Green 

Utd  States 

Passenger  elevator  
Barbed-wire  fence  introduced                       .    . 

1861 
1861 

E.  G.  Otis 

Utd.  States 
Utd  States 

Calcium  carbide  produced.  .         

1862 

Frederich  Woehler 

Germany 

Revolving  turret  for  floating  battery  

1862 
1862 

Theodore  Timby 

Utd.  States 
Utd   States 

Catling  gun  
Smokeless  gunpowder  

1862 
1863 

Dr.  R.  J.  Catling 
J.  F.  E.  Schultze 

Utd.  States 
Prussia 

Pneumatic  nianoforte  player  (regarded  as  first 
to  strike  keys  by  pneumatic  pockets).  .  .  . 

1863 

M    Fourneaux 

Explosive  gelatine  

1864 

A.  Nobel 

France 

Rubber  dental  plate.  .                          

1864 

J.  A.  Cummings 

Utd   States 

1864 

Jacob  Behel 

Utd   States 

Process  of  making  fine  steel.  .        

1865 

Martin 

Utd   States 

Antiseptic  surgery 

1865 

Sir  Joseph  Lister 

Web-feeding  printing-press  

1865 

William  Bullock 

Utd.  States 

Automatic  shell  ejector  for  revolver  

1865 

W.  C.  Dodge 

Utd  States 

Open-hearth  steel  process. 

1866 

Siem  ens-Martin 

Compressed  air  rock  drill  

1866 

C.  Burleigh. 

Utd.  States 

Torpedo.  . 

1866 

Whitehead 

Utd.  States 

Dynamo  electric  machine  
Sulphite  process  for  making  paper  pulp  from 
wood.  .  . 

1866 
1867 

Wilde 
Tilghmau 

England 
Utd   States 

Dynamo  electric  machine  
Disappearing  gun  carriage  
First  practical  typewriting  machine.  . 

1866 
1868 
1868 

Siemens 
Moncrief 
C.  L.  Sholes 

Germany 
Englnnd 
Utd.  States 

Dynamite  
Oleomargarine  

186S 
1868 

A.  Nobel 
H.  Mece 

France 
France 

Water  heater  for  steam  fire  engine  ,  . 

1868 

W.  A   Brickell 

Utd  States 

Sulky  plow  
Railway  air-brake  
Tunnel  shield  (operated  by  hydraulic  power).  . 
A  curved  spring  tooth  harrow  

1868 
1869 
1869 
1869 

B.  Slusser 
George  Westinghouse 
Alfred  E.  Beach 
David  L.  Carver 

Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


223 


PROGRESS  OF  INVENTIONS—  Continued. 

Inventions. 

Date. 

Inventor. 

Nativity. 

France 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 

England 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
England 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
England 

LTtd.  States 
Utd.  States 

England 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
England 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Switzerland 
Utd.  States 
Russia 

Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Coplay,  Pa. 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 

Utd.  States 

Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
England 
Germany 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
France 
Germany 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 

Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Germany 
France 
Germany 
Germany 
France 
Utd.  States 
Ge-many 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
England 
Germany 

Dynamo-electric  machine  "... 
Celluloid  
Rebounding  gun-lock. 

1870 
1870 
1870 
1871 

1871 
1871 
1871 
1871 
18.72 
1872 
1872 
1873 
1873 

1873 
1873 

1873 
1873 
1874 
1874 
1875 
1875 
1875 
1875 
1875 
1876 
1876 

1876 
1876 
1876 
1877 
1877 
1877 
1877 
1878 

1878 

1878 
1879 
1879 
1879 
1879 
1879 
1880 
1880 
1880 
1880 
1880 
1881 

1882 
1881 
1882 
1882 
1884 
1884 
1884 
1884 
1884 
1884 
1884 
1885 
1885 

Gramme 
J.  W.  &  Isaac  Hyatt 
L.  Hailer 
Goodyear 

R.  L.  Maddox 
Hoe  &  Tucker 
S.  D.  Locke 
S.  Ingersoll 
J.  Lyall 
Clerk  Maxwell 
George  Westinghouse 
E.  H.  Janney 
Willis 

T.  A.  Edison 
M.  L.  Gorham 

Charles  Bennett 
Locke  &  Wood 
Glidden  &  Vaughan 
Sir  William  Thompson 
D.  Brov^n 
T.  S.  C.  Lowe 
F.  Wegmann 
Geo.  T.  Smith 
R.  P.  Pictet 
Alex.  G.  Bell 
Paul  Jablochkoff 

Russell 
D.  C.  Prescott 

T.  A.  Edison 
N.  A.  Otto 
T.  A.  Edison 
Emil  Berliner 
T.  A.  Edison 

Mallon 

Gaily 
J.  F.  Appleby 
Sir  Wm.  Crookes 
Siemens 
W.  Foy 
Lee 
Blake 
Greener 
Camille  A.  Faure 
Eberth  &  Koch 
Sternberg 
Reece 

Schmaele 
Wm.  Schmid 
Robert  Koch 
Louis  Pasteur 
Robert  Koch 
Loeffler 
Nicolaier 
Kuno 
Ottmar  Mergenthaler 
George  W.  Marble 
Schultz 
Cowles 
Carl  Welsbach 

The  Goodyear  welt  shoe-sewing  machine  
Photographic  gelatino-bromide  emulsion  (basis 
of  present  rapid  photography) 

Continuous  web  printing-press  
Grain  binder.  .  . 

Compressed  air  rock  drill  
Positive  motion  weaving  loom.  .  .  . 

Theory  that  light  is  an  electric  phenomenon.  .  . 
Automatic  air  brake  

Automatic  car  coupler.  .  . 

The  photographic  platinotype  process  
(Prints  by  this  process  are  permanent.) 

Twine  binder  for  harvesters.    .  .  '. 

Gelatino-bromide  photographic  emulsion  (sen- 
sitiveness to  light  greatly  increased  by  the 
application  of  heat).  . 

Self-binding  reaper  
Barbed-wire  machine  

Si->hon  recorder  for  submarine  telegraphs  
Store  cash  carrier  

Illuminating  water  gas.     .  . 

Roller  flour  mills  
Middlings  purifier  for  flour.  .  .  . 

Ice-making  machine 

Sneaking  telephone          

Ele  'trie  candle.  .  .  . 

(The  first  step  towards  the  division  of  the 
electric  current  for  lighting.) 
Continuous  machine  for  making  tobacco  cigar- 
ettes   
Steam  faed  saw  mills. 

The  first  Portland  cement  plant  in  U.  S  
Phonograph.  .  .  . 

Ga^  engine 

Carbon  microphone  

Telephone  transmitter  of  variable  resistance.   . 
Carbon  filament  for  electric  lamp.  .  .  . 

(  Beginning  of  the  incandescent  vacuum  elec- 
tric light.) 
Rotary  disk  cultivator  

Decided  advance  in  the  "expression"  of  self- 
playing  pianofortes  
Automatic  grain  binder.  .  .  . 

Cathode  rays  discovered 

Electric  railway  
Steam  plow  

Magazine  rifle.  .  . 

Hammerless  gun  .  .  . 

Storage  battery  or  accumulator  
Typhoid  bacillus  isolated  

Pneumonia  bacillus  isolated. 

Button-hole  machine  

Improvement  in  "expression"  of  self-playing 
pianofortes.  .  . 

Hand  photographic  camera  for  plates  
Tuberculosis  bacillus  isolated  

Hydrophobia  bacillus  isolated.  .  . 

Cholera  bacillus  isolated 

Diphtheria  bacillus  isolated  

Lockjaw  bacillus  isolated.  .  .  . 

Antipyrene. 

Linotype  machine  
The  rear-driven  chain  safety  bicycle.  .  . 

Chrome  tanning  of  leather.  . 

Process  of  reducing  aluminum  
Gas  burner  

224 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


PROGRESS  OF  INVENTIONS—  Continued. 

Inventions. 

Date. 

Inventor.                i     Nativity. 

Hydraulic  dredge  
First  electric  railway  in  United  States,  Hamp- 
den  and  Baltimore,  Md  
Contact  device  for  overhead  electric  trolley.  .  . 
Graphophone  

1885 

1885 
1885 
1886 
1886 
1886 
1887 
1887 
1887 
1887 

1888 
1888 

1888 
1888 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1890 
1890 
1890 
1890 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1892 
1893 
1893 
1893 
1893 
1895 
1895 
1895 
1895 
1896 

1896 
1896 
1897 

1900 

1901 
1901 

1901 

1902 
1902 
1903 
1903 

Bowers 

C.  J.  Van  Depoele 
Bell  &  Tainter 
Elihu  Thompson 
Matteson 
D.  C.  Prescott 
McArthur  &  Forrest 
Nicola  Tesla 
Carl  A.  Von  Welsbach 

Harvey 
Eastman  &  Walker 

H.  DeChardonnet 
Heinrich  Hertz 

Schneider 
Chas.  M.  Hall 
W.  Stephens 
Ottmar  Mergenthaler 

Krag-Jorgensen 
Edouard  Branly 
C.  A.  Parsons 
G.  F.  Russell 
Brown 
Emile  Berliner 
Northrup 
J.  J.  A.  Trillat 
Kimball 
T.  A.  Edison 
E.  G.  Acheson 
Thos.  L.  Willson 
Carl  Linde 

Prof.  W.  C.  Roentgen 
Thomas  L.  Willson 
G.  Marconi 

Henri  Becquerel 
Niels  R.  Finsen 
Walter  Nernst 

Peter  Cooper  Hewitt 

M.  Santos-Dumont 
Deering  Harvester  Co 

Denny  &  Brothers 

Utd.  States 

Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Austria 

Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 

France 
Germany 
Coplay,  Pa. 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Germany 

Utd.  States 
England 
England 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
France 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Utd.  States 
Germany 
Utd.  States 
Germany 
Utd.  States 
Italy 

France 
Denmark 
Germany 

Utd.  States 

France 
Utd.  States 

England 

Utd.  States 
Germany 

Electric  welding  
Combined  harvester  and  thresher. 

Band  wood  saw  
Cyanide  process  of  obtaining  gold  and  silver.  . 
System  of  polyphase  electric  currents  . 

Incandescent  gas  light  
(The  formation  of  a  cone-shaped  interwoven 
mantle  of  thread  coated  with  a  refractory  rare 
earth  and  rendering  the  same  incandescent  by 
the  heat  rays  of  a  Bunsen  gas  burner  regardless 
of  how  the  gas  is  produced.) 
Process  of  annealing  armor  plate  
"Kodak"  snap-shot  camera  
(Constructed  to  use  a  continuous  sensitized 
ribbon  film.) 
Process  of  making  artificial  silk.  .  .  . 

Hertzian  waves  or  electric-wave  radiation  .... 
First  rotary  cement  kilns  in  U.  S  
Nickel  steel.  .  . 

Process  for  making  aluminum  
Electric  plow.  .  . 

Improved  linotype  machine  
Bicycles  equipped  with  pneumatic  tires  
Krag-Jorgensen  magazine  rifle  
"Coherer"  for  receiving  electric  waves  
Rotary  steam  turbine  
Cement-lined  paper-pulp  digester  
Round  bale  cotton  press. 

Microphone  
Power  loom. 

Commercial  application  of  formic-aldehyde.  .  . 
Shoe-last  lathe,  for  different  lengths.*  
Kinetoscope 

Process  for  making  carborundum.  .  .  . 

Calcium  carbide  produced  in  electric  furnace.  . 
Process  for  liquefying  air  
Electric  locomotive,  B.  &  O.  Bell  Tunnel  
X-rays  
Acetylene  gas  from  calcium  carbide  
System  of  wireless  telegraphy  
Foundation  laid  of  science  of  radio-activity, 
i.e.,  emanation  of  penetrating  rays  from  lumi- 
nescent bodies  
Use  of  ultra-violet  rays  in  treating  diseases.  .  . 
Nernst  electric  light 

(Method  of  rendering  a  clay  compound  ca- 
pable of  conducting  electricity  and  thence  be- 
coming   brilliantly    incandescent    without    a 
vacuum.) 
Mercury  vapor  electric  light  
(An  artificial  light  composed  strictly  of  the 
ultra-blue  violet  rays  of  the  spectrum  obtained 
by  passing  an  electric  current  through  a  partial 
vacuum  tube  filled  with  mercury  vapor,  the 
latter  acting  tis   a  conductor.     Possesses   re- 
markable actinic  power  for  photographic  pur- 
poses.) 
Air-ship 

Automobile  mower  
The  first  passenger  steam  turbine  ship,  "Ed- 
ward VI  I.  "  
The  first  oil-burning  steamship  built  in  the 
United  States,  "Nevada" 

English  Pacific  cable,  Canada-  Australia  
American  Pacific  cable  
Berlin-Zossen  Road,  130*  miles  an  hour  

— Encyclopedia  Americana. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


225 


GENERAL    INFORMATION    REGARDING    PATENTS. 


WHAT  is  A  PATENT? — The  term 
imtcnt  or  letters  patent  is  derived  from 
litterae  patentes,  signifying  that  which 
is  open  or  disclosed  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  lettre  de  cache,  that  which 
is  sealed  or  secret.  This  term  is  the 
keynote  of  the  whole  principle  upon 
which  the  patent  system  is  built  up, 
namely,  disclosure.  The  disclosure 
must  be  honest,  absolute  and  unre- 
served. The  penalty  for  mental  crook- 
edness or  for  ignorance  in  giving  out 
fully  and  freely  the  nature  of  the  in- 
vention is  severe  and  direct  and  is 
nothing  less  than  forfeiture  of  the  pat- 
ent itself.  The  reason  for  this  is  per- 
fectly logical  and  arises  from  the  very 
meaning,  spirit  and  nature  of  the  re- 
lationship existing  between  the  pat- 
entee and  the  government.  The  term 
of  a  patent  is  17  years.  During  this 
term  of  17  years  the  patentee  obtains 
a  monopoly  under  which  he  secures  ex- 
clusive right  of  manufacture,  use  and 
sale.  The  patent  itself,  however,  is  in 
the  nature  of  a  contract  between  the 
patentee  and  the  government,  presu- 
mably for  their  mutual  benefit.  The 
government  grants  to  the  inventor  the 
exclusive  right  of  manufacture  and 
sale  for  17  years  on  condition  that  the 
inventor  shall  disclose  fully  the  nature 
of  his  invention  or  discovery,  and  shall 
allow  the  public  the  unrestricted  use 
of  the  invention  after  this  term  has 
expired.  If  he  fail  in  making  full  dis- 
closure, he  has  not  lived  up  to  the 
terms  of  the  implied  contract  and  the 
patent  thereby  becomes  null  and  void. 
It  sometimes  happens  that  an  inventor 
discloses  freely  part  of  the  invention, 
but  cunningly  conceals  some  essential 
step  in  the  process,  but -if  the  case  is 
tested  within  the  courts  and  the  real 
facts  are  brought  to  light,  the  patent 
will  be  declared  invalid.  At  the  end 
of  the  term  of  17  years  the  patent  be- 
comes public  property,  and  the  article 
may  be  freely  manufactured  by  any 
one.  It  can  never  thereafter,  as  in  so 
many  cases  in  the  Middle  Ages,  be- 
come a  lost  art. 

WHO  MAY  OBTAIN  A  PATENT? — In 
order  to  secure  a  valid  patent,  the  ap- 
plicant must  declare  upon  oath  that  he 
believes  himself  to  be  the  true,  original 
and  first  inventor  or  discoverer  of  the 
art,  machine,  manufacture,  composi- 
tion or  improvement  for  which  he  so- 
licits a  patent;  that  he  does  not  know 
and  does  not  believe  that  the  same  was 
ever  before  known  or  used ;  and  that 
the  invention  has  not  been  in  public 


use  or  on  sale  in  the  United  States  for 
more  than  two  years  before  the  appli- 
cation was  tiled,  and  that  the  inven- 
tion has  not  been  described  in  any 
printed  publication  for  more  than  two 
years  prior  to  the  filing  of  the  appli- 
cation. Any  one  who  can  subscribe  to 
the  above  conditions  may  apply  for  a 
patent,  irrespective  of  race,  color,  age, 
or  nationality.  Minors  and  women 
and  even  convicts  may  apply  for  pat- 
ents under  our  law.  The  rights  even 
of  a  dead  man  in  an  invention  are  not 
lost,  for  an  application  may  be  filed  in 
his  name  by  his  executor  or  adminis- 
trator, and  the  rights  of  his  heirs 
thereby  safeguarded.  The  patent  in 
this  case  would  issue  to  the  executor 
or  administrator  and  would  become 
subject  to  the  administration  of  the 
estate  like  any  other  property  left  by 
the  deceased.  Even  the  rights  of  an 
insane  person  may  not  be  lost,  as  the 
application  may  be  filed  by  his  legal 
guardian.  If  foreign  patents  for  the 
same  invention  have  been  previously 
issued,  having  been  filed  more  than  12 
months  before  the  filing  of  the  United 
States  application,  the  patent  would 
be  refused.  The  applicant  must  state 
his  nationality.  It  often  happens  that 
two  or  more  individuals  have  jointly 
worked  upon  the  invention,  and  in  this 
case  the  several  inventors  should  joint- 
ly apply  for  the  patent.  Should  they 
not  so  apply,  the  patent  when  issued 
would  be  invalid.  If  they  are  merely 
partners,  however,  and  not  co-invent- 
ors, they  should  not  apply  jointly  for 
a  patent,  as  the  inventor  alone  is  en- 
titled to  file  the  application.  He  may, 
however,  assign  a  share  in  the  patent 
to  his  partner,  coupled  with  the  re- 
quest that  the  patent  should  issue  to 
them  jointly.  It  is  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance that  these  distinctions  should 
be  clearly  understood ;  otherwise,  the 
patent  may  be  rendered  invalid. 

WHAT  MAY  BE  PATENTED? — Any 
new  and  useful  art,  machine,  manufac- 
ture or  compos'tion  of  matter,  or  any 
new  and  useful  improvements  thereon. 
The  thing  invented  must  be  new  and 
useful.  These  are  conditions  precedent 
to  the  granting  of  a  patent.  Of  these 
two  conditions  by  far  the  more  import- 
ant is  the  former,  and  it  is  concerning 
the  interpretation  of  this  word  "new" 
and  its  bearing  upon  the  invention 
that  the  principal  work  and  labor  in- 
volved in  passing  an  application  safely 
through  the  Patent  Office  is  involved. 
When  the  invention  has  been  worked 


226 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


out  by  the  inventor  and  he  is  pre- 
pared to  file  his  application,  his  attor- 
ney prepares  the  n^es.ary  takers,  as 
Srovided  for  by  law,  namjiy :  An 
ath,  a  Petition,  a  Specific Uion  con- 
s'sting  of  a  description  of  the  inven- 
tion and  concluding  w  th  c  aims  which 
specifically  set  forth  what  the  inventor 
claims  to  be  the  novel  features  of  the 
invention,  and  drawings  which  are  pre- 
pared and  filed  wi.h  the  ca^e,  and  in 
due  course  the  application  is  ready 
for  examination  in  the  Patent  Office. 
The  question  of  whether  the  invention 
is  new  is  then  considered,  and  the  bur- 
den of  proof  that  the  invention  is  not 
new  rests  upon  the  Patent  Office.  The 
examination  consists  in  searching 
through  the  files  of  the  Patent  Office 
among  the  patents  that  have  been  al- 
ready issued,  and  through  si  ch  litera- 
ture as  may  bear  upon  the  subject. 
If  any  reference  is  discovered  that  an- 
ticipates the  invention,  as  defined  by 
the  claims  of  the  specification,  the  av»- 
plicant  is  informed  of  the  fact,  and  he 
is  allowed  to  amend  his  pa.  ers  and 
narrow  the  claims  so  as  to  avoid  the 
prior  patents,  if  possible.  If  his  at- 
torney considers  the  position  of  the 
Patent  Office  untenable,  he  may  pre- 
sent arguments  to  show  wherein  he  be- 
lieves that  the  inventor  is  entitled  to  a 
patent.  It  is  thus  seen  that  the  ques- 
tion of  whether  an  invention  is  new  is 
one  of  fact,  and  one  of  the  greatest 
importance,  and  upon  the  showing  that 
the  inventor  is  able  to  make  during 
the  prosecution  of  the  case,  depends 
largely  the  future  success  of  the  pat- 
ent. The  evidence  adduced  in  proving 
that  the  invention  is  not  new  must  be 
tangible  and  accessible.  A  patent 
would  not  be  refused  or  overturned  on 
a  mere  mental  concept.  There  must 
be  some  evidence  of  a  substantial  char- 
acter that  serves  to  show  that  the 
earlier  idea  was  reduced  to  practice 
or  at  least  that  there  was  such  a  de- 
script'on  or  drawinsr  made,  as  would 
be  sufficient  for  one  skilled  in  the  art  to 
reduce  the  invention  to  practice.  If  it 
has  not  been  actually  reduced  to  prac- 
tice, it  must  be  a  concrete  not  an  ab- 
stract idea. 

It  is  essential  that  the  application 
for  a  patent  should  be  filed  before  the 
invention  has  been  in  public  use  or  on 
sale  for  a  period  of  two  years.  If  the 
inventor  has  publicly  used  or  sold  his 
invention  for  a  period  of  two  years,  it 
becomes  nuHic  property  and  he  can- 
not regain  the  right  to  obtain  a  pat- 
ent. He  may.  however,  make  models 
and  experiment  with  his  invention  for 


a  much  longer  period,  provided  he  does 
not  disclose  his  invention  to  the  pub- 
lic or  put  it  into  actual  use  or  on  sale 
for  a  period  of  two  years.  The  word 
"useful"  is  not  one  which  usually 
gives  either  the  Patent  Office  or  the 
inventor  a  great  deal  of  trouble,  as 
any  degree  of  utility,  however  insignifi- 
cant, will  serve  to  entitle  the  invent- 
or to  a  patent.  It  has  often  hap- 
pened that  an  invention  which  ap- 
pears, at  the  time  the  patent  is  ap- 
plied for,  to  have  no  special  utility,  in 
later  years,  owing  to  new  discoveries 
or  improvements  in  the  arts,  is  found 
to  possess  the  greatest  merit  and 
value.  Unless  an  invention  is  posi- 
tively meretricious,  therefore,  it  is 
difficult  to  assume  that  it  either  has  no 
utility  or  never  will  have  any.  Pat- 
ents are  granted  for  "any  new  and 
useful  art,  machine,  manufacture  or 
composition  of  matter,  or  any  improve- 
ment thereon."  It  is  seen  from  the 
terms  of  the  statute  that  almost  any 
creature  of  the  inventive  faculty  of 
man  becomes  a  proper  subject  for  a 
patent.  The  exceptions  are  very  few. 
Patents  will  not  be  granted,  for  ex- 
ample, for  any  invention  that  offends 
the  law  of  nature.  Under  this  cate- 
gory may  be  mentioned  perpetual  mo- 
tion machines.  In  case  an  application 
of  this  character  is  presented,  the 
Commissioner  politely  informs %  the 
applicant  that  the  matter  cannot  be 
considered  until  a  working  model 
demonstrating  the  principle  of  the  in- 
vention has  been  deposited  in  the  Pat- 
ent Office.  Inventions  of  an  immoral 
nature  will  not  be  considered.  Medi- 
cines and  specifics  are  not  now  proper 
subjects  for  letters  patent,  unless  some 
important  new  discovery  is  involved. 

PATENTED  ARTICLES  MUST  BE 
MARKED. — Articles  manufactured  and 
sold  under  a  patent-  must  be  so  marked 
that  the  public  shall  have  notice  that 
the  article  is  a  patented  one.  This 
notice  consists  of  the  word  "Patented." 
together  witli  the  date  when  the  patent 
was  issued  or  the  Serial  Number  of  the 
patent.  Damages  in  an  infringement 
suit  cannot  be  recovered  unless  the 
defendant  has  received  such  notice 
that  .the  article  is  patented.  The  term 
of  a  United  States  patent  is  17  years. 
This  term  cannot  be  extended  excent 
by  special  Act  of  Congress.  It  is 
many  years  pince  a  bill  seeking  an  ex- 
tension of  the  term  of  a  patent  has 
been  passed  bv  Congress. 

APPEALS. — If  an  appl:cation  for  a 
patent  has  been  reiecfed,  the  at)r>licant 
may  appeal  from  the  Primary  Examin- 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


227 


er  to  the  Board  of  Examiners-in-Chief. 
He  may  further  carry  the  appeal  to 
the  Commissioner  of  Patents,  and  in 
case  he  is  not  satisfied  with  the  lat- 
ter decision,  he  may  carry  the  appeal 
finally  to  the  Court  of  Appeals  of  the 
District  of  Columbia. 

INTERFERENCE. — If  two  or  more  in- 
dividuals shall  have  invented  the  same 
thing  at  or  about  the  same  time,  inter- 
ference proceedings  may  be  instituted 
to  determine  which  applicant  is  the 
original  or  first  inventor.  Interference 
proceedings  are  instituted  between  ap- 
plicants whose  applications  are  pend- 
ing or  between  a  pending  application 
and  a  patent  already  issued,  provided 
the  latter  patent  has  not  been  issued 
for  more  than  two  years  prior  to  the 
filing  of  the  conflicting  application. 
The  proceedings  are  conducted  before 
the  Examiner  of  Interferences.  Ap- 
peal may  be  taken  from  the  Examiner 
of  Interferences  to  the  Board  of  Ex- 
aminers-in-Chief, and  from  the  Board 
of  Examiners-in-Chief  to  the  Commis- 
sioner, and  thence  to  the  Court  of  Ap- 
peals of  the  District  of  Columbia.  Not 
all  the  cla'ms  for  a  patent  are  neces- 
sarily involved,  only  such  as  cover  the 
particular  feature  of  the  invention 
which  is  declared  to  be  in  interference. 
The  unsuccessful  applicant  by  elimi- 
nating the  claims  or  claim  in  contro- 
versy may  procure  allowance  of  the 
other  cla'ms  not  objected  to,  and  have 
the  patent  issued.  In  determining  the 
question  of  priority  of  invention,  wit- 
nesses are  examined  and  the  proceed- 
ings are  conducted  much  in  the  same 
manner  as  in  a  suit  at  law.  The  first 
step  in  the  proceeding  cons:sts  in  filing 
with  the  Commissioner  a  Preliminary 
Statement  made  under  oath,  giving  the 
date  at  which  the  invention  was  first 
conceived  and  reduced  to  some  tangi- 
ble form,  such  as  the  making  of  draw- 
ings, the  construction  of  a  model,  or 
the  disclosing  of  the  invention  to  an- 
other. The  object  of  the  subsequent 
examination  and  cross-examination  is 
to  substantiate  the  date  of  invention 
as  claimed  by  the  applicants  respec- 
tively, and  to  establish  the  priority  of 
invention. 

INFRINGEMENT. — In  case  of  an  ac- 
tion for  the  infringement  of  a  patent, 
the  importance  of  the  question  of  nov- 
elty appears  from  the  special  pleadings 
which  the  defendant  may  enter,  which 
are  as  follows : 

1.  That  for  the  purpose  of  deceiving 
the  public  the  description  and  specifi- 
cation filed  by  the  patentee  in  the  Pat- 
ent Office  was  made  to  contain  less 


than  the  whole  truth  relative  to  his 
invention  or  discovery,  or  more  than  is 
necessary  to  produce  the  desired  effect ; 
or, 

2.  That    he    had    surreptitiously    or 
unjustly  obtained  the  patent  for  that 
which  was  in  fact  invented  by  another, 
who  was  using  reasonable  diligence  in 
adapting  and  perfecting  the  same;  or, 

3.  That  it  had  been  patented  or  de- 
scribed   in    some    printed    publication 
prior  to  his  supposed  invention  or  dis- 
covery thereof ;  or, 

4.  That  he  was  not  the  original  and 
first    inventor    or    discoverer    of    any 
material   and   substantial   part   of   the 
thing  patented  ;  or, 

5.  That    it   has   been    in   public   use 
or  on   sale   in    this  country    for   more 
than  two  years  before  his  application 
for  a   patent,  or  had  been  abandoned 
to  the  public. 

Damages  for  infringement  of  a  pat- 
ent may  be  recovered  by  action  on  the 
case  in  the  name  of  the  patentee  or 
his  assignee.  The  courts  having  juris- 
dict;on  over  such  cases  have  the 
power  (1)  to  grant  injunctions  against 
the  violation  of  any  right  secured  by 
the  patent;  (2)  to  allow  the  recovery 
of  damages  sustained  by  the  complain- 
ant through  such  infringement.  In 
such  a  case  the  defendant  is  compelled 
to  furnish  an  accounting  showing  the 
amount  of  the  articles  manufactured 
and  sold  and  the  profits  derived  from 
such  sale. 

DESIGN  PATENTS. — Design  patents 
are  issued  for  any  new  or  original  de- 
sign, whether  it  be  a  work  of  art, 
statue,  bas-relief,  design  for  prints  or 
fabrics,  or  for  any  new  design  or 
shape  or  ornament  in  any  article  of 
manufacture.  The  scope  of  the  de- 
sign patent  was  formerly  very  broad, 
but  recent  decisions  and  enactments 
have  greatly  restricted  its  availability 
and  a  design  patent  cannot  now  be  ob- 
tained unless  it  possesses  some  inher- 
ent artistic  quality.  Mere  utility  is 
not  sufficient  to  entitle  a  new  design 
to  letters  patent.  The  terms  of  design 
patents  are  3  1-2,  7  or  14  years. 

CAVEATS. — Any  one  who  has  made 
a  new  invention  or  discovery,  which  is 
not  yet  completed  or  perfected,  may 
file  in  the  Patent  Office  a  caveat,  de- 
scrilvng  his  invention,  said  caveat 
serving  as  notice  to  the  Patent  Office 
that  the  caveator  is  in  possession  of  a 
certain  invention  partly  developed,  for 
which  later  he  proposes  to  file  an  ap- 
plication for  a  patent.  The  caveat  is 
filed  by  the  Commission  in  the  secret 
archives  of  the  Patent  Office,  and  is 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


operative  for  a  term  of  one  year.  The 
term  may  he  prolonged  from  year  to 
year  by  the  payment  of  a  small  fee. 
The  caveat  should  not  be  confounded 
with  a  patent,  for  it  gives  the  inventor 
no  real  protection  or  monopoly.  It 
simply  entitles  him  to  notice  in  case 
another  inventor  files  an  application 
for  the  same  invention.  In  this  event 
the  caveator  is  entitled  to  three 
months'  grace  within  which  to  file  his 
patent  application,  whereupon  an  in- 
terference will  be  declared  between  the 
two  inventions. 

ASSIGNMENTS. — A  patent  or  any  in- 
terest therein  may  be  sold  or  assigned 


like  any  other  piece  of  property.  An 
inventor  may  sell  or  assign  his  in- 
terest or  a  part  interest  in  his  inven- 
tion, either  before  the  application  is 
filed  or  while  the  application  is  still 
pending.  Under  these  circumstances 
the  patent  may  be  issued  to  the  as- 
signee or  to  the  inventor  and  assignee 
jointly.  The  patent,  if  already  issued, 
may  be  assigned  by  the  owner  whether 
he  be  the  inventor  or  assignee.  The 
conveyance  is  effected  by  an  instru- 
ment in  writing  stating  the  conditions 
under  which  the  patent  is  assigned, 
and  the  assignment  should  be  recorded 
in  the  Patent  Office. — Enc.  Americana. 


ABSTRACTS  OF  DECISIONS. 


Where  an  inventor  has  completed 
his  invention,  if  he  neither  applies  for 
a  patent  nor  puts  it  to  practical  use, 
a  subsequent  inventor  who  promptly 
applies  is  entitled  to  the  patent,  and 
the  first  one  is  deemed  to  have  aban- 
doned his  rights.  Pattee  v.  Russell, 
3  O.  G.,  181 ;  Ex  parte  Carre,  5  O.  G., 
30;  Johnson  v.  Root,  1  Fisher,  351. 

As  between  two  rival  inventors,  the 
test  of  priority  is  the  diligence  of  the 
one  first  to  conceive  it.  If  he  has  been 
diligent  in  perfecting  it,  he  is  entitled 
to  receive  the  patent.  If  he  has  been 
negligent,  the  patent  is  awarded  to 
his  opponent.  Robinson  on  Patents. 
Sec.  375. 

The  construction  and  use  in  public 
of  a  working  machine,  whether  the  in- 
ventor has  or  has  not  abandoned  it, 
excludes  the  grant  of  a  patent  to  a 
subsequent  inventor.  An  abandon- 
ment in  such  case  inures  to  the  bene- 
fit of  the  public  and  not  to  the  bene- 
fit of  a  subsequent  inventor.  Young  v. 
Van  Duser,  16  O.  G.,  95. 

A  mere  aggregation  or  combination 
of  old  devices  is  not  patentable  when 
the  elements  are  unchanged  in  func- 
tion and  effect.  They  are  patentable 
when,  "by  the  action  of  the  elements 
upon  each  other,  or  by  their  joint  ac- 
tion on  their  common  object,  they  per- 
form additional  functions  and  accom- 
plish additional  effects."  Robinson  on 
Patents,  Sec.  154. 

A  change  of  shape  enabling  an  in- 
strument to  perform  new  functions  is 
invention.  Wilson  v.  Coon,  18  Blatch. 
532;  Collar  Co.  v.  White,  7  O.  G., 
690,  877. 

A  patent  which  is  simply  for  a  meth- 
od of  transacting  business  or  keeping 
accounts  is  not  valid.  U.  S.  Credit 
System  Co.  v.  American  Indemnity 
Co.,  63  O.  G.,  318. 


The  law  requires  that  manufactur- 
ers of  patented  articles  give  notice  to 
the  public  that  the  goods  are  patented 
by  marking  thereon  the  date  of  the 
patent  or  giving  equivalent  notice. 
When  this  law  is  not  complied  with, 
only  nominal  damages  can  be  recov- 
ered. Wilson  v.  Singer  Mfg.  Co.,  4 
Bann.  &  A.  637;  McCourt  v.  Brodie, 
5  Fisher,  384. 

To  prevent  fraudulent  impositions 
on  the  public  it  is  forbidden  that  un- 
patented  articles  be  stamped  "Pat- 
ented," and  where  this  is  done  with 
intention  to  deceive,  a  penalty  of  one 
hundred  dollars  and  costs  for  each 
article  so  stamped  is  provided.  Any 
person  may  bring  action  against  such 
offenders.  Walker  v.  Hawxhurst,  5 
Blatch.  494;  Tompkins  v.  Butterfield, 
25  Fed.  Rep.  556. 

A  patentee  is  bound  by  the  limita- 
tions imposed  on  his  patent,  whether 
they  are  voluntary  or  enforced  by  the 
Patent  Office,  and  if  he  accepts  claims 
not  covering  his  entire  invention  he 
abandons  the  remainder.  Toepfer  v. 
Goetz,  41  O.  G.,  933. 

Claims  should  be  construed,  if  pos- 
sible, to  sustain  the  patentee's  right  to 
all  he  has  invented.  Ransom  v.  Mayor 
of  N.  Y.  (1856),  Fisher,  252. 

The  assignor  of  a  patented  invention 
is  estopped  from  denying  the  validity 
of  his  own  patent  or  his  own  title  to 
the  interest  transferred.  He  cannot 
become  the  owner  of  an  older  patent 
and  hold  it  against  his  assignee.  Rob- 
inson on  Patents,  Sec.  787,  and  notes. 

Any  assignment  which  does  not  con- 
vey to  the  assignee  the  entire  and  un- 
qualified monopoly  which  the  patentee 
holds  in  the  territory  specified,  or  an 
undivided  interest  in  the  entire  mo- 
nopoly, is  a  mere  license.  Sanford  v. 
Messer,  2  O.  G.,  470. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


229 


FOREIGN    PATENTS. 


CANADA,  DOMINION  OF. — The  laws 
of  Canada  follow  somewhat  closely  the 
practice  in  the  United  States.  The 
term  of  a  patent  is  18  years.  The  gen- 
eral practice,  however,  is  to  divide  the 
fees,  making  payment  only  for  a  term 
of  six  years  at  one  time.  Applications 
are  subjected  to  examination  as  to 
novelty  and  usefulness,  as  in  the 
United  States.  The  application  must 
be  filed  in  Canada  not  later  than  dur- 
ing the  year  following  the  issue  of  the 
United  States  or  other  foreign  patent. 
If  the  inventor  neglects  to  file  his  ap- 
plication within  the  12  months,  the 
invention  becomes  public  property.  It 
is  not  permissible  to  import  the  pat-, 
euted  article  into  the  Dominion  after 
12  months  from  the  date  of  the  Cana- 
dian patent.  Within  two  years  from 
said  date  the  manufacture  and  sale  of 
the  article  under  the  patent  must  have 
been  begun.  These  exactions  may  be 
relaxed  under  certain  conditions. 

GREAT  BRITAIN. — The  term  of  the 
patent  is  14  years.  .  After  January, 
1905,  an  examination  will  be  made  in 
Great  Britain  to  ascertain  whether 
the  invention  has  been  disclosed  in  the 
specifications  of  British  patents  grant- 
ed within  fifty  years  of  the  filing  of  the 
British  application.  While  this  will  be 
the  extent  of  the  examination  by  the 
Patent  Office,  it  will  be  sufficient  to 
invalidate  a  British  patent  to  show  in 
court  that  the  invention  was  published, 
or  was  in  public  use,  in  Great  Brit- 
ain before  the  priority  of  the  British 
application.  In  Great  Britain  the  true 
inventor  should  apply  for  the  patent  in 
his  own  name ;  but  if  the  invention  has 
been  conceived  in  a  foreign  country, 
the  first  introducer  may  obtain  the  pat- 
ent whether  he  be  the  true  inventor  or 
not.  Under  these  circumstances,  there- 
fore, a  foreign  assignee  may  apply  for 
the  patent  in  his  own  name  without 
the  true  inventor  being  known.  After 
the  fourth  year  there  are  annual  taxes, 
gradually  increasing  in  amount.  The 
patent  becomes  void  if  the  tax  is  not 
paid.  No  time  is  set  within  which  the 
manufacture  of  the  invention  must  be 
commenced,  but  after  three  years  if  the 
manufacture  has  not  been  begun,  the 
patentee  may  be  compelled  to  grant  li- 
censes, or  the  patent  may  be  declared 
invalid. 

FRANCE. — The  term  of  a  patent  is 
15  years.  There  is  no  examination  as 
to  novelty,  and  the  patent  is  granted 
to  the  first  applicant,  whether  or  not 
he  be  the  true  inventor.  The  life  of 


the  patent  depends  upon  the  payment 
of  annual  taxes.  The  patent  must  be 
worked  in  France  within  three  years 
of  the  filing  of  the  application.  If  these 
conditions  are  not  complied  with,  the 
patent  becomes  public  property. 

GERMANY. — The  term  of  a  patent  is 
15  years.  The  patent  is  issued  to  the 
first  applicant,  but  if  he  is  not  the  true 
inventor  he  should,  before  filing  the 
application,  obtain  the  written  consent 
of  the  inventor.  The  application  is 
subjected  to  a  rigid  examination.  The 
patent  is  subject  to  an  annual  progres- 
sive tax,  and  must  be  worked  within 
a  period  of  three  years. 

AUSTRIA. — The  term  of  a  patent  is 
15  years.  The  practice  is  somewhat 
similar  to  the  practice  in  Germany, 
although  the  examination  is  generally 
not  so  exacting.  The  patent  is  subject 
to  an  annual  tax  and  it  must  be 
worked  within  a  period  of  three  years. 

HUNGARY. — The  term  of  a  patent  is 
15  years.  The  laws  are  similar  to 
those  of  Germany.  There  is  a  progres- 
sive annual  tax  and  the  patent  must  be 
worked  within  a  period  of  three 
years. 

BELGIUM. — The  term  of  a  patent  is 
20  years.  The  first  applicant  obtains 
the  patent  whether  or  not  he  is  the 
true  inventor.  There  is  a  small  an- 
nual tax,  and  the  patent  should  be 
worked  within  three  years  or  within 
one  year  of  the  working  elsewhere. 

ITALY. — The  term  of  a  patent  is  15 
years.  The  patent  is  granted  to  the  first 
applicant.  The  patent  is  subject  to  an 
annual  tax,  and  the  working  must  take 
place  within  three  years. 

RUSSIA. — The  term  of  the  patent  is 
15  years.  The  patent  is  subject  to  the 
payment  of  annual  taxes  and  must  be 
worked  within  five  years. 

SPAIN. — The  term  of  the  patent  is 
20  years,  subject  to  the  payment  of  an- 
nual taxes.  It  must  be  worked  within 
three  years.  The  patent  is  issued  to 
the  first  applicant,  whether  or  not  he 
be  the  true  inventor. 

SWITZERLAND. — The  term  of  the 
patent  is  15  years,  subject  to  an  an- 
nual tax.  Working  must  take  place 
within  three  years.  Only  the  true  in- 
ventor or  his  assignee  can  obtain  a 
patent. 

NORWAY. — Term  of  patent  is  15 
years,  subject  to  a  small  annual  tax. 
The  patent  must  be  worked  within 
three  years.  The  application  must  be 
filed  in  the  name  of  the  true  inventor 
or  his  legal  representative.  Applica- 


230 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


tion  must  be  filed  within  six  months  of 
the  publication  of  any  prior  patent. 

SWEDEN. — Term  of  patent  is  15 
years,  subject  to  payment  of  an  an- 
nual tax.  The  conditions  are  very 
similar  to  the  laws  of  Norway,  but  the 
application  should  be  filed  before  the 
issuing  of  a  prior  foreign  patent. 

DENMARK. — -The  laws  are  similar  to 
those  of  Sweden. 

PORTUGAL. — The  term  varies  from 
1  to  15  years,  the  fees  payable  depend- 
ing upon  the  term  of  the  patent. 

HOLLAND  has  no  patent  laws. 

AUSTRALASIA.  —  The  Australasia 
patent  protects  an  invention  in  Vic- 
toria, New  South  Wales,  Queensland, 
South  Australia,  Tasmania  and  West- 
ern Australia,  but  not  in  New  Zealand, 
which  has  its  own  patent  laws.  The 
term  of  the  Australia  patent  is  14 
years,  a  tax  being  due  before  the  ex- 
piration of  the  seventh  year.  When 
the  patent  is  not  worked  the  patentee 
may  be  required  to  give  license  for  a 
reasonable  consideration. 

NEW  ZEALAND. — The  term  of  the 
patent  is  14  years,  taxes  being  due  be- 
fore the  end  of  the  fourth  and  sev- 
enth years.  There  are  no  require- 
ments as  to  working. 

BRITISH  INDIA. — The  patent  is 
granted  for  14  years,  and  closely  fol- 
lows the  British  practice.  The  appli- 
cation should  be  filed  within  one  year 
of  the  issue  of  the  patent  in  any  other 
country. 

PORTO  Rico. — It  is  possible  to  pro- 
cure protection  for  industrial  property 
by  registering  a  certified  copy  of  the 
United  States  patent  with  the  Civil 
Governor  and  complying  with  the  other 
legal  formalities. 

PHILIPPINES. — The  modus  operand! 
is  the  same  as  that  just  described  as 
applying  to  Porto  Rico. 

CUBA. — Since  Cuba  has  become  an 
independent  republic  it  has  established 
a  patent  system.  The  term  of  the  pat- 


ent is  17  years.  Working  should  be 
established  within  one  year.  No  taxes 
after  the  issue  of  the  patent. 

MEXICO. — The  term  is  20  years. 
There  are  no  taxes  after  the  issue  of 
the  patent. 

SOUTH  AMERICAN  REPUBLICS. — 
Patents  are  issued  by  all  the  South 
American  republics.  The  principal 
countries  in  which  patent  protection 
is  sought  are  Brazil,  in  which  the  laws 
are  quite  favorable  to  foreigners,  Chile 
and  Argentina.  Patents  are  also  fre- 
quently secured  in  Venezuela,  Peru. 
Ecuador,  Colombia  and  Paraguay,  but 
only  for  certain  classes  of  invention, 
owing  to  the  expense  involved  in  pro- 
curing the  patents. 

SOUTH  AFRICA. — Patents  are  obtain- 
able in  four  important  states,  Cape 
Colony,  Transvaal.  Congo  Free  State 
and  Orange  Free  State. 

JAPAN  has  recently  enacted  a  sys- 
tem of  patent  laws  on  a  liberal  basis. 

CHINA  has  no  patent  laws  nor  pat- 
ent office. 

The  conditions  under  which  foreign- 
ers may  file  applications  in  the  coun- 
tries having  patent  laws  vary  great- 
ly, and  no  attempt  has  been  made 
to  specify  under  what  conditions  ap- 
plications may  be  filed.  In  most  coun- 
tries, however,  the  issuance  of  a  prior 
foreign  patent  will  either  defeat  the  is- 
suance of  the  patent  subsequently  ap- 
plied for  in  another  country,  or  will 
render  the  patent  invalid  even  if  it  is 
issued.  Great  care  should  be  taken, 
therefore,  to  avoid  having  a  foreign 
patent  issue  at  such  a  time  as  to  en- 
danger the  life  of  the  patent  at  home. 
The  many  dangers  and  difficulties 
which  have  arisen  from  the  differing 
laws  and  the  varying  practice  in  dif- 
ferent countries  have  led  to  the  es- 
tablishment of  rectifying  provisions 
which  lessen  these  various  disparities 
and  rendering  them  innocuous. 

— Encyclopedia  Americana. 


PATENT  LAWS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


[The  Constitutional  Provision. — 
The  Congress  shall  have  power  *  *  * 
to  promote  the  progress  of  Science 
and  Useful  Arts,  by  securing  for  limit- 
ed Times  to  Authors  and  Inventors 
the  exclusive  Right  to  their  respective 
Writings  and  Discoveries.] 

STATUTES. 
ORGANIZATION   OF  THE  PATENT  OFFICE. 

TITLE  XI.  Rev.  Stat.,  p.  80: 
Sec.  475.     There  shall  be  in  the  De- 
partment   of    the    Interior    an    office 


known  as  the  Patent  Office,  where  all 
records,  books,  models,  drawings,  speci- 
fications, and  other  papers  and  things 
pertaining  to  patents  shall  be  safely 
kept  and  preserved. 

Sec.  47(>.  There  shall  be  in  the 
Patent  Office  a  Commissioner  of  Pat- 
ents, one  Assistant  Commissioner,  and 
three  examiners-in-chief.  who  shall  be 
appointed  by  the  President,  by  and 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Senate.  All  other  officers,  clerks,  and 
employees  authorized  by  law  for  the 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


231 


Office  shall  be  appointed  by  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Interior,  upon  the  nomi- 
nation of  the  Commissioner  of  Pat- 
ents. 

COURTS. 

Sec.  629.     The  circuit,  courts  shall 
have   original   jurisdiction     * 
of    all    suits    at    law    or    in    equity 
arising    under    the    patent    copyright 
laws  of  the  United  States. 

TITLE  XIII,  Rev.  Stat,  p.  169: 
Sec.  893.  Copies  of  the  specifica- 
tions and  drawings  of  foreign  letters 
patent  certified. as  provided  in  the  pre- 
ceding section,  shall  be  prima  facie 
evidence  of  the  fact  of  the  granting 
of  such  letters  patent,  and  of  the  date 
and  contents  thereof. 

Sec.  894.  The  printed  copies  of 
specifications  and  drawings  of  patents, 
which  the  Commissioner  of  Patents  is 
authorized  to  print  for  gratuitous  dis- 
tribution, and  to  deposit  in  the  capi- 
tols  of  the  Slates  and  Territories,  and 
in  the  clerks'  offices  of  the  district 
courts,  shall,  when  certified  by  him 
and  authenticated  by  the  seal  of  his 
office,  be  received  in  all  courts  as  evi- 
dence of  all  matters  therein  contained. 
Sec.  1537.  No  patented  article 
connected  with  marine  engines  shall 
hereafter  be  purchased  or  used  in  con- 
nection with  any  steam  vessels  of  war 
until  the  same  shall  have  been  sub- 
mitted to  a  competent  board  of  naval 
engineers,  and  recommended  by  such 
board,  in  writing,  for  purchase  and 
use. 

TITLE  XVII,  Rev.  Stat.,  p.  292: 
Sec.  1673.  No  royalty  shall  be  paid 
by  the  United  States  to  any  one  of  its 
officers  or  employees  for  the  use  of  any 
patent  for  the  system,  or  any  part 
theeof,  mentioned  in  the  preceding 
section,  nor  for  any  such  patent  in 
which  said  officers  or  employees  may  be 
directly  or  indirectly  interested. 

PATENTS. 

TITLE  LX,  .Rev.  Stat.,  1878,  chap. 
1,  p.  945: 

Sec.  4883.  All  patents  shall  be  is- 
sued in  the  name  of  the  United  States 
of  America,  under  the  seal  of  the  Pat- 
ent Office,  and  shall  be  signed  by  the 
Commissioner  of  Patents,  and  they 
shall  be  recorded,  together  with  the 
specifications,  in  the  Patent  Office  in 
books  to  be  kept  for  that  purpose. 

Sec.  4884.  Every  patent  shall  con- 
tain a  short  title  or  description  of 
the  invention  or  discovery,  correctly 
indicating  its  nature  and  design,  and  a 


grant  to  the  patentee,  his  heirs  or  as- 
signs, for  the  term  of  seventeen  years, 
of  the  exclusive  right  to  make,  use,  and 
vend  the  invention  or  discovery 
throughout  the  United  States  and  the 
Territories  thereof,  referring  to  the 
specification  for  the  particulars  there- 
of. A  copy  of  the  specification  and 
drawings  shall  be  annexed  to  the  pat- 
ent and  be  a  part  thereof. 

Sec.  4885.  Every  patent  shall  bear 
date  as  of  a  day  not  later  than  six 
months  from  the  time  at  which  it  was 
passed  and  allowed  and  notice  thereof 
was  sent  to  the  applicant  or  his  agent ; 
and  if  the  final  fee  is  not  paid  within 
that  period  the  patent  shall  be  with- 
held. 

Sec.  4886.  Any  person  who  has  in- 
vented or  discovered  any  new  and  use- 
ful art,  machine,  manufacture,  or  com- 
position of  matter,  or  any  new  and 
useful  improvements  thereof,  not 
known  or  used  by  others  in  this  coun- 
try, before  his  invention  or  discovery 
thereof,  and  not  patented  or  described 
in  any  printed  publication  in  this  or 
any  foreign  country,  before  his  in- 
vention or  discovery  thereof,  or  more 
than  two  years  prior  to  his  applica- 
tion, and  not  in  public  use  or  on  sale 
in  this  country  for  more  than  two 
years  prior  to  his  application,  unless 
the  same  is  proved  to  have  been  aban- 
doned, may,  upon  payment  of  the  fees 
required  by  law,  and  other  due  pro- 
ceeding had,  obtain  a  patent  therefor. 
The  Secretary  of  the  Interior  and 
the  Commissioner  of  Patents  are  au- 
thorized to  grant  any  officer  of  the 
Government,  except  officers  and  em- 
ployees of  the  Patent  Office,  a  patent 
for  any  invention  of  the  classes  men- 
tioned in  section  4886  of  the  Revised 
Statutes  when  such  invention  is  used 
or  to  be  used  in  the  public  service, 
without  the  payment  of  any  fee: 
Provided,  That  the  applicant  in  his 
application  shall  state  that  the  in- 
vention described  therein,  if  patented, 
may  be  used  by  the  Government,  or  any 
of  its  officers  or  employees  in  prose- 
cution of  work  for  the  Government,  or 
by  any  other  person  in  the  United 
Spates,  without  the  payment  to  him 
of  any  royalty  thereon,  which  stipula- 
tion shall  be  'included  in  the  patent. 

Sec.  4887.  No  person  otherwise  en- 
titled thereto  shall  be  debarred  from 
receiving  a  patent  for  his  invention  or 
discovery,  nor  shall  any  patent  be  de- 
clared invalid  by  reason  of  its  having 
been  first  patented  or  caused  to  be 
patented  by  the  inventor  or  his  legal 
representatives  or  assigns  in  a  foreign 


232 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


country,  unless  the  application  for  said 
foreign  patent  was  filed  more  than 
twelve  months,  in  cases  within  the  pro- 
visions of  section  4880  of  the  Revised 
Statutes,  and  four  months  in  cases 
of  designs,  prior  to  the  filing  of  the 
application  in  this  country,  in  which 
case  no  patent  shall  be  granted  in 
this  country. 

An  application  for  patent  for  an  in- 
vention or  discovery  or  for  a  design 
filed  in  this  country  by  any  person 
who  has  previously  regularly  filed  an 
application  for  a  patent  for  the  same 
invention,  discovery,  or  design  in  a 
foreign  country  which,  by  treaty,  con- 
vention, or  law,  affords  similar  privi- 
leges to  citizens  of  the  United  States 
shall  have  the  same  force  and  effect 
as  the  same  application  would  have 
if  filed  in  this  country  on  the  date  on 
which  the  application  for  patent  for 
the  same  invention,  discovery,  or  de- 
sign was  first  filed  in  such  foreign 
country,  provided  the  application  in 
this  country  is  filed  within  twelve 
months  in  cases  within  the  provisions 
of  section  488(3  of  the  Revised  Stat- 
utes, and  within  four  months  in  cases 
of  designs,  from  the  earliest  date  on 
which  any  such  foreign  application 
was  filed.  But  no  patent  shall  be 
granted  on  an  application  for  patent 
for  an  invention  or  discovery  or  a  de- 
sign which  had  been  patented  or  de- 
scribed in  a  printed  publication  in 
this  or  any  foreign  country  more  than 
two  years  before  the  date  of  the  ac- 
tual filing  of  the  application  in  this 
country,  or  which  had  been  in  public 
use  or  on  sale  in  this  country  for 
more  than  two  years  prior  to  such 
filing. 

Sec.  4888.  Before  any  inventor  or 
discoverer  shall  receive  a  patent  for 
his  invention  or  discovery,  he  shall 
make  application  therefor,  in  writing, 
to  the  Commissioner  of  Patents,  and 
shall  file  in  the  Patent  Office  a  writ- 
ten description  of  the  same,  and  of 
the  manner  and  process  of  making, 
constructing,  compounding,  and  using 
it,  in  such  full,  clear,  concise,  and  ex- 
act terms  as  to  enable  any  person 
skilled  in  the  art  or  science  to  which 
it  appertains,  or  with  which  it  is  most 
nearly  connected,  to  make,  construct, 
compound,  and  use  the  same :  and  in 
case  of  a  machine,  he  shall  explain 
the  principle  thereof,  and  the  best 
mode  in  which  he  has  contemplated 
applying  that  principle,  so  as  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  other  inventions ;  and 
he  shall  particularly  point  out  and 
distinctly  claim  the  part,  improvement, 


or  combination  which  he  claims  as  his 
invention  or  discovery.  The  specifica- 
tion and  claim  shall  be  signed  by  the 
inventor  and  attested  by  two  wit- 
nesses. 

Sec.  4889.  When  the  nature  of  the 
case  admits  of  drawings,  the  applicant 
shall  furnish  one  copy  signed  by  the 
inventor  or  his  attorney  in  fact,  and 
attested  by  two  witnesses,  which  shall 
be  filed  in  the  Patent  Office ;  and  a» 
copy  of  the  drawing,  to  be  furnished 
by  the  Patent  Office,  shall  be  attached 
to  the  patent  as  a  part  of  the  specifi- 
cation. 

Sec.  4890.  When  the  invention  or 
discovery  is  of  a  composition  of  mat- 
ter, the  applicant,  if  required  by  the 
Commissioner,  shall  furnish  specimens 
of  ingredients  and  of  the  composition, 
sufficient  in  quantity  for  the  purpose 
of  experiment. 

Sec.  4891.  In  all  cases  which  ad- 
mit of  representation  by  model,  the 
applicant,  if  required  by^the  Commis- 
sioner, shall  furnish  a  model  of  con- 
venient size  to  exhibit  advantageously 
the  several  parts  of  his  invention  or 
discovery. 

Sec.  4892.  The  applicant  shall 
make  oath  that  he  does  verily  believe 
himself  to  be  the  original  and  first  in- 
ventor or  discoverer  of  the  art,  ma- 
chine, manufacture,  composition,  or 
improvement  for  which  he  solicits  a 
patent ;  that  he  does  not  know  and 
does  not  believe  that  the  same  was 
ever  before  known  or  used  ;  and  shall 
state  of  what  country  he  is  a  citizen. 
Such  oath  may  be  made  before  any 
person  within  the  United  States  au- 
thorized by  law  to  administer  oaths, 
or,  when  the  applicant  resides  in  a 
forengn  country,  before  any  minister, 
charge  d'affaires,  consul,  or  commer- 
cial agent  holding  commission  under 
the  Government  of  the  United  States, 
or  before  any  notary  public,  judge,  or 
magistrate  having  an  official  seal  and 
authorized  to  administer  oaths  in  the 
foreign  country  in  which  the  applicant 
may  be,  whose  authority  shall  be 
proved  by  certificate  of  a  diplomatic 
or  consular  officer  of  the  United 
States. 

Sec.  4893.  On  the  filing  of  any 
such  application  and  the  payment  of 
the  fees  required  by  law,  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Patents  shall  cause  an  exam- 
ination to  be  made  of  the  alleged  new 
invention  or  discovery  ;  and  if  on  such 
examination  it  shall  appear  that  the 
claimant  is  justly  entitled  to  a  patent 
under  the  law,  and  that  the  same  is 
sufficiently  useful  and  important,  the 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


233 


Commissioner  shall  issue  a  patent 
therefor. 

Sec.  4894.  All  applications  for  pat- 
ents shall  be  completed  and  prepared 
for  examination  within  one  year  after 
the  filing  of  the  application,  and  in  de- 
fault thereof,  or  upon  failure  of  the 
applicant  to  prosecute  the  same  with- 
in one  year  after  any  action  therein, 
of  which  notice  shall  have  been  given 
to  the  applicant,  they  shall  be  regarded 
as  abandoned  by  the  parties  thereto, 
unless  it  be  shown  to  the  satisfaction 
of  the  Commissioner  of  Patents  that 
such  delay  was  unavoidable. 

Sec.  4895.  Patents  may  be  granted 
and  issued  or  reissued  to  the  assignee 
of  the  inventor  or  discoverer ;  but  the 
assignment  must  first  be  entered  of 
record  in  the  Patent  Office.  And  in 
all  cases  of  an  application  by  an  as- 
signee for  the  issue  of  a  patent,  the 
application  shall  be  made  and  the 
specification  sworn  to  by  the  inventor 
or  discoverer ;  and  in  all  cases  of 
an  application  for  a  reissue  of  any 
patent,  the  application  must  be  made 
and  the  corrected  specification  signed 
by  the  inventor  or  discoverer,  if  he 
is  living,  unless  the  patent  was  is- 
sued and  the  assignment  made  before 
the  eighth  day  of  July,  1870. 

Sec.  4896.  When  any  person,  hav- 
ing made  any  new  invention  or  dis- 
covery for  which  a  patent  might  have 
been  granted,  dies  before  a  patent  is 
granted,  the  right  of  applying  for  and 
obtaining  the  patent  shall  devolve  on 
his  executor  or  administrator,  in  trust 
for  the  heirs  at  law  of  the  deceased, 
in  case  he  shall  have  died  intestate ; 
or  if  he  shall  have  left  a  will  disposing 
of  the  same,  then  in  trust  for  his  de- 
visees, in  as  full  manner  and  on  the 
same  terms  and  conditions  as  the  same 
might  have  been  claimed  or  enjoyed 
by  him  in  his  lifetime ;  and  when  the 
application  is  made  by  such  legal  rep- 
resentatives, the  oath  or  affirmation 
required  to  be  made  shall  be  so  varied 
in  form  that  it  can  be  made  by  them. 
The  executor  or  administrator  duly  au- 
thorized under  the  law  of  any  foreign 
country  to  administer  upon  the  estate 
of  the  deceased  inventor  shall,  in  case 
the  said  inventor  was  not  domiciled  in 
the  United  States  at  the  time  of  his 
death,  have  the  right  to  apply  for  and 
obtain  the  patent.  The  authority  of 
such  foreign  executor  or  administrator 
shall  be  proved  by  certificate  of  a 
diplomatic  or  consular  officer  of  the 
United  States. 

Sec.  4897.  Any  person  who  has  an 
interest  in  an  invention  or  discovery, 


whether  as  inventor,  discoverer,  or  as- 
signee, for  which  a  patent  was  order- 
ed to  issue  upon  the  payment  of  the 
final  fee,  but  who  fails  to  make  pay- 
ment thereof  within  six  months  from 
the  time  at  which  it  was  passed  and 
allowed,  and  notice  thereof  was  sent 
to  the  applicant  or  his  agent,  shall 
have  a  right  to  make  an  application 
for  a  patent  for  such  invention  or  dis- 
covery the  same  as  in  the  case  of  an 
original  application.  But  such  second 
application  must  be  made  within  two 
years  after  the  allowance  of  the  ori- 
ginal application.  But  no  person 
shall  be  held  responsible  in  damages 
for  the  manufacture  or  use  of  any 
article  or  thing  for  which  a  patent 
was  ordered  to  issue  under  such  re- 
newed application  prior  to  the  issue 
of  the  patent.  And  upon  the  hear- 
ing of  renewed  applications  pre- 
ferred under  -this  section,  abandon- 
ment shall  be  considered  as  a  question 
of  fact. 

Sec.  4898.  Every  patent  or  any  in- 
terest therein  shall  be  assignable  in 
law  by  an  instrument  in  writing,  and 
the  patentee  or  his  assigns  or  legal 
representatives  may  in  like  manner 
grant  and  convey  an  exclusive  right 
under  his  patent  to  the  whole  or  any 
specified  part  of  the  United  States. 
An  assignment,  grant,  or  conveyance 
shall  be  void  as  against  any  subse- 
quent purchaser  for  mortgagee  or  a 
valuable  consideration,  without  notice, 
unless  it  is  recorded  in  the  Patent 
Office  within  three  months  from  the 
date  thereof. 

If  any  such  assignment,  grant,  or 
conveyance  of  any  patent  shall  be  ac- 
knowledged before  any  notary  public 
of  the  several  States  or  Territories  or 
the  District  of  Columbia,  or  any  com- 
missioner of  the  United  States  Circuit 
Court,  or  before  any  secretary  of  le- 
gation or  consular  officer  authorized 
to  administer  oaths  or  perform  nota- 
rial acts  under  section  1750  of  the 
Revised  Statutes,  the  certificate  of 
such  acknowledgment,  under  the  hand 
and  official  seal  of  such  notary  or  oth- 
er officer,  shall  be  prima  facie  evidence 
of  the  execution  of  such  assignment, 
grant  or  conveyance. 

Sec.  4899.  Every  person  who  pur- 
chases of  the  inventor  or  discoverer, 
or,  with  his  knowledge  and  consent, 
constructs  any  newly  invented  or  dis- 
covered machine,  or  other  patentable 
article,  prior  to  the  application  by  the 
inventor  or  discoverer  for  a  patent, 
or  who  sells  or  uses  one  so  constructed, 
shall  have  the  right  to  use,  and  vend 


234 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


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CONVENTIONAL  SIGNS   USED  IN   U.  S.  PATENT  OFFICE  DRAWINGS. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


235 


to  others  to  be  used,  the  specific  thing 
so  made  or  purchased,  without  liability 
therefor. 

Sec.  4900.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of 
all  patentees,  and  their  assigns  and 
legal  representatives,  and  of  all  per- 
sons making  or  vending  any  patented 
article  for  or  under  them,  to  give  suffi- 
cient notice  to  the  public  that  the  same 
is  patented  either  by  fixing  thereon 
the  word  "patented,"  together  with  the 
day  and  year  the  patent  was  granted  ; 
or  when,  from  the  character  of  the  ar- 
ticle, this  cannot  be  done,  by  fixing  to 
it,  or  to  the  package  wherein  one  or 
more  of  them  is  inclosed,  a  label  con- 
ta  ning  the  like  notice;  and  in  any 
suit  for  infringement,  by  the  party 
failing  so  to  mark,  no  damages  shall 
be  recovered  by  the  plaintiff,  except  on 
proof  that  the  defendant  was  duly 
notified  of  the  infringement,  and  con- 
tinued, after  such  notice,  to  make, 
use,  or  vend  the  article  so  patented. 

Sec.  4901.  Every  person  who,  in 
any  manner,  marks  upon  anything 
made,  used,  or  sold  by  him  for  which 
he  has  not  obtained  a  patent,  the 
name  or  any  imitation  of  the  name  of 
any  persons  who  has  obtained  a  pat- 
ent therefor,  without  the  consent  of 
such  patentee,  or  his  assigns  or  legal 
representatives ;  or 

Who,  in  any  manner-,  marks  upon  or 
affixes  to  any  such  patented  article 
the  word  "patent"  or  "patentee,"  or 
the  words  "letters  patent,"  or  any 
word  of  like  import,  with  intent  to  imi- 
tate or  counterfeit  the  mark  or  device 
of  the  patentee,  without  having  the 
license  or  consent  of  such  patentee  or 
his  assigns  or  legal  representatives; 
or 

Who,  in  any  manner,  marks  upon  or 
affixes  to  any  unpatented  article  the 
word  "patent"  or  any  word  importing 
that  the  same  is  patented,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  deceiving  the  public,  shall  be 
liable,  for  every  such  offense,  to  a 
penalty  of  not  less  than  one  hundred 
dollars,  with  costs;  one-half  of  said 
penalty  to  the  person  who  shall  sue 
for  the  same,  and  the  other  to  the  use 
of  the  United  States,  to  be  recovered 
by  suit  in  any  district  court  of  the 
United  States,  within  whose  jurisdic- 
t'on  such  offense  may  have  been  com- 
mitted. 

Sec.  4902.  Any  person  who  makes 
any  new  invention  or  discovery  and 
desires  further  time  to  mature  the 
fame  may.  on  pavment  of  the  fees  re- 
quired by  law,  file  in  the  Patent  Office 
a  caveat  setting  forth  the  design  there- 
of and  of  its  distinguishing  charac- 


teristics and  praying  protection  of  his 
right  until  he  shall  have  matured  his 
invention.  Such  caveat  shall  be  filed 
in  the  confidential  archives  of  the  office 
and  preserved  in  secrecy,  and  shall  be 
operative  for  the  term  of  one  year 
from  the  filing  thereof;  and  if  appli- 
cation is  made  within  the  year  by  any 
other  persons  for  a  patent  with  which 
such  caveat  would  in  any  manner  in- 
terfere th*e  Commissioner  shall  deposit 
the  description,  specification,  drawings, 
and  model  of  such  application  in  like 
manner  in  the  confidential  archives  of 
the  office,  and  give  notice  thereof  by 
mail  to  the  person  by  whom  the  ca- 
veat was  filed.  If  such  person  desires 
to  avail  himself  of  his  caveat  he  shall 
tile  his  description,  specifications, 
drawings,  and  model  within  three 
months  from  the  time  of  placing  the 
notice  in  the  post-office  in  Washington, 
with  the  usual  time  required  for  trans- 
mitting it  to  the  caveator  added  there- 
to, which  time  shall  be  indorsed  on  the 
notice. 

Sec.  4903.  Whenever,  on  examina- 
tion, any  claim  for  a  patent  is  re- 
jected, the  Commissioner  shall  notify 
the  applicant  thereof,  giving  him  brief- 
ly the  reasons  for  such  rejection,  to- 
gether with  such  information  and  ref- 
erences as  may  be  useful  in  judging  of 
the  propriety  of  renewing  his  applica- 
tion or  of  altering  his  specification ; 
and  if,  after  receiving  such  notice, 
the  applicant  persists  in.  his  claim 
for  a  patent,  with  or  without  alter- 
ing his  specifications,  the  Commission- 
er shall  order  a  re-examination  of  the 
case. 

Sec.  4904.  Whenever  an  applica- 
tion is  made  for  a  patent  which,  in 
the  opinion  of  the  Commissioner, 
would  interfere  with  any  pending  ap- 
plication, or  with  any  unexpired  pat- 
ent, he  shall  give  notice  thereof  to  the 
applicants,  or  applicant  and  patentee, 
as  the  case  may  be,  and  shall  direct  the 
primary  examiner  to  proceed  to  deter- 
mine the  question  of  priority  of  inven- 
tion. And  the  Commissioner  may  is- 
sue a  patent  to  the  party  who  is  ad- 
judged the  prior  inventor,  unless  the 
adverse  party  appeals  from  the  deci- 
sion of  the  primary  examiner,  or  of  the 
board  of  examiners-in-chief,  as  the  case 
may  be,  within  such  time,  not  less  than 
twrenty  days,  as  the  Commissioner 
shall  prescribe. 

Sec.  4905.  The  Commissioner  of 
Patents  may  establish  rules  for  taking 
affidavits  and  depositions  reauired  in 
cases  pending  in  the  Patent  Office,  and 
such  affidavits  and  depositions  may  be 


236 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


taken  before  any  officer  authorized  by 
law  to  take  depositions  to  be  used  in 
the  courts  of  the  United  States  or  of 
the  State  where  the  officer  resides. 

Sec.  4906.  The  clerk  of  any  court 
of  the  United  States,  for  any  district 
or  Territory  wherein  testimony  is  to 
be  taken  for  use  in  any  contested  case 
pending  in  the  Patent  Office,  shall, 
upon  the  application  of  any  party 
thereto,  or  of  his  agent  or  attorney, 
issue  a  subpoena  for  any  witness  re- 
siding or  being  within  such  district  or 
Territory,  commanding  him  to  appear 
and  testify  before  any  officer  in  such 
district  or  Territory  authorized  to  take 
depositions  and  affidavits,  at  any  time 
and  place  in  the  subpoena  stated.  But 
no  witness  shall  be  required  to  attend 
at  any  place  more  than  forty  miles 
from  the  place  where  the  subpoena  is 
served  upon  him. 

Sec.  4907.  Every  witness  duly  sub- 
poenaed and  in  attendance  shall  be  al- 
lowed the  same  fees  as  are  allowed  to 
witnesses  attending  the  courts  of  the 
United  States. 

Sec.  4908.  Whenever  any  witness, 
after  being  duly  served  with  such  sub- 
poena, neglects  or  refuses  to  appear, 
or  after  appearing  refuses  to  testify, 
the  judge  of  the  court  whose  clerk  is- 
sued the  subpoena  may,  on  proof  of 
such  neglect  or  refusal,  enforce  obedi- 
ence to  the  process,  or  punish  the  dis- 
obedience, as  in  other  like  cases.  But 
no  witness  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of 
contempt  for  disobeying  such  subpoena, 
unless  his  fees  and  traveling  expenses 
in  going  to,  returning  from,  and  one 
day's  attendance  at  the  place  of  exam- 
ination, are  paid  or  tendered  him  at 
the  time  of  the  service  of  the  subpoena  ; 
nor  for  refusing  to  disclose  any  secret 
invention  or  discovery  made  or  owned 
by  himself. 

Sec.  4909.  Every  applicant  for  a 
patent  or  for  the  reissue  of  a  patent, 
any  of  the  claims  of  which  have  been 
twice  rejected,  and  every  party  to  an 
interference,  may  appeal  from  the  de- 
cision of  the  primary  examiner,  or  of 
the  examiner  in  charge  of  interferences 
in  such  case,  to  the  board  of  examin- 
ers-in-chief ;  having  once  paid  the  fee 
for  such  appeal. 

Sec.  4910.  If  such  party  is  dissat- 
isfied with  the  decision  of  the  examin- 
ers-in-chief,  he  may,  on  payment  of 
the  fee  prescribed,  appeal  to  the  Com- 
missioner in  person. 

Sec.  4911.  If  such  party,  except  a 
party  to  an  interference,  is  dissatis- 
fied with  the  decision  of  the  Commis- 
sioner, he  may  appeal  to  the  Supreme 


Court  of  the  District  of  Columbia, 
sitting  in  bane. 

Sec.  4912.  When  an  appeal  is 
taken  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
District  of  Columbia,  the  appellant 
shall  give  notice  thereof  to  the  Com- 
missioner, and  file  in  the  Patent  Office 
within  such  time  as  the  Commissioner 
shall  appoint,  his  reasons  of  appeal, 
specifically  set  forth  in  writing. 

Sec.  4913.  The  court  shall,  before 
hearing  such  appeal,  give  notice  to  the 
Commissioner  of  the  time  and  place  of 
the  hearing,  and  on  receiving  such  no- 
tice the  Commissioner  shall  give  no- 
tice of  such  time  and  place  in  such 
manner  as  the  court  may  prescribe,  to 
all  parties  who  appear  to  be  interested 
therein.  The  party  appealing  shall 
lay  before  the  court  certified  copies  of 
all  the  original  papers  and  evidence  in 
the  case,  and  the  Commissioner  shall 
furnish  the  court  with  the  grounds  of 
his  decision,  fully  set  forth  in  writing, 
touching  all  the  points  involved  by  the 
reasons  of  appeal.  And  at  the  request 
of  any  party  interested,  or  of  the 
court,  the  Commissioner  and  the  exam- 
iners may  be  examined  under  oath,  in 
explanation  of  the  principles  of  the 
thing  for  which  a  patent  is  demanded. 

Sec.  4914.  The  court,  on  petition, 
shall  hear  and  determine  such  appeal, 
and  revise  the  .decision  appealed  from 
in  a  summary  way,  on  the  evidence 
produced  before  the  Commissioner,  at 
such  early  and  convenient  time  as  the 
court  may  appoint ;  and  the  revision 
shall  be  confined  to  the  points  set 
forth  in  the  reasons  of  appeal.  After 
hearing  the  case  the  court  shall  return 
to  the  Commissioner  a  certificate  of  its 
proceedings  and  decision,  which  shall 
be  entered  of  record  in  the  Patent 
Office,  and  shall  govern  the  further 
proceedings  in  the  case.  But  no  opin- 
ion or  decision  of  the  court  in  any 
such  case  shall  preclude  any  person 
interested  from  the  right  to  contest  the 
validity  of  such  patent  in  any  court 
wherein  the  same  may  be  called  in 
question. 

Sec.  4915.  Whenever  a  patent  on 
application  is  refused,  either  by  the 
Commissioner  of  Patents  or  by  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia upon  appeal  from  the  Com- 
missioner, the  applicant  may  have 
remedy  by  bill  in  equity ;  and  the 
court  having  cognizance  thereof,  on 
notice  to  adverse  parties  and  other  due 
proceedings  had,  may  adjudge  that 
such  applicant  is  entitled,  according  to 
law,  to  receive  a  patent  for  his  inven- 
tion, as  specified  in  his  claim,  or  for 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


2B7 


any  part  thereof,  as  the  facts  in  the 
case  may  appear.  And  such  adjudica- 
tion, if  it  be  in  favor  of  the  right  of  the 
applicant,  shall  authorize  the  Commis- 
sioner to  issue  such  patent  on  the  ap- 
plicant filing  in  the  Patent  Office  a 
copy  of  the  adjudication,  and  other- 
wise complying  with  the  requirements 
of  law.  In  all  cases  where  there  is 
no  opposing  party,  a  copy  of  the  bill 
shall  be  served  on  the  Commissioner ; 
and  all  the  expenses  of  the  proceeding 
shall  be  paid  by  the  applicant,  whether 
the  final  decision  is  in  his  favor  or 
not. 

R.  S.,  U.  S.,  Sup.,  Vol.  2,  c.  74, 
Feb.  9,  1893.  Be  it  enacted,  etc.,  That 
there  shall  be,  and  there  is  hereby, 
established  in  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia a  court,  to  be  known  as  the  court 
of  appeals  of  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia. 

Sec.  0.  That  the  said  court  of  ap- 
peals shall  establish  a  term  of  the 
court  during  each  and  every  month  in 
each  year  excepting  the  months  of 
July  and  August. 

Sec.  8.  That  any  final  judgment  or 
decree  of  the  said  court  of  appeals 
may  be  re-examined  and  affirmed,  re- 
versed, or  modified  by  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States,  upon  writ 
of  error  or  appeal,  in  all  causes  in 
which  the  matter  in  dispute,  exclusive 
of  costs,  shall  exceed  the  sum  of  five 
thousand  dollars,  in  the  same  manner 
and  under  the  same  regulations  as 
heretofore  provided  for  in  cases  of 
writs  of  error  on  judgment  or  appeals 
from  decrees  rendered  in  the  supreme 
court  of  the  District  of  Columbia ; 

And  also  in  cases,  without  regard  to 
the  sum  or  value  of  the  matter  in  dis- 
pute, wherein  is  involved  the  validity 
of  any  patent  or  copyright,  or  in  which 
is  drawn  in  question  the  validity  of  a 
treaty  or  statute  of  or  an  authority 
exercised  under  the  United  States. 

Be  it  enacted  6i/  the  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives  of  the 
United  States  of  America  in  Congress 
assembled.  That  in  any  case  heretofore 
made  final  in  the  court  of  appeals  of 
the  District  of  Columbia  it  shall  be 
competent  for  the  Supreme  Court  to 
require,  by  certiorari  or  otherwise, 
any  such  case  to  be  certified  to  the 
Supreme  Court  for  its  review  and  de- 
termination, with  the  same  power  and 
authority  in  the  case  as  if  it  had  been 
carried  by  appeal  or  writ  of  error  to 
the  Supreme  Court. 

Sec.  9.  That  the  determination  of 
appeals  from  the  decision  of  the  Com- 
missioner of  Patents,  now  vested  in 


the  general  term  of  the  supreme  court 
of  the  District  of  Columbia,  in  pur- 
suance of  the  provisions  of  section  780 
of  the  Revised  Statutes  of  the  United 
States,  relating  to  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia, shall  hereafter  be  and  the  same 
is  hereby  vested  in  the  court  of  ap- 
peals created  by  this  act ; 

And  in  addition,  any  party  ag- 
grieved by  a  decision  of  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Patents  in  any  interference 
case  may  appeal  therefrom  to  said 
court  of  appeals. 

TITLE  LX,  Rev.  Stat.,  1878,  p.  950 : 
Sec.  4916.  Whenever  any  patent  is 
inoperative  or  invalid,  by  reason  of  a 
defective  or  insufficient  specification, 
or  by  reason  of  the  patentee  claiming 
as  his  own  invention  or  discovery 
more  than  he  had  a  right  to  claim  as 
new,  if  the  error  has  arisen  by  inad- 
vertence, accident,  or  mistake,  and 
without  any  fraudulent  or  deceptive 
intention,  the  Commissioner  shall,  on 
the  surrender  of  such  patent  and  the 
payment  of  the  duty  required  by  law, 
cause  a  new  patent  for  the  same  inven- 
tion, and  in  accordance  with  the  cor- 
rected specification,  to  be  issued  to  the 
patentee,  or.  in  case  of  his  death  or 
of  an  assignment  of  the  whole  or  any 
undivided  part  of  the  original  patent, 
then  to  his  executors,  administrators, 
or  assigns,  for  the  unexpired  part  of 
the  term  of  the  original  patent.  Such 
surrender  shall  take  effect  upon  the  is- 
sue of  the  amended  patent.  The  Com- 
missioner may,  in  his  discretion,  cause 
several  patents  to  be  issued  for  dis- 
tinct and  separate  parts  of  the  thing 
patented,  upon  demand  of  the  appli- 
cant, and  upon  payment  of  the  re- 
quired fee  for  a  reissue  for  each  of 
such  reissued  letters  patent.  The 
specifications  and  claim  in  every  such 
case  shall  be  subject  to  revision  and 
restriction  in  the  same  manner  as  ori- 
ginal applications  are.  Every  patent 
so  reissued,  together  with  the  cor- 
rected specifications,  shall  have  the 
same  effect  and  operation  in  law,  on 
the  trial  of  all  actions  for  causes 
thereafter  arising,  as  if  the  same  had 
been  originally  filed  in  such  correct- 
ed form ;  but  no  new  matter  shall  be 
introduced  into  the  specification,  nor 
in  case  of  a  machine  patent  shall  the 
model  or  drawings  be  amended,  except 
each  by  the  other ;  but  when  there  is 
neither  model  nor  drawing,  amend- 
ments may  be  made  upon  proof  satis- 
factory to  the  Commissioner  that  such 
new  matter  or  amendment  was  a  part 
of  the  original  invention,  and  was 
omitted  from  the  specification  by  inad- 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


vertence,  accident,  or  mistake,  as 
aforesaid. 

Sec.  4917.  Whenever,  through  in- 
advertence, accident,  or  mistake,  and 
without  any  fraudulent  or  deceptive 
intention,  a  patentee  has  claimed  more 
than  that  of  which  he  was  the  original 
or  first  inventor  or  discoverer,  his  pat- 
ent shall  be  valid  for  all  that  part 
which  is  truly  and  justly  his  own,  pro- 
vided the  same  is  a  material  or  sub- 
stantial part  of  the  thing  patented ; 
and  any  such  patentee,  his  heirs  or  as- 
signs, whether  of  the  whole  or  any 
sectional  interest  therein,  may,  on  pay- 
ment of  the  fee  required  by  law,  make 
disclaimer  of  such  parts  of  the  thing 
patented  as  he  shall  not  choose  to 
claim  or  to  hold  by  virtue  of  the  pat- 
ent or  assignment,  stating  therein  the 
extent  of  his  interest  in  such  patent. 
Such  disclaimer  shall  be  in  writing, 
attested  by  one  or  more  witnesses,  and 
recorded  in  the  patent  office ;  and  it 
shall  thereafter  be  considered  as  part 
of  the  original  specification  to  the  ex- 
tent of  the  interest  possessed  by  the 
claimant  and  by  those  claiming  under 
him  after  the  record  thereof.  But  no 
such  disclaimer  shall  affect  any  action 
pending  at  the  time  of  its  being  filed, 
except  so  far  as  may  relate  to  the 
question  of  unreasonable  neglect  or 
delay  in  filing  it. 

Sec.  4918.  Whenever  there  are  in- 
terfering patents,  any  person  interest- 
ed in  any  one  of  them,  or  in  the  work- 
ing of  the  invention  claimed  under 
either  of  them,  may  have  relief  against 
the  interfering  patentee,  and  all  par- 
ties interested  under  him,  by  suit  in 
equity  against  the  owners  of  the  in- 
terfering patent ;  and  the  court,  on 
notice  to  adverse  parties,  and  other 
due  proceedings  had  according  to  the 
course  of  equity,  may  adjudge  and  de- 
clare either  of  the  patents  .  void  in 
whole  or  in  part,  or  inoperative,  or  in- 
valid in  any  particular  part  of  the 
United  States,  according  to  the  inter- 
est of  the  parties  in  the  patent  or  the 
invention  patented.  But  no  such 
judgment  or  adjudication  shall  affect 
the  right  of  any  person  except  the  par- 
ties to  the  suit  and  those  deriving  title 
under  them  subsequent  to  the  rendition 
of  such  judgment. 

Sec.  4919.  Damages  for  the  in- 
fringement of  any  patent  may  be  re- 
covered by  action  on  the  case,  in  the 
name  of  the  party  interested  either  as 
patentee,  assignee,  or  grantee.  And 
whenever  in  any  such  action  a  verdict 
is  rendered  for  the  plaintiff,  the  court 
may  enter  judgment  thereon  for  any 


sum  above  the  amount  found  by  the 
verdict  as  the  actual  damages  sustain- 
ed, according  to  the  circumstances  of 
the  case,  not  exceeding  three  times  the 
amount  of  such  verdict,  together  with 
the  costs. 

Sec.  4920.  In  any  action  for  in- 
fringement the  defendant  may  plead 
the  general  issue,  and,  having  given 
notice  in  writing  to  the  plaintiff  or  his 
attorney  thirty  days  before,  may  prove 
on  trial  any  one  or  more  of  the  fol- 
lowing special  matters : 

First. — That  for  the  purpose  of  de- 
ceiving the  public  the  description  and 
specification  filed  by  the  patentee  in 
the  Patent  Office  was  made  to  contain 
less  than  the  whole  truth  relative  to 
his  invention  or  discovery,  or  more 
than  is  necessary  to  produce  the  de- 
sired effect ;  or, 

Second.  —  That  he  had  surrepti- 
tiously or  unjustly  obtained  the  patent 
for  that  which  was  in  fact  invented  by 
another,  who  was  using  reasonable 
diligence  in  adapting  and  perfecting 
the  same ;  or, 

Third. — That  it  has  been  patented 
or  described  in  some  printed  publica- 
tion prior  to  his  supposed  invention  or 
discovery  thereof,  or  more  than  two 
years  prior  to  his  application  for  a 
patent  therefor ;  or, 

Fourth. — That  he  was  not  the  ori- 
ginal and  first  inventor  or  discoverer 
of  any  material  and  substantial  part 
of  the  thing  patented ;  or, 

Fifth. — That  it  had  been  in  public 
use  or  on  sale  in  this  country  for  more 
than  two  years  before  his  application 
for  a  patent,  or  had  been  abandoned 
to  the  public. 

And  in  notices  as  to  proof  of  previ- 
ous invention,  knowledge,  or  use  of  the 
thing  patented,  the  defendant  shall 
state  the  names  of  the  patentees  and 
the  dates  of  their  patents,  and  when 
granted,  and  the  names  and  residences 
of  the  persons  alleged  to  have  invented 
or  to  have  had  the  prior  knowledge  of 
the  thing  patented,  and  where  and  by 
whom  it  had  been  used ;  and  if  any  one 
or  more  of  the  special  matters  alleged 
shall  be  found  for  the  defendant,  judg- 
ment shall  be  rendered  for  him  with 
costs.  And  the  like  defenses  may  be 
pleaded  in  any  suit  in  equity  for  re- 
lief against  an  alleged  infringement ; 
and  proofs  of  the  same  may  be  given 
upon  like  notice  in  the  answer  of  the 
defendant,  and  with  the  like  effect. 

Sec.  4921.  The  several  courts  vest- 
ed with  jurisdiction  of  cases  arising 
under  the  patent  laws  shall  have  pow- 
er to  grant  injunctions  according  to 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


239 


the  course  and  principles  of  courts  of 
equity,  to  prevent  the  violation  of  any 
right  secured  by  patent,  on  such  terms 
as  the  court  may  deem  reasonable ;  and 
upon  a  decree  being  rendered  in  any 
such  case  for  an  infringement  the  com- 
plainant shall  be  entitled  to  recover,  in 
addition  to  the  profits  to  be  accounted 
for  by  the  defendant,  the  damages  the 
complainant  has  sustained  thereby ; 
and  the  court  shall  assess  the  same  or 
cause  the  same  to  be  assessed  under  its 
direction.  And  the  court  shall  have 
the  same  power  to  increase  such  dam- 
ages, in  its  discretion,  as  is  given  to 
increase  the  damages  found  by  ver- 
dicts in  actions  in  the  nature  of  ac- 
tions of  trespass  upon  the  case. 

But  in  any  suit  or  action  brought 
for  the  infringement  of  any  patent 
there  shall  be  no  recovery  of  profits  or 
damages  for  any  infringement  com- 
mitted more  than  six  years  before  the 
filing  of  the  bill  of  complaint  or  the 
issuing  of  the  writ  in  such  suit  or 
action,  and  this  provision  shall  apply 
to  existing  causes  of  action. 

Sec.  4022.  Whenever,  through  in- 
advertence, accident,  or  mistake,  and 
without  any  wilful  default  or  intent  to 
defraud  or  mislead  the  public,  a  pat- 
entee has.  in  his  specification,  claimed 
to  be  the  original  and  first  inventor  or 
discoverer  of  any  material  or  substan- 
tial part  of  the  thing  patented,  of 
which  he  was  not  the  original  and  first 
inventor  or  discoverer,  every  such  pat- 
entee, his  executors,  administrators, 
and  assigns,  whether  of  the  whole  or 
any  sectional  interest  in  the  patent, 
may  maintain  a  suit  at  law  or  in 
equity,  for  the  infringement  of  any 
part  thereof,  which  was  bona  fide  his 
own.  if  it  is  a  material  and  substan- 
tial part  of  the  thing  patented,  and 
definitely  distinguishable  from  the 
parts  claimed  without  right,  notwith- 
standing the  specifications  may  em- 
brace more  than  that  of  which  the 
patentee  was  the  first  inventor  or  dis- 
coverer. But  in  every  such  case  in 
which  a  judgment  or  decree  shall  be 
rendered  for  the  plaintiff,  no  costs 
shall  be  recovered  unless  the  proper 
disclaimer  has  been  entered  at  the 
Patent  Office  before  the  commence- 
ment of  the  suit.  But  no  patentee 
shall  be  entitled  to  the  benefits  of  this 
section  if  he  has  unreasonably  neg- 
lected or  delayed  to  enter  a  dis- 
claimer. 

Sec.  4923.  Whenever  it  appears 
that  a  patentee,  at  the  time  of  making 
his  application  for  the  patent,  believed 
himself  to  be  the  original  and  first  in- 


ventor or  discoverer  of  the  thing  pat- 
ented, the  same  shall  not  be  held  to 
be  void  on  account  of  the  invention  or 
discovery,  or  any  part  thereof,  having 
been  known  or  used  in  a  foreign  coun- 
try, before  his  invention  or  discovery 
thereof,  if  it  had  not  been  patented  or 
described  in  a  printed  publication. 

DESIGNS. 

Sec.  4929.  Any  person  who  has  in- 
vented any  new,  original,  and  orna- 
mental design  for  an  article  of  manu- 
facture, not  know7n  or  used  by  others 
in  this  country  before  his  invention 
thereof,  and  not  patented  or  described 
in  any  printed  publication  in  this  or 
any  foreign  country  before  his  inven- 
tion thereof,  or  more  than  two  years 
prior  to  his  application,  and  not  in 
public  use  or  on  sale  in  this  country 
for  more  than  two  years  prior  to  his 
application,  unless  the  same  is  proved 
to  have  been  abandoned,  may,  upon 
payment  of  the  fees  required  by  law 
and  other  due  proceedings  had.  the 
same  as  in  cases  of  invention  or  dis- 
coveries covered  by  section  4886,  ob- 
tain a  patent  therefor. 

Sec.  4930.     The  Commissioner  may 
dispense  with  models  of  designs  when 
I    the   design    can    be    sufficiently    repre- 
|    sented  by  drawings  or  photographs. 

Sec.  4931.     Patents  for  designs  may 

I    be  granted  for  the  term  of  three  years 

I    and  six  months,  or  for  seven  years,  or 

for   fourteen   years,    as   the   applicant 

I    may,  in  his  application,  elect. 

Sec.  4932.  Patentees  of  designs  is- 
sued prior  to  the  second  day  of  March. 
1861,  shall  be  entitled  to  extension  of 
their  respective  patents  for  the  term 
of  seven  years,  in  the  same  manner 
and  under  the  same  restrictions  as  are 
provided  for  the  extension  of  patents 
for  inventions  or  discoveries  issued 
rior  to  the  second  day  of  March. 


Sec.  4933.  All  the  regulations  and 
provisions  which  apply  to  obtaining 
or  protecting  patents  for  inventions  or 
discoveries  not  inconsistent  with  the 
provisions  of  this  Title,  shall  apply  to 
patents  for  designs. 

CHAPTER  105. — AN  ACT  TO  AMEND 
THE  LAW  RELATING  TO  PATENTS, 
TRADE-MARKS,  AND  COPYRIGHTS. 

Be  it  enacted,  etc.,  That  hereafter, 
during  the  term  of  letters  patent  for 
a  design,  it  shall  be  unlawful  for  any 
person  other  than  the  owner  of  said 
letters  patent,  without  the  license  of 
such  owner,  to  apply  the  design  se- 


240 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


cured  by  such  letters  patent,  or  any 
colorable  imitation  thereof,  to  any 
article  of  manufacture  for  the  pur- 
pose of  sale,  or  to  sell  or  expose  for 
sale  any  article  of  manufacture  to 
which  such  design  or  colorable  imita- 
tion shall,  without  the  license  of  the 
owner,  have  been  applied,  knowing 
that  the  same  has  been  so  applied. 
Any  person  violating  the  provisions,  or 
either  of  them,  of  this  section,  shall  be 
liable  in  the  amount  of  two  hundred 
and  fifty  dollars ;  and  in  case  the  total 
profit  made  by  him  from  the  manufac- 
ture or  sale,  as  aforesaid,  of  the  arti- 
cle or  articles  to  which  the  design,  or 
colorable  imitation  thereof,  has  been 
applied,  exceeds  the  sum  of  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  dollars,  he  shall  be  fur- 
ther liable  for  the  excess  of  such  prof- 
it over  and  above  the  sum  of  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  dollars;  and  the  full 
amount  of  such  liability  may  be  re- 
covered by  the  owner  of  the  letters 
patent,  to  his  own  use,  in  any  circuit 
court  of  the  United  States  having  ju- 
risdiction of  the  parties,  either  by  ac- 
tion at  law  or  upon  a  bill  in  equity  for 
an  injunction  to  restrain  such  in- 
fringement. 

Sec.  2.  That  nothing  in  this  act 
contained  shall  prevent,  lessen,  im- 
peach, or  avoid  any  remedy  at  law  or 
in  equity  which  any  owner  of  letters 
patent  for  a  design,  aggrieved  by  the 
infringement  of  the  same,  might  have 
had  if  this  act  had  not  been  passed ; 
but  such  owner  shall  not  twice  re- 
cover the  profit  made  from  the  in- 
fringement. 

FEES. 

Sec.  4934.  The  following  shall  be 
the  rates  for  patent  fees :  On  filing 
each  original  application  for  a  patent, 
except  in  design  cases,  $15.00.  On 
issuing  each  original  patent,  except  in 
design  cases,  $20.00.  In  design  cases  : 
For  three  years  and  six  months : 
$10.00;  for  seven  years.  $15.00;  for 
fourteen  years,  $30.00.  On  filing  each 
caveat,  $10.00.  On  every  application 
for  the  reissue  of  a  patent,  $30.00. 
On  filing  each  disclaimer,  $10.00.  On 
an  appeal  for  the  first  time  from  the 
primary  examiners  to  the  examiners- 
in-chief,  $10.00.  On  every  appeal 
from  .the  examiners-in-chief  to  the 
Commissioner,  $20.00.  For  certified 
copies  of  patents  and  other  papers,  in- 
cluding certified  printed  copies,  10 
cents  per  hundred  words.  For  record- 
ing every  assignment,  agreement,  pow- 
er of  attorney,  or  other  paper,  of  three 
hundred  wrords  or  under,  $1.00 ;  of  over 


three  hundred  and  under  one  thousand 
words,  $2.00 ;  of  over  one  thousand 
words,  $3.00.  For  copies  of  drawings, 
the  reasonable  cost  of  making  them. 

Sec.  4935.  Patent  fees  may  be  paid 
to  the  Commissioner  of  Patents,  or  to 
the  Treasurer,  or  any  of  the  assistant 
treasurers  of  the  United  States,  or  to 
any  of  the  designated  depositaries,  na- 
tional banks,  or  receivers  of  public 
money,  designated  by  the  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury  for  that  purpose ;  and 
such  officer  shall  give  the  depositor  a 
receipt  or  certificate  of  deposit  there- 
for. All  money  received  at  the  Patent 
Office,  for  any  purpose,  or  from  any 
source  whatever,  shall  be  paid  into  the 
Treasury  as  received,  without  any  de- 
duction whatever. 

Sec.  493G.  The  Treasurer  of  the 
United  States  is  authorized  to  pay 
back  any  sum  or  sums  of  money  to 
any  person  who  has  through  mis- 
take paid  the  same  into  the  Treas- 
ury, or  to  any  receiver  or  deposi- 
tary, to  the  credit  of  the  Treas- 
ury, as  for  fees  accruing  at  the  Patent 
Office,  upon  a  certificate  thereof  being 
made  to  the  Treasurer  by  the  Com- 
missioner of  Patents. 

PATENT    RIGHTS    VEST    IN    ASSIGNEE    IN 
BANKRUPTCY. 

Sec.  5040.  .All  property  conveyed 
by  the  bankrupt  in  fraud  of  his  credit- 
ors ;  all  rights  in  equity,  choses  in 
action,  patent  rights,  and  copyrights ; 
all  debts  due  him,  or  any  person  for 
his  use,  and  all  liens  and  securities 
therefor ;  and  all  his  rights  of  action 
for  property  or  estate,  real  or  personal, 
and  for  any  cause  of  action  which  he 
had  against  any  person  arising  from 
contract  or  from  the  unlawful  taking 
or  detention,  or  injury  to  the  property 
of  the  bankrupt ;  and  all  his  rights  of 
redeeming  such  property  or  estate ;  to- 
gether with  the  like  right,  title,  power, 
and  authority  to  sell,  manage,  dispose 
of.  sue  for,  and  recover  or  defend  the 
same,  as  the  bankrupt  might  have  had 
if  no  assignment  had  been  made,  shall, 
in  virtue  of  the  adjudication  of  bank- 
ruptcy and  the  appointment  of  his  as- 
signee, but  subject  to  the  exceptions 
stated  in  the  preceding  section,  be  at 
once  vested  is  [in]  such  assignee. 

Sec.  70.  Title  to  Property.  The 
trustee  of  the  estate  of  a  bank- 
rupt, upon  his  appointment  and 
qualification,  and  his  successor  or 
successors,  if  he  shall  have  one 
or  more,  upon  his  or  their  appoint- 
ment and  qualification,  shall  in  turn 
be  vested  by  operation  of  law  with  the 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


241 


title  of  the  bankrupt,  as  of  the  date  he 
was  adjudged  a  bankrupt,  except  in 
so  far  as  it  is  to  property  which  is 
exempt,  to  all  (1)  documents  relating 
to  his  property;  (2)  interests  in  pat- 
ents, patent  rights,  copyrights,  and 
trade-marks. 

LABELS. 
CHAPTER  301. — AN  ACT  TO  AMEND 

THE   LAW   RELATING  TO  PATENTS, 

TRADE-MARKS,  AND  COPYRIGHTS. 

Be  it  enacted,  etc.  [Section  1],  That 
no  person  shall  maintain  an  action  for 
the  infringement  of  his  copyright  un- 
less he  shall  give  notice  thereof  by  in- 
serting in  the  several  copies  of  every 
edition  published,  on  the  title  page  or 
the  page  immediately  following  it,  if  it 
be  a  book ;  or  if  a  map,  chart,  musical 
composition,  print,  cut,  engraving, 
photograph,  painting,  drawing,  chromo, 
statue,  statuary,  or  model  or  design 
intended  to  be  perfected  and  completed 
as  a  work  of  the  fine  arts,  by  inscrib- 
ing upon  some  visible  portion  thereof, 
or  of  the  substance  on  which  the  same 
shall  be  mounted,  the  following  words, 
viz. :  "Entered  according  to  act  of 

Congress,  in  the  year  ,  by  A.  B., 

in  the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Con- 
gress, at  Washington"  ;  or,  at  his  op- 
tion, the  word  "Copyright,"  together 
with  the  year  the  copyright  was  en- 
tered,  and  the  name  of  the  party 
whom  it  was  taken  out,  thus:  "Copy- 
right. 18—,  by  A.  B." 

Sec.  2.  That  for  recording  and  cer- 
tifying any  instrument  of  writing  for 
the  assignment  of  a  copyright,  the 
Librarian  qf  Congress  shall  receive 
from  the  persons  to  whom  the  service 
is  rendered,  $1.00 ;  and  for  every  copy 
of  an  assignment,  $1.00;  said  fee  to 
cover,  in  either  case,  a  certificate  of 
the  record,  under  seal  of  the  Libra- 
rian of  Congress ;  and  all  fees  so  re- 
ceived shall  be  paid  into  the  Treasury 
of  the  United  States. 

Sec.  3.  That  in  the  construction  of 
this  act,  the  words  "engraving,"  "cut," 
and  "print."  shall  be  applied  only  to 
pictorial  illustrations  or  works  con- 
nected with  the  fine  arts,  and  no  prints 
or  labels  designed  to  be  used  for  any 
other  articles  of  manufacture  shall  be 
entered  under  the  copyright  law, 
but  may  be  registered  in  the 
Patent  Office.  And  the  Commission- 
er of  Patents  is  hereby  charged 
with  the  supervision  and  control 
of  the  entry  or  registry  of  such 
prints  or  labels,  in  conformity  with 
the  regulations  provided  by  law  as  to 
copyright  of  prints,  except  that  there 


shall  be  paid  for  recording  the  title  of 
any  print  or  label  not  a  trade-mark, 
$6.00,  which  shall  cover  the  expense 
of  furnishing  a  copy  of  the  record  un- 
der the  seal  of  Commissioner  of  Pat- 
ents, to  the  party  entering  the  same. 

Sec.  4.  That  all  laws  and  parts  of 
laws  inconsistent  with  the  foregoing 
provisions  be,  and  the  same  are  here- 
by repealed. 

Sec.  5.  That  this  act  shall  take  ef- 
fect on  and  after  the. first  day  of  Au- 
gust, 1874. 

TRADE-MARKS. 

[The  Constitutional  Provision. — The 
Congress  shall  have  power  *  *  * 
(3)  to  regulate  commerce  with  foreign 
nations,  and  among  the  several  States, 
and  with  the  Indian  tribes.  Art.  I, 
sec.  8.] 

THE    STATUTE   OF   1876. 

CHAPTER  274.— AN  ACT  TO  PUN- 
ISH THE  COUNTERFEITING  OF  TRADE- 
MARK GOODS  AND  THE  SALE  OR 

DEALING  IN  OF  COUNTERFEIT  TRADE- 
MARK GOODS. 

Be  it  enacted,  etc.  [Section  1],  That 
every  person  who  shall,  with  intent  to 
defraud,  deal  in  or  sell,  or  keep  or 
offer  for  sale,  or  cause  or  procure  the 
sale  of,  any  goods  of  substantially  the 
same  descriptive  properties  as  those 
referred  to  in  the  registration  of  any 
trade-mark,  pursuant  to  the  statutes  of 
the  United  States,  to  which,  or  to  the 
package  in  which  the  same  are  put  up, 
is  fraudulently  affixed  said  trade-mark, 
or  any  colorable  imitation  thereof,  cal- 
culated to  deceive  the  public,  knowing 
the  same  to  be  counterfeit  or  not  the 
genuine  goods  referred  to  in  said  regis- 
tration, shall,  on  conviction  thereof, 
be  punished  by  fine  not  exceeding 
$1,000  dollars,  or  imprisonment  not 
more  than  two  years,  or  both  such  fine 
and  imprisonment. 

Sec.  2.  That  every  person  who 
fraudulently  affixes,  or  causes  or  pro- 
cures to  be  fraudulently  affixed,  any 
trade-mark  registered  pursuant  to  the 
statutes  of  the  United  States,  or  any 
colorable  imitation  thereof,  calculated 
to  deceive  the  public,  to  any  goods,  of 
substantially  the  same  descriptive 
|  properties  as  those  referred  to  in  said 
registration,  or  to  the  package  in 
which  they  are  put  up,  knowing  the 
same  to  be  counterfeit,  or  not  the 
genuine  goods,  referred  to  in  said  regis- 
tration, shall,  on  conviction  thereof, 
be  punished  as  prescribed  in  the  first 
section  of  this  act. 

Sec.  3.  That  every  person  who 
fraudulently  fills,  or  causes  or  pro- 


242 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


cures  to  be  fraudulently  filled,  any 
package  to  which  is  affixed  any  trade- 
mark, registered  pursuant  to  the  stat- 
utes of  the  United  States,  or  any  col- 
orable imitation  thereof,  calculated  to 
deceive  the  public,  with  any  goods  of 
substantially  the  same  descriptive 
properties  as  those  referred  to  in  said 
registration,  knowing  the  same  to  be 
counterfeit,  or  not  the  genuine  goods 
referred  to  in  said  registration,  shall, 
on  conviction  thereof,  be  punished  as 
prescribed  in  the  first  section  of  this 
act. 

Sec.  4.  That  any  person  or  per- 
sons who  shall,  with  intent  to  defraud 
any  person  or  persons,  knowingly  and 
wilfully  cast,  engrave,  or  manufacture, 
or  have  in  his,  her,  or  their  possession, 
or  buy,  sell,  offer  for  sale,  or  deal  in, 
any  die  or  dies,  plate  or  plates,  brand 
or  brands,  engraving  or  engravings,  on 
wood,  stone,  metal,  or  other  substance, 
moulds,  or  any  false  representation, 
likeness,  copy,  or  colorable  imitation  of 
any  die  plate,  brand,  engraving,  or 
mould  of  any  private  label,  brand, 
stamp,  wrapper,  engraving  on  paper 
or  other  substance,  or  trade-mark,  reg- 
istered pursuant  to  the  statutes  of  the 
United  States,  shall,  upon  conviction 
thereof,  be  punished  as  prescribed  in 
the  first  section  of  this  act. 

Sec.  5.  That  any  person  or  persons 
who  shall,  with  intent  to  defraud  any 
person  or  persons,  knowingly  and  wil- 
fully make,  forge,  or  counterfeit,  or 
have  in  his,  her,  or  their  possession,  or 
buy,  sell,  offer  for  sale  or  deal  in,  any 
representation,  likeness,  similitude, 
copy,  or  colorable  imitation  of  any  pri- 
vate label,  brand,  stamp,  wrapper,  en- 
graving, mould,  or  trade-mark,  regis- 
tered pursuant  to  the  statutes  of  the 
United  States,  shall,  upon  conviction 
thereof,  be  punished  as  prescribed  in 
the  first  section  of  this  act. 

Sec.  G.  That  any  person  who  shall, 
with  intent  to  injure  or  defraud  the 
owner  of  any  trade-mark,  or  any  other 
person  lawfully  entitled  to  use  or  pro- 
tect the  same,  buy,  sell,  offer  for  sale, 
deal  in  or  have  in  his  possession  any 
used  or  empty  box,  envelope,  wrapper, 
case,  bottle,  or  other  package  to  which 
is  affixed,  so  that  the  same  may  be 
obliterated  without  substantial  injury 
ta  such  box  or  other  thing  aforesaid, 
any  trade-mark,  registered  pursuant  to 
the  statutes  of  the  United  States,  not 
so  defaced,  erased,  obliterated,  and  de- 
stroyed as  to  prevent  its  fraudulent 
use,  shall,  on  conviction  thereof,  be 
punished  as  prescribed  in  the  first  sec- 
tion of  this  act. 


Sec.  7.  That  if  the  owner  of  any 
trade-mark,  registered  pursuant  to  the 
statutes  of  the  United  States,  or  his 
agent,  make  oath,  in  writing,  that  he 
has  reason  to  believe,  and  does  believe, 
that  any  counterfeit  dies,  plates, 
brands,  engravings  on  wood,  stone, 
metal,  or  other  substance,  or  moulds  of 
his  said  registered  trade-mark,  are  in 
the  possession  of  any  person,  with  in- 
tent to  use  the  same  for  the  purpose 
of  deception  and  fraud,  or  make  such 
paths  that  any  counterfeits  or  colorable 
imitations  of  his  said  trade-mark,  label, 
brand,  stamp,  wrapper,  engravings  on 
paper  or  other  substance,  or  empty 
box,  envelope,  wrapper,  case,  bottle,  or 
other  package,  to  which  is  affixed  said 
registered^  trade-mark  not  so  defaced, 
erased,  obliterated,  and  destroyed  as 
to  prevent  its  fraudulent  use,  are  in 
the  possession  of  any  person,  with  in- 
tent to  use  the  same  for  the  purpose 
of  deception  and  fraud,  then  the  sev- 
eral judges  of  the  circuit  and  district 
courts  of  the  United  States,  and  the 
commissioners  of  the  circuit  courts 
may,  within  their  respective  jurisdic- 
j  tions,  proceed  under  the  law  relating 
to  search-warrants,  and  may  issue  a 
search-warrant  authorizing  and  direct- 
ing the  marshal  of  the  United  States 
for  the  proper  district  to  search  for 
and  seize  all  said  counterfeit  dies, 
plates,  brands,  engravings  on  wood, 
stone,  metal,  or  other  substance, 
moulds,  and  said  counterfeit  trade- 
marks, colorable  imitations  thereof, 
labels,  brands,  stamps,  wrappers,  en- 
gravings on  paper,  or  other  substance, 
and  said  empty  boxes,  envelopes,  wrap- 
pers, cases,  bottles,  or  other  packages 
that  can  be  found  ;  and  upon  satisfac- 
tory proof  being  made  that  said  coun- 
terfeit dies,  plates,  brands,  engravings 
on  wood,  stone,  metal,  or  other  sub- 
stance, moulds,  counterfeit  trade- 
marks, colorable  imitations  thereof, 
labels,  brands,  stamps,  wrappers,  en- 
gravings on  paper  or  other  substance, 
empty  boxes,  envelopes,  wrappers, 
cases,  bottles,  or  other  packages,  are 
to  be  used  by  the  holder  or  owner  for 
the  purposes  of  deception  and  fraud, 
that  any  of  said  judges  shall  have  full 
power  to  order  all  said  counterfeit 
dies,  plates,  brands,  engravings  on 
wood,  stone,  metal,  or  other  substance, 
moulds,  counterfeit  trade-marks,  col- 
orable imitations  thereof,  labels, 
brands,  stamps,  wrappers,  engravings 
on  paper  or  other  substance,  empty 
boxes,  envelopes,  wrappers,  cases,  bot- 
tles, or  other  packages,  to  be  publicly 
destroyed. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


243 


See.  8.  That  any  person  who  shall, 
with  intent  to  defraud  any  person  or 
persons,  knowingly  and  wilfully  aid  or 
abet  in  the  violation  of  any  of  the 
provisions  of  this  act,  shall,  upon  con- 
viction thereof,  be  punished  by  a  fine 
not  exceeding  five  hundred  dollars,  or 
imprisonment  not  more  than  one  year, 
or  both  such  fine  and  imprisonment. 

[August  14,   1876.] 

THE   STATUTE   OF   1881. 

CHAPTER  138. — AN  ACT  TO  AU- 
THORIZE THE  REGISTRATION  OF 
TRADE-MARKS  AND  PROTECT  THE 
SAME. 

Be  it  enacted,  etc.  [Section  1],  That 
owners  of  trade-marks  used  in  com- 
merce with  foreign  nations  or  with  the 
Indian  tribes,  provided  such  owners 
shall  be  domiciled  in  the  United  States 
or  located  in  any  foreign  country,  or 
tribes,  which,  by  treaty,  convention,  or 
law,  affords  similar  privileges  to  citi- 
zens of  the  United  States,  may  obtain 
registration  of  such  trade-marks  by 
complying  with  the  following  require- 
ments : 

First. — By  causing  to  be  recorded  in 
the  Patent  Office  a  statement  specify- 
ing name,  domicile,  location,  and  citi- 
zenship of  the  party  applying;  the 
class  of  merchandise,  and  the  particu- 
lar description  of  goods  comprised  in 
such  class  to  which  the  particular 
trade-mark  has  been  appropriated ;  a 
description  of  the  trade-mark  itself, 
with  facsimiles  thereof,  and  a  state- 
ment of  the  mode  in  which  the  same  is 
applied  and  affixed  to  goods,  and  the 
length  of  time  during  which  the  trade- 
mark has  been  used. 

Second. — By  paying  into  the  Treas- 
ury of  the  United  States  the  sum  of 
$25.00.  and  complying  with  such  regu- 
lations as  may  be  prescribed  by  the 
Commissioner  of  Patents. 

Sec.  2.  That  the  application  pre- 
scribed in  the  foregoing  section  must, 
in  order  to  create  any  right  whatever 
in  favor  of  the  party  filing  it.  be  ac- 
companied by  a  written  declaration 
verified  by  the  person,  or  by  a  member 
of  a  firm,  or  by  an  officer  of  a  cor- 
poration applying,  to  the  effect  that 
such  party  has  at  the  time  a  right  to 
the  use  of  the  trade-mark  sought  to  be 
registered,  and  that  no  other  person, 
firm,  or  corporation  has  the  right  to 
such  use,  either  in  the  identical  form 
or  in  any  such  near  resemblance  there- 
to as  might  be  calculated  to  deceive ; 
that  such  trade-mark  is  used  in  com- 
merce with  foreign  nations  or  Indian 
tribes,  as  above  indicated ;  and  that  the 


description  and  facsimiles  presented 
for  registry  truly  represent  the  trade- 
mark sought  to  be  registered. 

Sec.  3.  That  the  time  of  the  re- 
ceipt of  any  such  application  shall  be 
noted  and  recorded.  But  no  alleged 
trade-mark  shall  be  registered  unless 
the  same  appear  to  be  lawfully  used 
as  such  by  the  applicant  in  foreign 
commerce  or  commerce  with  Indian 
tribes,  as  above  mentioned,  or  is  with- 
in the  provision  of  a  treaty,  conven- 
tion, or  declaration  with  a  foreign 
power;  nor  which  is  merely  the  name 
of  the  applteant ;  nor  which  is  identi- 
cal with  a  registered  or  known  trade- 
mark owned  by  another,  and  appro- 
priate to  the  same  class  of  merchan- 
dise, or  which  so  nearly  resembles 
some  other  person's  lawful  trade-mark 
as  to  be  likely  to  cause  confusion  or 
mistake  in  the  mind  of  the  public,  or 
to  deceive  purchasers.  In  an  applica- 
tion for  registration  the  Commissioner 
of  Patents  shall  decide  the  presumptive 
lawfulness  of  claim  to  the  alleged 
trade-mark ;  and  in  any  dispute  be- 
tween an  applicant  and  a  previous 
registrant,  or  between  applicants,  he 
shall  follow,  so  far  as  the  same  may  be 
j  applicable,  the  practice  of  courts  of 
equity  of  the  United  States  in  analo- 
gous cases. 

Sec.  4.  That  certificates  of  regis- 
try of  trade-marks  shall  be  issued  in 
the  name  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  under  the  seal  of  the  De- 
partment of  the  Interior,  and  shall 
be  signed  by  the  Commissioner  of  Pat- 
ents, and  a  record  thereof,  together 
with  printed  copies  of  the  specifica- 
tions, shall  be  kept  in  books  for  that 
purpose.  Copies  of  trade-marks  and 
of  statements  and  declarations  filed 
therewith  and  certificates  of  registry 
so  signed  .and  sealed  shall  be  evidence 
in  any  suit  in  which  such  trade-marks 
shall  be  brought  in  controversy. 

Sec.  5.  That  a  certificate  of  regis- 
try shall  remain  in  force  for  thirty 
years  from  its  date,  except  in  cases 
where  the  trade-mark  is  claimed  for 
nnd  applied  to  articles  not  manufac- 
tured in  this  country,  and  in  which  it 
receives  protection  under  the  laws  of  a 
foreign  country  for  a  shorter  period, 
in  which  case  it  shall  cease  to  have 
any  force  in  this  country  by  virtue  of 
this  act  at  the  time  that  such  trade- 
mark ceases  to  be  exclusive  property 
elsewhere.  At  any  time  during  the 
six  months  prior  to  the  expiration  of 
the  term  of  thirty  years  such  registra- 
tion may  be  renewed  on  the  same 
terms  and  for  a  like  period. 


244 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


Sec.  0.  That  applicants  for  regis- 
tration under  this  act  shall  be  credited 
for  any  fee  or  part  of  a  fee  hereto- 
fore paid  into  the  Treasury  of  the 
United  States  with  intent  to  procure 
protection  for  the  same  trade-mark. 

Sec.  7.  That  registration  of  a 
trade-mark  shall  be  prima  facie  evi- 
dence of  ownership.  Any  person  who 
shall  reproduce,  counterfeit,  copy,  or 
colorably  imitate  any  trade-mark  regis- 
tered under  this  act  and  affix  the  same 
to  merchandise  of  substantially  the 
same  descriptive  properties  as  those 
described  in  the  registration  shall  be 
liable  to  an  action  on  the  case  for 
damages  for  the  wrongful  use  of  said 
trade-mark  at  the  suit  of  the  owner 
thereof ;  and  the  party  aggrieved  shall 
also  have  his  remedy  according  to  the 
course  of  equity  to  enjoin  the  wrong- 
ful use  of  such  trade-mark  used  in 
foreign  commerce  or  commerce  with 
Indian  tribes,  as  aforesaid,  and  to  re- 
cover compensation  therefor  in  any 
court  having  jurisdiction  over  the  per- 
son guilty  of  such  wrongful  act ;  and 
courts  of  the  United  States  shall  have 
original  and  appellate  jurisdiction  in 
such  cases  without  regard  to  the 
amount  in  controversy. 

Sec.  8.  That  no  action  or  suit  shall 
be  maintained  under  the  provisions  of 
this  act  in  any  case  when  the  trade- 
mark is  used  in  any  unlawful  business 
or  upon  any  article  injurious  in  itself, 
or  which  mark  has  been  used  with  the 
design  of  deceiving  the  public  in  the 
purchase  of  merchandise,  or  under  any 
certificate  of  registry  fraudulently  ob- 
tained. 

Sec.  9.  That  any  person  who  shall 
procure  the  registry  of  a  trade-mark, 
or  of  himself  as  the  owner  of  a  trade- 
mark, or  an  entry  respecting  a  trade- 
mark, in  the  office  of  the  Commission- 
er of  Patents,  by  a  false  or  fraudulent 
representation  or  declaration,  orally 
or  in  writing,  or  by  any  fraudulent 
means,  shall  be  liable  to  pay  any  dam- 
ages sustained  in  consequence  thereof 
to  the  injured  party,  to  be  recovered 
in  an  action  on  the  case. 

Sec.  10.  That  nothing  in  this  act 
shall  prevent,  lessen,  impeach,  or 
avoid  any  remedy  at  law  or  in  equity 
which  any  party  aggrieved  by  any 
wrongful  use  of  any  trade-mark  might 
have  had  if  the  provisions  of  this  act 
had  not  been  passed. 

Sec.  11.  That  nothing  in  this  act 
shall  be  construed  as  unfavorably  af- 
fecting a  claim  to  a  trade-mark  after 
the  term  of  registration  shall  have  ex- 
pired ;  nor  to  give  cognizance  to  any 


court  of  the  United  States  in  an 
action  or  suit  between  citizens  of  the 
same  State,  unless  the  trade-mark  in 
controversy  is  used  on  goods  intended 
to  be  transported  to  a  foreign  country, 
or  in  lawful  commercial  intercourse 
with  an  Indian  tribe. 

Sec.  12.  That  the  Commissioner  of 
Patents  is  authorized  to  make  rules 
and  regulations  and  prescribe  forms 
for  the  transfer  of  the  right  to  use 
trade-marks  and  for  recording  such 
transfers  in  his  office. 

Sec.  13.  That  citizens  and  residents 
of  this  country  wishing  the  protection 
of  trade-marks  in  any  foreign  coun- 
try the  laws  of  which  require  registra- 
tion here  as  a  condition  precedent  to 
getting  such  protection  there  may  reg- 
ister their  trade-marks  for  that  pur- 
pose as  is  above  allowed  to  foreigners, 
and  have  certificate  thereof  from  the 
Patent  Office. 

Approved,  March  3,  1881. 

CHAPTER  393.— AN  ACT  RELATING 
TO  THE  REGISTRATION  OF  TRADE- 
MARKS. 

Be  it  enacted,  etc, — That  nothing 
contained  in  the  law  entitled  "An  act 
to  authorize  the  registration  of  trade- 
marks and  protect  the  same,"  approved 
March  3,  1881,  shall  prevent  the  regis- 
try of  any  lawful  trade-mark  rightful- 
ly used  by  the  applicant  in  foreign 
commerce  or  commerce  with  Indian 
tribes  at  the  time  of  the  passage  of 
said  act.  Approved,  August  5,  1882. 
Sec.  2496.  No  watches,  watch- 
cases,  watch-movements,  or  parts  of 
watch-movements,  or  any  other  arti- 
cles of  foreign  manufacture,  which 
shall  copy  or  simulate  the  name  or 
trade-mark  of  any  domestic  manufac- 
ture [manufacturer],  shall  be  admitted 
to  entry  at  the  custom-houses  of  the 
United  States,  unless  such  domestic 
manufacturer  is  the  importer  of  the 
same.  And  in  order  to  aid  the  officers 
of  the  customs  in  enforcing  this  pro- 
hibition, any  domestic  manufacturer 
who  has  adopted  trade-marks  may  re- 
quire his  name  and  residence  and  a  de- 
scription of  his  trade-marks  to  be  re- 
corded in  books,  which  shall  be  kept 
for  that  purpose  in  the  Department  of 
the  Treasury,  under  such  regulations 
as  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  shall 
prescribe,  and  may  furnish  to  the  De- 
partment facsimiles  of  such  trade- 
marks ;  and  thereupon  the  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury  shall  cause  one  or 
more  copies  of  the  same  to  be  trans- 
mitted to  each  collector  or  other  prop- 
er officer  of  the  customs. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


245 


HISTORY  OF   THE   AMERICAN   PATENT   SYSTEM. 


The  century  just  closed  stands  out 
pre-eminently  as  the  century  of  in- 
vention. It  is  therefore  a  fitting  time 
briefly  to  refer  to  the  origin,  estab- 
lishment, and  development  of  our  pat- 
ent system,  to  call  to  mind  the  debt  the 
United  States  owes  to  inventors,  and 
at  the  same  time  to  point  out  the  ad- 
vantages that  have  followed  the  far- 
seeing  wisdom  of  the  framers  of  the 
Federal  Constitution  in  incorporating 
in  that  instrument  paragraph  8  of 
section  8  of  Article  I.  of  the  Consti- 
tution, which  gave  to  Congress  the 
power  "To  promote  the  progress  of 
science  and  the  useful  arts  by  securing 
for  limited  times  to  authors  and  invent- 
ors the  exclusive  rights  to  their  re- 
spective writings  and  discoveries." 

One  hundred  years  ago  the  population 
of  the  United  States  was  less  than 
6,000,000,  and  there  was  not  a  single 
city  within  our  borders  having  a  popu- 
lation of  75,000.  The  population  of 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore, 
and  Boston  was  less  than  the  present 
population  of  Minneapolis.  The  lat- 
ter city  and  its  sister  city  of  St.  Paul, 
Chicago,  Omaha,  and  Kansas  City 
were  unknown.  Not  a  steam  pro- 
pelled vessel  was  in  use,  nor  was  there 
a  mile  of  railroad  in  the  United  States. 
The  electric  telegraph  and  telephone 
were  unknown.  Our  exports  con- 
sisted of  agricultural  products.  There 
was  scarcely  any  well-developed  line  of 
manufacture,  and  our  wants  in  that 
line  were  supplied  by  imports.  It  had 
been  the  policy  of  England  to  suppress 
manufacturing  in  its  colonies.  In 
1634  a  law  was  passed  in  Virginia  for 
the  encouragement  of  textile  manu- 
factures, but  it  was  promptly  annulled 
by  England.  In  1731  she  enacted  a 
law  prohibiting  the  carriage  of  woolen 
goods  and  hats  from  one  colony  to  an- 
other. In  1750  a  woollen  hat  factory 
in  Massachusetts  was  declared  to  be  a 
nuisance  and  suppressed.  No  carpets 
were  made  in  the  colonies  until  after 
1776,  except  rag  carpets.  In  1800 
carpets  were  in  this  country  a  luxury. 
Even  up  to  1850  there  was  not  a 
power  loom  for  carpet  making  in  the 
United  States. 

What  is  true  in  the  textile  art  is 
equally  true  of  most  of  the  other  arts. 

Though  the  country  was  an  agricul- 
tural one,  little  progress  had  been 
made  in  the  manufacture  of  agricul- 
tural implements.  It  was  not  until 
1819  that  an  iron  plow  was  produced 
in  this  country.  The  reaper  appeared 


in  1833  and  a  successful  thresher  not 
until  1850.  Up  to  the  time  of  the 
Civil  War  there  is  no  question  but 
that  the  country  continued  to  be  an 
agricultural  one.  It  is  true  that  dur- 
ing the  first  sixty  years  of  the  last 
century  our  manufactures  steadily  and 
rapidly  increased  in  kind  and  in  extent, 
but  our  population  increased  even 
more  rapidly,  so  that  we  consumed 
what  we  manufactured  and  were  still 
largely  dependent  upon  the  import  of 
manufactured  articles.  But  in  the 
last  few  years  a  great  reversal,  not 
only  in  sentiment  but  in  conditions, 
has  occurred  ;  the  commercial  relations 
of  the  United  States  with  the  great 
trading  nations  of  the  world  have  rap- 
idly changed,  so  that  the  excess  of  im- 
ports of  manufactured  articles  has 
turned  into  an  excess  of  exports  of 
such  articles. 

One  need  not  look  far  for  the  cause 
of  this.  It  lies  in  the  economy  of 
manufacture  arising  from  the  use  of 
labor-saving  devices,  mainly  the  inven- 
tion of  our  own  people,  which  has  en- 
abled us  to  compete  in  many  lines  of 
manufacture,  notwithstanding  the 
higher  scale  of  wages  paid  in  this 
country,  with  similar  articles  manufac- 
tured by  any  or  all  nations.  To  em- 
ploy these  devices  to  the  best  advan- 
tage requires  the  intelligence  of  the 
American  workmen,  and  the  result  is 
due  to  the  combination  of  witty  inven- 
tions and  thinking  men.  Witless  men 
behind  witty  machines  would  be  of  no 
use.  To  the  patent  system  more  than 
to  any  other  cause  are  we  indebted  for 
the  industrial  revolution  of  the  cen- 
tury. 

President  Washington  realized  the 
importance  of  formulating  a  law  to 
stimulate  inventions,  and  in  his  first 
annual  message  to  Congress,  in  1790, 
said : 

"I  can  not  forbear  intimating  to 
you  the  expediency  of  giving  effectual 
encouragement  as  well  to  the  intro- 
duction of  new  and  useful  inventions 
from  abroad  as  to  the  exertion  of  skill 
and  genius  in  producing  them  at 
home." 

Congress  was  quick  to  act,  and  on 
April  10,  1790,  the  first  law  upon  the 
subject  was  enacted.  It  constituted 
the  Secretary  of  State,  the  Secretary 
of  War,  and  the  Attorney-General  a 
board  to  consider  all  applications  for 
patents.  Owing  to  the  fires  that  have 
destroyed  the  early  records  of  the 
Patent  Office,  some  question  has  arisen 


246 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


as  to  the  number  of  patents  issued 
under  this  act ;  but  from  the  best  in- 
formation obtainable  I  place  the  num- 
ber at  fifty-seven.  The  first  patent 
issued  was  to  Samuel  Hopkins,  July 
31,  1790,  for  making  pot  and  pearl 
ashes. 

The  act  of  1793  superseded  the  act 
of  1790,  and  remained  in  force  as 
amended  from  time  to  time  until  the 
act  of  1836  was  passed.  The  act  of 
1793  was  the  only  act  ever  passed  in 
this  country  which  provided  for  the  is- 
suance of  Letters  Patent  without  the 
requirement  of  an  examination  into 
the  novelty  and  utility  of  the  inven- 
tion for  which  the  patent  was  sought. 

The  act  of  1836,  with  modifications, 
remained  in  force  until  the  revision  of 
the  patent  laws  in  1870.  This  revi- 
sion was  largely  a  consolidation  of  the 
statutes  then  in  force. 

Under  the  revision  of  the  statutes 
of  the  United  States  in  1874  the  act 
of  1870  was  repealed ;  but  the  revision 
substantially  re-enacted  the  provisions 
of  the  act  of  1870. 

Under  the  acts  of  1790  and  1793 
Letters  Patent  were  granted  for  a 
term  of  fourteen  years.  There  was  no 
provision  for  extension  ;  but  while  the 
act  of  1793  was  in  force  Congress  ex- 
tended some  thirteen  patents. 

The  act  of  1836  provided  that  Let- 
ters Patent  should  be  granted  for  a 
term  of  fourteen  years,  and  provision 
was  made  for  an  extension  for  a  term 
of  seven  years  upon  due  application 
and  upon  a  proper  showing.  Until 
1848  petitions  for  extensions  were 
passed  upon  by  a  board  consisting  of 
the  Secretary  of  State,  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Patents,  and  the  Solicitor  of 
the  Treasury.  After  that  time  power 
was  vested  solely  in  the  Commissioner 
of  Patents. 

The  patent  act  of  March  2,  1861 
(section  16),  provided  that  all  patents 
thereafter  granted  should  remain  in 
force  for  a  term  of  seventeen  years 
from  the  date  of  issue,  and  the  ex- 
tension of  such  patents  was  pro- 
hibited. 

The  consolidated  patent  act  of  1870, 
while  providing  that  patents  should  be 
granted  for  a  term  of  seventeen  years, 
also  provided  that  patents  granted 
prior  to  March  2,  1861,  might,  upon  | 
due  application  and  a  proper  showing, 
be  extended  by  the  Commissioner  of 
Patents  for  a  term  of  seven  years  from 
the  expiration  of  the  first  term. 

Bv  the  revision  of  the  patent  laws 
in  1874  the  prohibition  against  the  ex- 
tension of  patents  was  dropped,  and 


since  that  time  Congress  has  had  the 
power  to  extend  Letters  Patent.  Con- 
gress extended  five  patents  granted  un- 
der the  act  of  1836,  and  in  nine  in- 
stances authorized  patentees  to  apply 
to  the  Commissioner  of  Patents  for  ex- 
tension of  their  patents.  So  far  as  I 
have  been  able  to  discover,  no  patent 
granted  for  a  term  of  seventeen  years 
has  been  extended  by  Congress. 

It  was  not  until  1842  that  the 
statute  was  passed  authorizing  the 
grant  of  patents  for  designs.  Under 
that  act  design  patents  were  granted 
for  seven  years.  Subsequently  provi- 
sions were  made  for  granting  them  for 
terms  of  three  and  one-half,  seven,  and 
fourteen  years,  at  the  election  of  the 
applicant. 

By  the  act  of  March  2,  1861,  the 
Board  of  Examiners-in-Chief  was  es- 
tablished. Prior  to  that  time,  and 
during  the  incumbency  of  Commission- 
er Holt,  temporary  boards  of  examin- 
ers to  decide  appeals  had  been  appoint- 
ed by  him,  and  later  on  he  created  a 
permanent  board  of  three  examiners 
who  were  to  decide  on  appeal  rejected 
cases  and  submit  their  decisions  to 
him  for  approval. 

The  act  of  1870  made  the  first  pro- 
vision for  an  Assistant  Commissioner 
and  an  Examiner  of  Interferences. 
Another  provision  in  that  act  was  the 
power  given  the  Commissioner,  sub- 
ject to  the  approval  of  the  Secretary 
of  the  Interior,  to  establish  regula- 
tions for  the  conduct  of  proceedings 
in  the  Office. 

On  January  1,  1898,  an  act  passed 
March  3,  1897,  went  into  force. 
Some  of  the  provisions  of  this  act 
were  that  applications  for  patents 
should  be  completed  and  prepared  for 
examination  within  one  year  after  the 
filing  of  the  application  and  that  the 
applicant  should  prosecute  the  same 
within  one  year  after  an  action  there- 
on or  it  should  be  regarded  as  aban- 
doned (prior  to  that  time  two  years 
was  the  limit)  ;  that  an  inventor 
should  be  debarred  from  receiving  a 
patent  if  his  invention  had  been  first 
patented  by  him  or  his  legal  represen- 
tatives or  assigns  in  a  foreign  coun- 
try, provided  the  application  for  the 
foreign  patent  had  been  filed  more 
than  seven  months  prior  to  the  fil'ng 
of  the  application  in  this  country,  and 
that  if  the  invention  for  which  a  pat- 
ent was  applied  for  had  been  patented 
or  described  in  any  printed  publication 
in  th!s  or  any  foreign  country  for 
more  than  two  years  prior  to  the  ap- 
plication a  patent  could  not  issue. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


247 


The  first  provision  for  affording  ac- 
commodations for  the  Patent  Office 
was  in  1810,  when  Congress  authorized 
the  purchase  of  a  building  for  the 
General  Post-office  and  for  the  office 
of  the  Keeper  of  Patents.  The  build- 
ing purchased  was  known  as  "Blod- 
gett's  Hotel,"  and  stood  on  the  site 
now  occupied  by  the  south  front  of 
the  building  until  recently  occupied  by 
the  Post-office  Department,  and  now 
used  by  several  bureaus  of  the  Interior 
Department.  The  east  end  of  this 
building  was  used  for  the  records,  mod- 
els, etc.,  of  the  Patent  Office.  This 
building  was  destroyed  by  fire  Decem- 
ber 13,  1836.  On  July  4,  183G,  an  act 
was  passed  appropriating  $108  000  for 
the  erection  of  a  suitable  building  for 
the  accommodation  of  the  Patent 
Office,  and  within  that  month  the 
erection  of  the  building  was  begun. 

It  was  the  present  south  front  of  the 
Patent  Office,  excluding  the  south  ends 
of  the  east  and  west  wings.  The  base- 
ment (which  is  now  the  first  or  ground 
iloor)  was  to  be  used  for  storage  and 
analogous  purposes,  the  first  or  por- 
tico floor  for  office  rooms,  and  the  sec- 
ond floor  was  to  be  one  large  hall  with 
galleries  on  either  side,  and  to  have 
a  vaulted  roof.  This  hall  was  to  be 
used  for  exhibition  purposes,  for  the 
display  of  models  of  patented  and  un- 
patented  inventions,  and  also  as  a  na- 
tional gallery  of  the  industrial  arts 
and  manufactures. 

During  the  erection  of  the  Patent 
Office  building  temporary  quarters 
were  provided  in  the  City  Hall.  In 
the  spring  of  1840  the  building  was 
completed  and  the  Office  moved  into  it. 
The  sum  of  $422.011.65  was  expend- 
ed on  this  building.  The  patented 
models  were  then  classified  and  ex- 
hibited in  suitable  glass  cases,  while 
the  national  gallery  was  arranged  for 
exhibition  of  models  and  specimens. 

By  the  act  of  March  3,  1849,  the 
Interior  Department  was  established 
and  the  Patent  Office  attached  thereto. 
This  same  act  appropriated  $50,000 
out  of  the  patent  fund  to  begin  the 
east  or  Seventh  street  wing,  which  was 
completed  in  1852  at  a  cost  of  $600,- 
000,  $250,000  of  which  was  taken 
from  the  revenue  of  the  Patent  Office. 
In  1852  the  plans  for  the  entire  build- 
ing, as  it  now  stands,  were  prepared. 
The  west  wing  was  completed  in  1856 
and  cost  $750.000.  Work  on  the  north 
or  G  street  wing  was  begun  the  same 
year.  In  18(57  th;s  wing  was  finished 
at  a  cost  of  $575.000.  The  entire 
building  cost  $2,347,011.65. 


Since  July  28,  1836,  667,173  pat- 
ents for  inventions,  and  since  1842 
34,018  patents  for  designs  have  been 
issued  by  this  office.  Many  of  these 
patents  are  for  minor  improvements, 
but  among  them  may  be  found  a  very 
large  number  covering  the  most  re- 
markable and  valuable  inventions, 
which  have  added  untold  sums  to  the 
world's  wealth,  revolutionized  the  old 
arts,,  created  new  ones,  brought  old- 
time  luxuries  within  the  reach  of  all, 
and  made  life  doubly  worth  living. 
These  contributions  have  come  from 
men  and  women,  white  and  colored. 
To  many  inventors  more  than  a  hun- 
dred patents  have  been  issued.  The 
following  are  some  of  the  inventors 
who  have  received  more  than  that 
number  between  1872  and  1900,  both 
years  inclusive: 

Thomas  A.  Edison 742 

Francis  H.  Richards 619 

Elihu  Thomson 444 

Charles  E.  Scribner 374 

Luther  C.  Crowell 293 

Edward  Weston 280 

Rudolph  M.  Hunter 276 

Charles     J.     Van     Depoele     (de- 
ceased)     245 

George  Westinghouse 239 

John  W.  Hyatt 209 

Freeborn   F.  Raymond,   2d 182 

Sydney  H.  Short 178 

Rudolf  Eickemeyer    (deceased)  .  .  171 

Milo  G.  Kellogg 159 

Walter   Scott 156 

Arthur  J.  Moxham 150 

Cyrus  W.  Saladee 148 

Louis  Goddu 146 

Hiram   S.   Maxim 146 

George  D.  Burton 144 

Lewis  H.  Nash 142 

Edwin   Norton 141 

Abbot  Augustus  Low 137 

Philip  Dlehl 137 

James  C.  Anderson 135 

Edward  J.  Brooks 133 

Elmer  A.  Sperry •. 132 

Peter  K.  Dederick 128 

Hosea  W.  Libbey 127 

James  F.  McElroy 121 

William  N.  Whiteley 121 

Horace  Wyman 118 

Frank   Rhind 117 

Louis  K.  Johnson 114 

Warren  H.  Taylor 112 

James  M.  Dodge Ill 

George  H.  Reynolds 110 

Talbot   C.   Dexter 109 

James  H.  Northrop 102 

From  1790  to  March  1,  1895,  some 
5,535  patents  were  granted  to  worn- 


248 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


en.  It  is  a  fair  estimate  that  out  of 
every  1,000  patents  one  is  granted  to 
a  woman.  As  a  rule  women  take  out 
but  one  patent,  although  there  are 
many  exceptions.  While  the  majority 
of  patents  granted  them  are  for  im- 
provements in  wearing  apparel  and  in 
articles  for  household  use,  they  have 
invented  and  received  patents  for  add- 
ing machines,  windmills,  horseshoes, 
agricultural  implements,  and  fire  es- 
capes. 

To  some  165  colored  inventors  about 
400  patents  have  been  issued.  Twen- 
ty-eight patents  have  been  issued  to 
one  and  to  another  22.  So  far  as  the 
records  show,  Henry  Blair,  of  Mary- 
land, was  the  first  colored  patentee. 
In  1834  he  received  a  patent  for  a 
corn  planter,  and  in  1836  one  for  a 
cotton  planter.  The  character  of  their 
inventions  follows  lines  suggested  by 
their  employment.  Employed  in  the 
field  and  in  the  house,  improvements 
in  agricultural  implements  and  arti- 
cles of  domestic  use  predominate.  The 
sphere  of  their  inventive  effort  has 
widened  with  the  added  opportunities 
afforded  them  to  engage  in  mechanical 
vocations.  They  have  made  contribu- 
tions to  the  electric  arts  and  steam 
engineering,  and  many  improvements 
in  railway  appliances  and  paper-bag 
machines.  Before  the  Civil  War  the 
master  of  a  slave  living  in  Mississippi 
made  application  for  a  patent,  but  the 
Attorney-General  held  in  an  opinion 
reported  in  vol.  9,  Attorney-General's 
Opinions,  page  171,  that  an  invention 
of  a  slave,  though  it  be  new  and  use- 
ful, could  not  be  patented. 

In  May,  1802.  President  Jefferson 
appointed  Dr.  William  Thornton  as  a 
clerk  at  $1,400  per  year,  to  have 
charge  of  the  issuance  of  patents.  He 
took  the  title  of  Superintendent,  and 
continued  to  act  in  that  capacity  un- 
til his  death,  March  28,  1828.  He 
was  succeeded  by  Dr.  William  P. 
Jones,  who  acted  until  his  removal  in 
the  early  part  of  President  Jackson's 
administration.  John  D.  Craig  fol- 
lowed Dr.  Jones,  and  in  1834  he  was 
succeeded  by  B.  F.  Pickett,  who  served 
but  a  brief  period.  The  last  Superin- 
tendent was  Henry  L.  Ellsworth,  who 
became  the  first  Commissioner  under 
the  act  of  1836.  and  served  until  1845.  j 
The  other  Commissioners  under  that  j 
act  were : 

Edmund  Burke.  May  4,  1845. 
Thomas  Ewbank,  May  9,  1849. 
Silas  H.   Hodges,   November  8,  1852. 
Charles  Mason,  May  16,  1853. 


Joseph  Holt,  September  10,  1857. 
William  I).  Bishop,  May  27,  1859. 
Philip  F.  Thomas,  February  16,  1860. 

D.  P.  Holloway,  March  28,  1861. 
T.  C.  Theaker,  August  17,  1865. 
Elisha  Foote,  July  29,  1868. 
Samuel  S.  Fisher.  April  26,  1869. 

Commissioner  Fisher  continued  as 
Commissioner  for  a  short  time  under 
the  act  of  1870.  Other  Commission- 
ers under  that  act  have  been  : 

M.  D.  Leggett,  January  16,  1871. 
John  M.  Thacher,  November  4,  1874. 
R.  H.  Duell,  October  1,  1875. 
Ellis  Spear,  January  30,  1877. 
H.  E.  Paine,  November  1,  1878. 

E.  M.  Marble,  May  7,  1880. 
Benjamin   Butterworth,    November   1, 

1883. 
M.  V.  Montgomery,  March  23,  3885. 

B.  J.  Hall,  April  12,  1887. 

C.  E.  Mitchell,  April  1,  1889. 
William  E.  Simonds,  August  1,  1891. 
John  S.   Seymour.  March  31,  1893. 
Benjamin  Butterworth,  April  7,  1897. 
Charles  H.  Duell,  February  3,  1898. 

F.  I.  Allen,  April  11,  1901. 

Commissioner  Fisher  was  the  first 
to  publish  his  decisions  and  to  have 
the  copies  of  the  specifications  and 
drawings  made  by  photo-lithography. 
He  also  instituted  the  practice  of  re- 
quiring competitive  examinations  for 
entrance  to  and  promotions  in  the 
examining  force  of  the  office. 

Beginning  in  1843  and  annually 
thereafter  the  Patent  Office  reports 
were  published,  which,  until  1853,  con- 
tained merely  an  alphabetical  index  of 
the  names  of  the  inventors,  a  list  of 
the  expired  patents,  and  the  claims  of 
the  patents  granted  during  the  week. 
In  1853  and  afterward  small  engraved 
copies  of  a  portion  of  the  drawings 
were  added  to  the  reports  to  explain 
the  claims. 

The  act  of  1870  authorized  the  Com- 
missioner to  print  copies  of  the  claims 
of  the  current  issues  of  patents  and 
of  such  laws,  decisions,  and  rules  as 
were  necessary  for  the  information  of 
the  public.  In  conformity  with  this 
provision  there  was  published  weekly 
a  list  giving  the  numbers,  titles,  and 
claims  of  the  patents  issued  during 
the  week  immediately  preceding,  to- 
gether with  the  names  and  residences 
of  the  patentees.  This  list  was  first 
published  under  the  name  of  The 
Official  Gazette  of  the  United  States 
Patent  Office,  on  January  3,  1872. 
In  July,  1872,  portions  of  the  draw- 
ings were  introduced  to  illustrate  the 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


249 


claims  in  the  patented  cases.  The 
Official  Gazette  has  now  become  one 
of  the  most  valuable  and  important  of 
Government  publications.  Each  Sena-- 
tor and  Representative  is  authorized  to 
designate  eight  public  libraries  to  re- 
ceive this  publication  free.  One  copy 
is  also  furnished  free  to  each  member 
of  Congress.  It  is  also  sent  all  over 
the  world  in  exchange  for  similar  pub- 
lications by  other  Governments,  and 
its  paid  subscription  list  is  constantly 
increasing. 

The  American  patent  system  •  is 
known  and  spoken  of  as  the  "exam- 
ination system,"  in  contradistinction 
to  the  English  system,  which  has 
been  mainly  followed  by  other  nations. 
The  examination  system  is  the  ideal 
system,  provided  the  examination  can 
be  made  with  sufficient  care  to  mini- 
mize the  likelihood  of  the  issue  of  pat- 
ents for  inventions  not  of  a  patentable 
nature.  The  field  of  search,  however, 
yearly  increases,  and  it  becomes  more 
and  more  difficult  through  lack  of  time 
to  make  a  perfect  examination.  Some- 
thing more  than  two  million  domestic 
and  foreign  patents  have  been  issued 
while  the  number  of  scientific  publi- 
cations has  enormously  increased.  It 
is  only  by  means  of  a  perfect  classifi- 
cation that  this  great  mass  of  matter 
can  be  so  divided  as  to  be  convenient- 
ly accessible  for  use  in  the  examination 
of  any  individual  case. 

Of  our  patent  system  it  has  been 
well  said : 

"It  is  generally  recognized  by  the 
most  profound  students  of  our  insti- 
tutions, both  at  home  and  abroad,  that 
no  one  thing  has  contributed  more  to 
the  pre-eminence  of  this  country  in  the 
industrial  arts  and  in  manufactures 
than  the  encouragement  given  by  our 
Constitution  and  laws  to  inventors  and 
to  investors  in  patent  property." 

The  system  is  by  no  means  perfect ; 
but  it  is  generally  acknowledged  that 
the  patent  laws  of  the  United  States 
are  more  libaral  than  those  of  any  oth- 
er country,  and  that  the  examination, 
imperfect  though  at  times  it  be,  gives 
a  value  to  a  United  States  patent  not 
possessed  by  a  patent  issued  by  a  coun- 
try not  having  an  examination  system. 
It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  the  prac- 
tice before  the  Patent  Office  lacks  sta- 
bility and  uniformity  by  reason  of  the 
frequent  changes  of  Commissioners, 
which  prevents  the  establishment  of 
definite  policies.  The  salaries  paid  to 
the  Commissioner  and  Assistant  Com- 
missioner, to  the  examiners  in  chief, 
and  to  the  examiners  of  the  various 


grades  are  inadequate.  It  is  also  true 
that  too  many  appeals  are  permitted, 
and  interference  proceedings  are  ren- 
dered onerous  and  complicated  by  the 
number  of  motions  and  appeals  pro- 
vided by  the  laws  and  rules.  The 
most  serious  defect,  however,  follows 
from  the  power  to  keep  applications  in 
the  Office  for  indefinite  times  through 
delays  in  amending  the  same.  The  act 
of  March  3,  1897,  was  intended  to 
prevent  or  check  this  evil ;  but  it  has 
failed  of  its  purpose.  At  the  present 
time  about  75  per  cent  of  the  patents 
granted  are  issued  within  one  year 
after  being  filed,  and  were  it  not  for 
the  fact  that  applications  are  unduly 
delayed  at  least  90  per  cent  would 
issue  within  that  time.  The  rights  of 
the  public  would  be  protected  and  very 
seldom  would  an  injustice  be  done  to 
an  inventor  if  provision  was  incorpo- 
rated into  the  patent  laws  providing 
that  unless  an  application  became  in- 
volved in  an  interference  it  should  not 
be  permitted  to  remain  in  the  Patent 
Office  more  than  three  years  without 
abridging  its  life  of  seventeen  years. 

The  records  of  the  Office  show  that 
there  were  pending  in  1900,  4,829 
applications,  filed  prior  to  Janu- 
ary 1,  1898.  Three  of  these  ap- 
plications were  filed  in  1880, 
one  in  1881.  four  in  1882,  three 
in  1884,  three  in  1885,  thirteen  in  1886, 
seven  in  1887,  thirteen  in  1888,  nine- 
teen in  18S9,  twenty-three  in  1890. 
forty-five  in  1891,  sixty-four  in  1892, 
one  hundred  and  three  in  1893,  one 
hundred  and  fifty-four  in  1894,  three 
hundred  and  sixty-eight  in  1895,  nine 
hundred  and  ninety-two  in  1896,  and 
three  thousand  and  eleven  in  1897. 

It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  an 
application  may  be  kept  alive  indefi- 
nitely, if  it  be  desired.  While  the  list 
above  given  embraces  only  such  appli- 
cations as  were  filed  under  the  law  as 
it  existed  prior  to  January  1,  1898, 
yet  ten  years  later  a  similar  list 
will  undoubtedly  be  given,  provided  the 
statutes  are  not  amended,  for  the  only 
difference  lies  in  the  fact  that  amend- 
ments now  have  to  be  made  within  a 
year  after  the  official  action  instead  of 
two  years  under  the  prior  act.  A  law 
which  permits  this  should  be  cor- 
rected. 

It  should  continue  to  be  the  policy 
of  the  government  of  a  nation  whose 
inventors  have  given  to  the  world  the 
cotton-gin  and  the  reaper,  the  sewing 
machine  and  the  typewriter,  the  elec- 
tric telegraph  and  telephone,  the  ro- 
tary web  perfecting  printing  press  and 


250 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


the  linotype,  the  incandescent  lamp 
and  the  phonograph,  and  thousands  of 
other  inventions  that  have  revolution- 
ized every  industrial  art,  to  encourage 
invention  in  every  lawful  way  and  to 
provide  that,  so  far  as  may  be  neces- 
sary, the  money  paid  to  the  Govern- 
ment by  inventors  be  used  for  their 
benefit.  The  wisdom  of  the  policy  has 
been  demonstrated. 

The  world  owes  as  much  to  invent- 
ors as  to  statesmen  or  warriors.     To. 


them  the  United  States  is  the  greatest 
debtor,  so  much  have  they  advanced 
American  manufactures.  Their  labor- 
saving  machinery  does  work  that  it 
would  take  millions  of  men  using  hand 
implements  to  perform.  In  this  cen- 
tury the  debt  will  be  piled  still  higher, 
for  inventors  never  rest. — Abstract  of 
report  for  1900. 

C.  H.  DUELL, 

Commissioner   of   Patents. 


THE  COPYRIGHT  LAW  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


CONSTITUTION,   1787. 

Art.  1,  Sec.  8.  The  Congress  shall 
have  power  *  *  *  To  promote  the 
progress  of  science  and  useful  arts,  by 
Securing  for  Limited  Times  to  Au- 
thors and  Inventors  the  Exclusive 
Right  to  their  Respective  Writings 
and  Discoveries. 

ACTS    OF    CONGRESS. 

Sec.  4948.  All  records  and  other 
things  relating  to  copyrights  and  re- 
quired by  law  to  be  preserved,  shall  be 
under  the  control  of  the  Librarian  of 
Congress,  and  kept  and  preserved  in 
the  Library  of  Congress. 

[The  Appropriation  Act  approved 
February  19,  1897,  provides  for  the 
appointment  of  a  "Register  of  Copy- 
rights, who  shall,  on  and  after  July  1, 
1897,  under  the  direction  and  super- 
vision of  the  Librarian  of  Congress, 
perform  all  the  duties  relating  to  copy- 
rights, and  shall  make  weekly  deposits 
with  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 
and  make  monthly  reports  to  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Treasury,  and  to  the 
Librarian  of  Congress,  and  shall,  on 
and  after  July  1,  1897,  give  bond  to 
the  Librarian  of  Congress,  in  the  sum 
of  $20,000,  with  approved  sureties,  for 
the  faithful  discharge  of  his  duties."] 

Sec.  4949.  The  seal  provided  for 
the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress 
shall  be  the  seal  thereof,  and  by  it  all 
records  and  papers  issued  from  the 
office,  and  to  be  used  in  evidence  shall 
be  authenticated. 

Sec.  4950.  The  Appropriation  Act, 
approved  February  19,  1897,  provides : 
"The  Librarian  of  Congress  shall  on 
and  after  July  1,  1897.  give  bond,  pay- 
able to  the  United  States,  in  the  sum 
of  $20,000,  with  sureties  approved  by 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  for  the 
faithful  discharge  of  his  duties  ac- 
cording to  law." 

Sec.  4951.  The  Librarian  of  Con- 
gress shall  make  an  annual  report  to 


Congress  of  the  number  and  descrip- 
tion of  copyright  publications  for 
which  entries  have  been  made  during 
the  year. 

Sec.  4952.  The  author,  inventor, 
designer,  or  proprietor  of  any  book, 
map,  chart,  dramatic  or  musical  com- 
position, engraving,  cut,  print,  or 
photograph  or  negative  thereof,  or  of 
a  painting,  drawing,  chromo,  statue, 
statuary,  and  of  models  or  designs  in- 
tended to  be  perfected  as  works  of  the 
fine  arts,  and  the  executors,  adminis- 
trators, or  assigns  of  any  such  person 
shall,  upon  complying  with  the  provi- 
|  sions  of  this  chapter,  have  the  sole 
liberty  of  printing,  reprinting,  pub- 
lishing, completing,  copying,  executing, 
finishing,  and  vending  the  same ;  and, 
in  the  case  of  dramatic  composition,  of 
publicly  performing  or  representing  it, 
or  causing  it  to  be  performed  or  repre^ 
sented  by  others ;  and  authors  or  their 
assigns  shall  have  exclusive  right  to 
dramatize  and  translate  any  of  their 
works  for  which  copyright  shall  have 
been  obtained  under  the  laws  of  the 
United  States. 

In  the  construction  of  this  act  the 
words  "engraving,"  "cut,"  and  "print," 
shall  be  applied  only  to  pictorial  illus- 
trations or  works  connected  with  the 
fine  arts,  and  no  prints  or  labels  de- 
signed to  be  used  for  any  other  articles 
of  manufacture  shall  be  entered  under 
the  copyright  law,  but  may  be  regis- 
tered in  the  Patent  Office.  And  the 
Commissioner  of  Patents  is  hereby 
charged  with  the  supervision  and  con- 
trol of  the  entry  or  registry  of  such 
prints  or  labels,  in  conformity  with 
the  regulations  provided  by  law  as  to 
copyright  of  prints,  except  that  there 
shall  be  paid  for  recording  the  title  of 
any  print  or  label,  not  a  trade-mark. 
$(>.00,  which  shall  cover  the  expense  of 
furnishing  a  copy  of  the  record,  under 
the  seal  of  the  Commissioner  of  Pat- 
ents, to  the  party  entering  the  same. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


251 


Sec.  4053.  Copyrights  shall  be 
granted  for  the  term  of  twenty-eight 
years  from  the  time  of  recording  the 
title  thereof,  in  the  manner  hereinaf- 
ter directed. 

Sec.  4954.  The  author,  inventor,  or 
designer,  if  he  be  still  living,  />r  his 
widow  or  children,  if  he  be  dead,  shall 
have  the  same  exclusive  right  contin- 
ued for  the  further  term  of  fourteen 
years,  upon  recording  the  title  of  the 
work  or  description  of  the  article  so 
secured  a  second  time,  and  complying 
with  all  other  regulations  in  regard  to 
original  copyrights,  within  six  months 
before  the  expiration  of  the  first  term. 
And  such  person  shall,  within  two 
months  from  the  date  of  said  renewal, 
cause  a  copy  of  the  record  thereof  to 
be  published  in  one  or  more  newspa- 
pers, printed  in  the  United  States,  for 
the  space  of  four  weeks. 

Sec.  4955.  Copyrights  shall  be  as- 
signable in  law  by  any  instrument  of 
writing,  and  such  assignment  shall  be 
recorded  in  the  office  of  the  Librarian 
of  Congress  within  sixty  days  after  its 
execution  ;  in  default  of  which  it  shall 
be  void  as  against  any  subsequent  pur- 
chaser or  mortgagee  for  a  valuable 
consideration,  without  notice. 

Sec.  495G.  No  person  shall  be  en- 
titled to  a  copyright  unless  he  shall,  op 
or  before  the  day  of  publication,  in 
this  or  any  foreign  country,  deliver  at 
the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress, 
or  deposit  in  the  mail  within  the 
United  States,  addressed  to  the  Libra- 
rian of  Congress,  at  Washington,  D.  C., 
a  printed  copy  of  the  title  of  the  book, 
map,  chart,  dramatic  or  musical  com- 
position, engraving,  cut,  print,  photo- 
graph, or  chromo,  or  a  description  of 
the  painting,  drawing,  statue,  statuary, 
or  a  model  or  design,  for  a  work  of 
the  fine  arts,  for  which  he  desires  a 
copyright ;  nor  unless  he  shall  also, 
not  later  than  the  day  of  the  publi- 
cation thereof,  in  this  or  any  foreign 
country,  deliver  at  the  office  of  the 
Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington, 
D.  C.,  or  deposit  in  the  mail  within 
the  United  States,  addressed  to  the 
Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington, 
D.  C.,  two  copies  of  such  copyright 
book,  map,  chart,  dramatic  or  musical 
composition,  engraving,  chromo,  cut, 
print  or  photograph,  or  in  case  of  a 
painting,  drawing,  statue,  statuary, 
model  or  design  for  a  work  of  the  fine 
arts,  a  photograph  of  the  same :  Pro- 
vided. That  in  the  case  of  a  book,  pho- 
tograph, chromo,  or  lithograph,  the 
two  copies  of  the  same  required  to  be 
delivered  or  deposited  as  above,  shall 


be  printed  from  type  set  within  the 
limits  of  the  United  States,  or  from 
plates  made  therefrom,  or  from  nega- 
tives, or  drawings  on  stone  made  with- 
in the  lim.ts  of  the  United  States,  or 
from  transfers  made  therefrom.  Dur- 
ing the  existence  of  such  copyright  the 
importation  into  the  United  States  of 
I  any  brook,  chromo,  lithograph,  or  pho- 
i  tograph,  so  copyrighted,  or  any  edition 
|  or  editions  thereof,  or  any  plates  of 
j  the  same  not  made  from  type  set,  nega- 
tives, or  drawings  on  stone  made  with- 
in the  limits  of  the  United  States,  shall 
be,  and  is  hereby  prohibited,  except  in 
the  cases  specified  in  paragraphs  512 
to  516,  inclusive,  in  Section  2  of  the 
act  entitled  An  act  to  reduce  the 
revenue  and  equalize  the  duties  on  im- 
ports arid  for  other  purposes,  approved 
October  1,  1890;  and  except  in  the 
case  of  persons  purchasing  for  use  and 
not  for  sale,  who  import  subject  to  the 
duty  thereon,  not  more  than  two  cop- 
ies of  such  books  at  any  one  time ; 
and,  except  in  the  case  of  newspapers 
and  magazines,  not  containing  in 
whole  or  in  part  matter  copyrighted 
under  the  provisions  of  this  act,  un- 
authorized by  the  author,  which  are 
hereby  exempted  from  prohibition  of 
importation ; 

Provided,  nevertheless,  That  in  the 
case  of  books  in  foreign  languages,  of 
which  only  translations  in  English  are 
copyrighted,  the  prohibition  of  impor- 
tation shall  apply  only  to  the  trans- 
lation of  the  same,  and  the  importation 
of  the  books  in  the  original  language 
shall  be  permitted. 

Sec.  4957.  The  Librarian  of  Con- 
gress shall  record  the  name  of  such 
copyright  book,  or  other  article,  forth- 
with in  a  book  to  be  kept  for  that  pur- 
pose, in  the  words  following :  "Lib- 
rary of  Congress,  to  wit :  Be  it  re- 
membered that  on  the  day.  of 

— ,  A.  B..  of ,  hath  deposited  in 

this  office  the  title  of  a  book  (map, 
chart,  or  otherwise,  as  the  case  may 
be,  or  description  of  the  article),  the 
title  or  description  of  which  is  in  the 
following  words,  to  wit:  (here  insert 
the  title  or  description),  the  right 
whereof  he  claims  as  author  (origina- 
tor, or  proprietor,  as  the  case  may  be), 
in  conformity  with  the  laws  of  the 
United  States  respecting  copyrights. 
C.  D.,  Librarian  of  Congress."  And 
he  shall  give  a  cony  of  the  t'tle  or 
description  under  the  seal  of  the  Li- 
brarian of  Congress,  to  the  proprietor, 
whenever  he  shall  require  it. 

Sec.  4958.  The  Librarian  of  Con- 
gress shall  receive  from  the  persons  to 


252 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN-  REFERENCE    BOOK. 


whom  the  services  designated  are  ren- 
dered, the  following  fees:  1.  For  re- 
cording the  title  or  description  of  any 
copyright  book  or  other  article,  50 
cents.  2.  For  every  copy  under  seal 
of  such  record  actually  given  to  the 
person  claiming  the  copyright,  or  his 
assigns,  50  cents.  [3.  For  recording 
and  certifying  any  instrument  of  writ- 
ing for  the  assignment  of  a  copyright, 
$1.00.  4.  For  every  copy  of  an  as- 
signment, $1.00.]  All  fees  so  received 
shall  be  paid  into  the  treasury  of  the 
United  States :  Provided,  That  the 
charge  for  recording  the  title  or  de- 
scription of  any  article  entered  for 
copyright,  the  production  of  a  person 
not  a  citizen  or  resident  of  the  United 
States,  shall  be  $1.00,  to  be  paid  as 
above  into  the  treasury  of  the  United 
States,  to  defray  the  expenses  of  lists 
of  copyrighted  articles  as  hereinafter 
provided  for. 

And  it  is  hereby  made  the  duty  of 
the  Librarian  of  Congress  to  furnish 
to  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  copies 
of  the  entries  of  titles  of  all  books  and 
other  articles  wherein  the  copyright 
has  been  completed  by  the  deposit  of 
two  copies  of  such  book  printed  from 
type  set  within  the  limits  of  the  United 
States,  in  accordance  with  the  provi- 
sions of  this  act,  and  by  the  deposit 
of  two  copies  of  such  other  article 
made  or  produced  in  the  United 
States ;  and  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  is  hereby  directed  to  prepare 
and  print,  at  intervals  of  not  more 
than  a  week,  catalogues  of  such  title- 
entries  for  distribution  to  the  collect- 
ors of  customs  of  the  United  States, 
and  to  the  postmasters  of  all  post- 
offices  receiving  foreign  mails,  and 
such  weekly  lists,  as  they  are  issued, 
shall  be  furnished  to  all  parties  desir- 
ing them,  at  a  sum  not  exceeding  five 
dollars  per  annum,  and  the  Secretary 
and  the  Postmaster-General  are  here- 
by empowered  and  required  to  make 
and  enforce  such  rules  and  regulations 
as  shall  prevent  the  importation  into 
the  United  States,  except  upon  the 
conditions  above  specified,  of  all  arti- 
cles prohibited  by  this  act. 

Sec.  4959.  The  proprietor  of  every 
copyright  book  or  other  article  shall 
deliver  at  the  office  of  the  Librarian  of 
Congress,  or  deposit  in  the  mail,  ad- 
dressed to  the  Librarian  of  Congress, 
at  Washington,  D.  C..  a  copy  of  every 
subsequent  edition  wherein  any  sub- 
stantial changes  shall  be  made :  Pro- 
vided, however.  That  the  alterations, 
revisions,  and  additions  made  to  books 
by  foreign  authors,  heretofore  pub- 


lished, of  which  new  editions  shall  ap- 
pear subsequently  to  the  taking  ef- 
fect of  this  act,  shall  be  held  and 
deemed  capable  of  being  copyrighted 
as  above  provided  for  in  this  act,  un- 
less they  form  a  part  of  the  series  in 
course  of  publication  at  the  time  this 
act  shall  take  effect. 

Sec.  4960.  For  every  failure  on  the 
part  of  the  proprietor  of  any  copy- 
right to  deliver,  or  deposit  in  the  mail, 
either  of  the  published  copies,  or  de- 
scription, or  photograph,  required  by 
sections  4956  and  4959,  the  proprietor 
of  the  copyright  shall  be  liable  to  a 
penalty  of  $25.00,  to  be  recovered  by 
the  Librarian  of  Congress,  in  the  name 
of  the  United  States,  in  an  action 
in  the  nature  of  an  action  of  debt, 
in  any  district  court  of  the  United 
States  within  the  jurisdiction  of 
which  the  delinquent  may  reside  or  be 
found. 

The  following  act  in  relation  to  the 
deposit  of  copies  was  approved  March 
3,  1893 :  "That  any  author,  inventor, 
designer,  or  proprietor  of  any  book,  or 
other  article  entitled  to  copyright,  who 
has  heretofore  failed  to  deliver  in  the 
office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  or 
in  the  mail  addressed  to  the  Librarian 
of  Congress,  two  complete  copies  of 
such  book,  or  description  or  photo- 
graph of  such  article,  within  the  time 
limited  by  title  60,  chapter  3,  of  the 
Revised  Statutes,  relating  to  copy- 
rights, and  the  acts  in  amendment 
thereof,  and  has  complied  with  all  oth- 
er provisions  thereof,  who  has,  before 
the  first  day  of  March,  1893,  delivered 
at  the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Con- 
gress, or  deposited  in  the  mail  ad- 
dressed to  the  Librarian  of  Congress 
two  complete  printed  copies  of  such 
book,  or  description  or  photograph  of 
such  article,  shall  be  entitled  to  all 
the  rights  and  privileges  of  said  title 
sixty,  chapter  three,  of  the  Revised 
Statutes  and  the  acts  in  amendment 
thereof. 

Sec.  4961.  The  postmaster  to  whom 
such  copyright  book,  title,  or  other  ar- 
ticle is  delivered,  shall,  if  requested, 
give  a  receipt  therefor ;  and  when  so 
delivered  he  shall  mail  it  to  its  des- 
tination. 

Sec.  4962.  No  person  shall  main- 
tain an  action  for  the  infringement  of 
his  copyright  unless  he  shall  give  no- 
tice thereof  by  inserting  in  the  several 
copies  of  every  edition  published,  on 
the  title-page,  or  the  page  immediately 
following,  if  it  be  a  book ;  or  if  a  map, 
chart,  musical  composition,  print,  cut, 
engraving,  photograph,  painting,  draw- 


SCIENTIFIC    A 


RENCE    BOOK. 


253 


ing,  chromo,  statue,  statuary,  or 
model  or  design  intended  to  be  per- 
fected and  completed  as  a  work  of  the 
fine  arts,  by  inscribing  upon  some 
visible  portion  thereof,  or  of  the  sub- 
stance on  which  the  same  shall  be 
mounted,  the  following  words,  viz. : 
"Entered  according  to  act  of  Congress, 

in  the  year ,  by  A.  B.,  in  the  office 

of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Wash- 
ington" ;  or,  at  his  option,  the  word 
"Copyright,"  together  with  the  year 
the  copyright  was  entered,  and  the 
name  of  the  party  by  whom  it  was 
taken  out,  thus :  "Copyright,  18 — , 
by  A.  B." 

That  manufacturers  of  designs  for 
moulded  decorative  articles,  tiles, 
plaques,  or  articles  of  pottery  or  metal 
subject  to  copyright  may  put  the  copy- 
right mark  prescribed  by  Section  4902 
of  the  Revised  Statutes,  and  acts  addi- 
tional thereto,  upon  the  back  or  bot- 
tom of  such  articles,  or  in  such  other 
place  upon  them  as  it  has  heretofore 
been  usual  for  manufacturers  of  such 
articles  to  employ  for  the  placing  of 
manufacturers,  merchants,  and  trade- 
marks thereon. 

Sec.  4963.  Every  person  who  shall 
insert  or  impress  such  notice,  or  words 
of  the  same  purport,  in  or  upon  any 
book,  map,  chart,  dramatic  or  musical 
composition,  print,  cut,  engraving  or 
photograph,  or  other  article,  whether 
such  article  be  subject  to  copyright  or 
otherwise,  for  which  he  has  not  ob- 
tained a  copyright,  or  shall  knowingly 
issue  or  sell  any  article  bearing  a  no- 
tice of  a  United  States  copyright 
which  has  not  been  copyrighted 
in  this  country ;  or  shall  import 
any  book,  photograph,  chromo,  or 
lithograph  or  other  article  bearing 
such  notice  of  copyright  or  words 
of  the  same  purport,  which  is 
not  copyrighted  in  this  country,  shall 
be  liable  to  a  penalty  of  $100,  recov- 
erable one-half  for  the  person  who 
shall  sue  for  such  penalty,  and  one-half 
to  the  use  of  the  United  States ;  and 
the  importation  into  the  United  States 
of  any  book,  chromo,  lithograph,  or 
photograph,  or  other  article  bearing 
such  notice  of  copyright,  when  there 
is  no  existing  copyright  thereon  in  the 
United  States,  is  prohibited ;  and  the 
circuit  courts  of  the  United  States  sit- 
ting in  equity  are  hereby  authorized  to 
enjoin  the  issuing,  publishing,  or  sell- 
ing of  any  article  marked  or  imported 
in  violation  of  the  United  States  copy- 
right laws,  at  the  suit  of  any  person 
complaining  of  such  violation  :  Pro-  , 
vided.  That  this  act  shall  not  apply  to 


any  importation  of  or  sale  of  such 
goods  or  articles  brought  into  the 
United  States  prior  to  the  passage 
hereof. 

Sec.  4904.  Every  person  who,  after 
the  recording  of  the  title  of  any  book 
and  the  depositing  of  two  copies  of 
such  book  as  provided  by  this  act, 
shall,  contrary  to  the  provisions  of 
this  act,  within  the  term  limited,  and 
without  the  consent  of  the  proprietor 
of  the  copyright  first  obtained  in  writ- 
ing, signed  in  presence  of  two  or  more 
witnesses,  print,  publish,  dramatize, 
translate,  or  import,  or,  knowing  the 
same  to  be  so  printed,  published,  dram- 
atized, translated,  or  imported,  shall 
sell  or  expose  to  sale  any  copy  of  such 
book,  shall  forfeit  every  copy  thereof 
to  such  proprietor,  and  shall  also  for- 
feit and  pay  such  damages  as  may  be 
recovered  in  a  civil  action  by  such 
proprietor  in  any  court  of  competent 
jurisdiction. 

Sec.  4905.  If  any  person,  after  the 
recording  of  the  title  of  any  map, 
chart,  dramatic  or  musical  composi- 
tion, print,  cut,  engraving,  or  photo- 
graph, or  chromo,  or  of  the  descrip- 
tion of  any  painting,  drawing,  statue, 
statuary,  or  model  or  design  intended 
to  be  perfected  and  executed  as  a 
work  of  the  fine  arts,  as  provided  by 
this  act,  shall,  within  the  term  limited, 
contrary  to  the  provisions  of  this  act, 
and  without  the  consent  of  the  proprie- 
tor of  the  copyright  first  obtained  in 
writing,  signed  in  presence  of  two  or 
more  witnesses,  engrave,  etch,  work, 
copy,  print,  publish,  dramatize,  trans- 
late, or  import,  either  in  whole  or  in 
part,  or  by  varying  the  main  design, 
with  intent  to  evade  the  law,  or  know- 
ing the  same  to  be  so  printed,  pub- 
lished, dramatized,  translated,  or  im- 
ported, shall  sell  or  expose  to  sale  any 
copy  of  such  map,  or  other  article,  as 
aforesaid,  he  shall  forfeit  to  the  pro- 
prietor all  the  plates  on  which  the 
same  shall  be  copied,  and  every  sheet 
thereof,  either  copied  or  printed,  and 
shall  further  forfeit  $1.00  for  every 
sheet  of  the  same  found  in  his  posses- 
sion, either  printing,  printed,  copied, 
published,  imported,  or  exposed  for 
sale ;  and  in  case  of  a  painting,  statue, 
or  statuary,  he  shall  forfeit  $10.00  for 
every  copy  of  the  same  in  his  posses- 
sion, or  by  him  sold  or  exposed  for 
sale  :  Provided,  however,  That  in  case 
of  any  such  infringement  of  the  copy- 
right of  a  photograph  made  from  any 
object  not  a  work  of  fine  arts,  the  sum 
to  be  recovered  in  any  action  brought 
under  the  provisions  of  this  section 


254 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


shall  be  not  less  than  $100,  iior  more 
than  $5,000,  and:  Provided,  further, 
That  in  case  of  any  such  infringement 
of  the  copyright  of  a  painting,  draw- 
ing, statue,  engraving,  etching,  print, 
or  model  or  design  for  a  work  of  the 
fine  arts,  or  of  a  photograph  of  a  work 
of  the  fine  arts,  the  sum  to  be  recov- 
ered in  any  action  brought  through  the 
provisions  of  this  section  shall  be  not 
less  than  $250,  and  not  more  than 
$10,000.  One-half  of  all  the  foregoing 
penalties  shall  go  to  the  proprietors  of 
the  copyright  and  the  other  half  to  the 
use  of  the  United  States. 

Sec.  4966.  Any  person  publicly  per- 
forming or  representing  any  dramatic 
or  musical  composition  for  which  a 
copyright  has  been  obtained,  without 
the  consent  of  the  proprietor  of  said 
dramatic  or  musical  composition,  or 
his  heirs  or  assigns,  shall  be  liable  for 
damages  therefor,  such  damages  in  all 
cases  to  be  assessed  at  such  sum,  not 
less  than  $100  for  the  first,  and  $50 
for  every  subsequent  performance,  as 
to  the  court  shall  appear  to  be  just. 
If  the  unlawful  performance  and  rep- 
resentation be  wilful  and  for  profit 
such  person  or  persons  shall  be  guilty 
of  a  misdemeanor,  and  upon  conviction 
be  imprisoned  for  a  period  not  exceed- 
ing one  year.  Any  injunction  that 
may  be  granted  upon  hearing  after 
notice  to  the  defendant  by  any  circuit 
court  in  the  United  States,  or  by  a 
judge  thereof,  restraining  and  enjoin- 
ing the  performance  or  representation 
of  any  such  dramatic  or  musical  'com- 
position may  be  served  on  the  parties 
against  whom  such  injunction  may  be 

f ranted  anywhere  in  the  United 
tates.  and  shall  be  operative  and  may 
be  enforced  by  proceedings  to  punish 
for  contempt  or  otherwise  by  any  other 
circuit  court  or  judge  in  the  United 
States ;  but  the  defendants  in  said  ac- 
tion, or  any  or  either  of  them,  may 
make  a  motion  in  any  other  circuit  in 
which  he  or  they  may  be  engaged  in 
performing  or  representing  said  drama- 
tic or  musical  composition  to  dissolve 
or  set  aside  the  said  injunction  upon 
such  reasonable  notice  to  the  plaintiff 
as  the  circuit  court  or  the  judge  be- 
fore whom  said  motion  shall  be  made 
shall  deem  proper ;  service  of  said  mo- 
tion to  be  made  on  the  plaintiff  in 
person  or  on  his  attorneys  in  the  ac- 
tion. The  circuit  courts  or  judges 
thereof  shall  have  jurisdiction  to  en- 
force said  injunction  and  to  hear  and 
determine  a  motion  to  dissolve  the 
same,  as  herein  provided,  as  fully  as  if 
the  action  were  pending  or  brought  in 


the  circuit  in  which  said  motion  is 
made. 

The  clerk  of  the  court,  or  judge 
granting  the  injunction,  shall,  when 
required  so  to  do  by  the  court  hearing 
the  application  to  dissolve  or  enforce 
said  injunction,  transmit  without  de- 
lay to  said  court  a  certified  copy  of  all 
the  papers  on  which  the  said  injunc- 
tion was  granted  that  are  on  file  in 
his  office. 

Sec.  4907.  Every  person  who  shall 
print  or  publish  any  manuscript  what- 
ever, without  the  consent  of  the  au- 
thor or  proprietor  first  obtained  shall 
be  liable  to  the  author  or  proprietor 
for  all  damages  occasioned  by  such 
injury. 

Sec.  4968.  No  action  shall  be  main- 
tained in  any  case  of  forfeiture  or 
penalty  under  the  copyright  laws,  un- 
less the  same  is  commenced  within  two 
years  after  the  cause  of  action  has 
arisen. 

Sec.  4969.  In  all  actions  arising 
under  the  laws  respecting  copyrights 
the  defendant  may  plead  the  general 
issue,  and  give  the  special  matter  in 
evidence. 

Sec.  4970.  The  circuit  courts,  and 
district  courts  having  the  jurisdiction 
of  circuit  courts,  shall  have  power, 
upon  bill  in  equity,  filed  by  any  party 
aggrieved,  to  grant  injunctions  to  pre- 
vent the  violation  of  any  right  secured 
by  the  laws  respecting  copyrights,  ac- 
cording to  the  course  and  principles  of 
courts  of  equity,  on  such  terms  as  the 
court  may  deem  reasonable. 

Sec.  4971. 

[Revised  Statutes,  title  13,  THE 
JUDICIARY,  provides  as  follows :  Chap. 
7  (sec.  629).  The  circuit  courts  shall 
have  original  jurisdiction  as  follows: 
*  *  *  Ninth.  Of  all  suits  at  law 
or  in  equity  arising  under  the  patent 
or  copyright  laws  of  the  United  States. 
A  writ  of  error  may  be  allowed  to  re- 
view any  final  judgment  at  law,  and 
an  appeal  shall  be  allowed  from  any 
final  decree  in  equity  hereinafter  men- 
tioned, without  regard  to  the  sum  or 
value  in  dispute :  First.  Any  final 
judgment  at  law  or  final  decree  in 
equity  of  any  circuit  court,  or  of  any 
district  court  acting  as  a  circuit 
court,  or  of  the  supreme  court  of  the 
District  of  Columbia,  or  of  any  Ter- 
ritory, in  any  case  touching  patent 
rights  or  copyrights.  (Rev.  Stat., 
1878,  p.  130.)  Chap.  12  (sec.  711). 
The  jurisdiction  vested  in  the  courts 
of  the  United  States  in  the  cases  and 
proceedings  hereafter  mentioned,  shall 
be  exclusive  of  the  courts  of  the  sev- 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


255 


eral  States :  *  *  *  Fifth.  Of  all 
cases  arising  under  the  patent-right  or 
copyright  laws  of  the  United  States. 
(Rev.  Stat.,  1878,  pp.  134,  135.) 
Chap.  18  (sec,  972).  In  all  recoveries 
under  the  copyright  laws,  either  for 
damages,  forfeiture,  or  penalties,  full 
costs  shall  be  allowed  thereon.  (Rev. 
Stat.,  1878,  p.  183.)] 

The  act  approved  March  3,  1891 
(51st  Congress,  1st  session,  chap.  565: 
26  Statutes  at  Large,  pp.  1106-1110), 
in  addition  to  the  amendments,  noted 
above,  of  sections  4952,  4954,  4956, 
4958,  4959,  4963.  4964,  4965,  and 
4967,  provides  further  as  follows : 

"That  for  the  purpose  of  this  act 
each  volume  of  a  book  in  two  or  more 
volumes,  when  such  volumes  are  pub- 
lished separately,  and  the  first  one 
shall  not  have  been  issued  before  this 
act  shall  take  effect,  and  each  num- 
ber of  a  periodical  shall  be  considered 
an  independent  publication,  subject  to 
the  form  of  copyrighting  as  above." 
(Sec.  11.) 

"That  this  act  shall  go  into  effect  on 
the  first  day  of  July,  1891."  (Sec. 
12.) 

"That  this  act  shall  only  apply  to 
a  citizen  or  subject  of  a  foreign  state 
or  nation  when  such  foreign  state  or 
nation  permits  to  citizens  of  the 
United  States  of  America  the  benefit 
of  copyright  on  substantially  the  same 


basis  as  its  own  citizens ;  or  when 
such  foreign  state  or  nation  is  a  party 
to  an  international  agreement  which 
provides  for  reciprocity  in  the  grant- 
ing of  copyright,  by  the  terms  of  which 
agreement  the  United  States  of  Amer- 
ica may  at  its  pleasure  become  a  party 
to  such  agreement.  The  existence  of 
either  of  the  conditions  aforesaid  shall 
be  determined  by  the  President  of  the 
United  States,  by  proclamation  made 
from  time  to  time  as  the  purposes  of 
this  act  may  require."  (Sec.  13.) 

[An  Act  providing  for  the  public 
printing  and  binding  and  the  distribu- 
tion of  public  documents  (January  12, 
1895,  53d  Congress,  3d  session,  chap. 
23,  sec.  52:  28  Statutes  at  Large,  p. 
608).  provides  as  follows:  The  Pub- 
lic Printer  shall  sell,  under  such  regu- 
lations as  the  Joint  Committee  on 
Printing  may  prescribe,  to  any  person 
or  persons  who  may  apply,  additional 
or  duplicate  stereotype  or  electrotype 
plates  from  which  any  Government 
publication  is  printed,  at  a  price  not  to 
exceed  the  cost  of  composition,  the 
metal  and  making  to  the  Government 
and  10  per  centum  added  :  Provided, 
That  the  full  amount  of  the  price  shall 
be  paid  when  the  order  is  filed :  And 
provided,  further,  That  no  publication 
reprinted  from  such  stereotype  or  elec- 
trotype plates  and  no  other  Govern- 
ment publication  shall  be  copyrighted.] 


CHAPTER    X. 


MANUFACTURES,   EXPORTS   AND   IMPORTS. 


LOCALIZATION  OF  SPECIFIED  INDUSTRIES,  BY  STATES:    1900. 


Industry. 

Value  of 
Products  in 
Continental 
United 
States. 

State. 

Value  of 
Products  in 
the  State 
Named. 

Per  Cent 
of  Conti- 
nental 
United 
States  in 
the  State 
Named. 

Collars  and  cuffs  

$15,769,132 

New  York  

$15,703,541 

99.6 

Plated  and  britannia  ware  
Oysters,  canning  and  preserving  
Leather  gloves  and  mittens  

12,608,770 
3,670,134 
16,721,234 

Connecticut  
Maryland  
New  York  

9,538,397 
2,417,331 
10,854,221 

75.7 
65.9 
64.9 

Clocks 

7,157,856 

Connecticut  

4,545,047 

63  5 

Coke  

35,585,445 
3,927,867 

Pennsylvania.  .  .  . 
Ohio   . 

22,282,358 
2,407,655 

62.6 
61  3 

Whips  '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'..'..'.  

2,734,471 

Massachusetts.  .  . 

1,651,221 

60.4 

Liquors,  vinous.  
Brassware  
Iron  and  steel  
Carpets  and  rugs,  other  than  rag  
Corsets  

6,547,310 
17,140,075 
803,968,273 
48,192,351 
14,878,116 

California  
Connecticut  
Pennsylvania.  .  .  . 
Pennsylvania    .  .  . 
Connecticut  

3,937,871 
9,269,159 
434,445,200 
23,113,058 
6,846,946 

60.1 
54.1 
54.0 
48.0 
46.0 

Boots  and  shoes,  factory  product.  .  .  . 
Agricultural  implements. 

231,028,580 
101,207,428 

Massachusetts.  .  . 
Illinois  

117,115,243 
42,033,796 

44.9 
41  5 

Slaughtering  and  meat  packing,  whole- 

698  206  548 

279  842  835 

40  1 

Turpentine  and  rosin. 

20,344,888 

Georgia.  .  . 

8  110,468 

39  9 

Cotton,  ginning  
Liquors,  distilled  
Glass  

14,748,270 
96,798,443 
56,539,712 

Texas  
Illinois  
Pennsylvania.  .  .  . 

5,886,923 
38,208,076 
22,001,130 

39.9 
39.5 
38.9 

Hosiery  and  knit  goods  
Silk  and  silk  goods.  .  . 

95,482,566 
107  256,258 

New  York  
New  Jersey. 

35,886,048 
39  966,662 

37.6 
37  3 

Silverware.  .  .  . 

10,569,121 

Rhode  Island.. 

3,834,408 

36  3 

Salt  

7,966,897 

New  York.  . 

2,698,691 

33  9 

Cotton  goods.  .  .  . 

339,200  320 

Massachusetts 

111  125  175 

32  8 

Jewelry.  . 

46  501  181 

Rhode  Island 

13  320  620 

28  6 

Leather,  tanned,  curried,  and  finished. 
Fur  hats.  . 

204,038,127 
27,811,187 

Pennsylvania.  .  .  . 
Connecticut 

55,615,009 

7  546  882 

27.3 
27  2 

Pottery,    terra    cotta,    and    fire-clay 
products  

44,263,386 

Ohio.  . 

11,851  225 

26  8 

Paper  and  wood  pulp  

127,326,162 

New  York  

26,715,628 

21.0 

—Twelfth  Census. 


258 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


MANUFACTURING    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES— 


- 

Wag 

e-earners. 

Class. 

of  Estab- 
lish- 
ments. 

Capital. 

• 

tors  and 
Firm 
Members 

Average 
Number. 

Total    Wages 

Total 

640,056 

$9,858,205,501 

708,623 

5,370,814 

$2,323,055,634 

Hand  trades  

215,814 

392,442,255 

242,154 

559,130 

288,118,421 

Governmental  establishments  .... 
Educational,    eleemosynary,    and 
penal  institutions.  .  . 

138 
381 

Establishments  with  a  product  of 
less  than  $500  
All  other  establishments  

127,346 
296,377 

44,371,111 
9,421,392,135 

136,054 
330,415 

64,671 
4,747,013 

2,117,466 
2,032,819,747 

Statistics  for  governmental  establishments,  educational,  eleemosynary,  and  penal   insti- 


MANUFACTURING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

[Twelfth  Census, 


Date  of  Census. 

Items. 

1900.1 

1890. 

1880. 

Number  of  establishments  
Capital  
Salaried  officials,  clerks,  etc.,  number  .  .  . 
Salaries  

512,276 
$9,831,486,500 
397,092 
$404,112,794 

355,405 
$6,525,050,759 
2  461,001 
2  $391,984,660 

253,852 
$2,790,272,606 
(3) 
(3) 

Wage-earners,  average  number  
Total  wages  
Men,  at  least  16  years  of  age  
Wages   .  . 

5,314,539 
$2,327,295,545 
4,114,348 
$2,019,954,204 

4,251,535 
$1,891,209,696 
3,326,964 
$1,659,215,858 

2,732,595 
$947,953,795 
2,019,035 

(3) 

Women,  at  least  16  years  of  age  
Wages  
Children   under  16  years.  .  . 

1,031,608 
$281,679,649 
168,583 

803,686 
$215,367,976 
120,885 

531,639 
(3) 
181,921 

Wages  
Miscellaneous  expenses  

$25,661,692 
$1,027,865,277 
$7  346  358  979 

$16,625,862 
$631,219,783 
$5  162,013,878 

(3) 
(5) 
$3  396  823,549 

Value  of  products,  incl.  custom  work,  etc, 

$13,010,036,514 

$9,372,378,843 

$5,309.579,191 

1  Includes,  for  comparative,  purposes,  85  governmental  establishments  in  the  District  of 
Columbia  having  products  valued  at  $9,887,355,  the  statistics  for  such  establishments  for  1890 
not  being  separable. 

2  Includes  proprietors  and  firm  members,  with  their  salaries;    number  only  reported  in 
1900,  but  not  included  in  this  table. 

3  Not  reported  separately. 

4  Decrease. 

5  Not  reported. 

NOTE. — Exact  comparisons  between  the  censuses  shown  in  this  table  are  difficult  and 
sometimes  impossible  on  account  of  changes  which  have  taken  place  from  census  to  census  in 
the  form  of  inquiries  contained  in  the  schedules,  in  the  industries  canvassed,  and  in  the  methods 
of  compilation.  Comparisons  between  the  censuses  of  1890  and  1900  are  more  exact  than  has 
ever  before  been  the  case;  but  even  between  these  two  censuses  there  are  certain  important 
differences  in  the  forms  of  inquiry,  or  the  methods  of  handling  the  statistics  in  compilation, 
to  which  careful  attention  should  be  paid. 

1.  Capital. — It  cannot  be  assumed  that  any  true  comparability  exists  between  the  sta- 
tistics on  this  subject  elicited  prior  to  1890.     At  the  census  of  1880  the  question  read:   '  'Capital 
(real  and  personal)  invested  in  the  business."     At  the  census  of  1890  live  capital,  i.e.,  cash  on 
hand,  bills  receivable,  unsettled  ledger  accounts,  raw  materials,  stock  in  process  of  manufac- 
ture, finished  products  on  hand,  and  other  sundries,  was  for  the  first  time  included  as  a  separate 
and  distinct  item  of  capital,  and  the  capital  invested  in  realty  was  divided  between  land, 
buildings,  and  machinery.     The  form  of  this  inquiry  at  the  census  of  1890  and  1900  was  so 
similar  that  comparison  may  be  safely  made. 

2.  Salaried  Officials.— No  comparison  of  the  statistics  of  the  number  and  salaries  or 
salaried  officials  of  any  character  can  be  made  between  the  reports  of  any  censuses.     Not  until 
the  census  of  1890  did  the  census  begin  to  differentiate  sharply  between  salaried  officials,  i.e., 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


259 


SUMMARY  FOR  ALL  ESTABLISHMENTS:    1900. 


C 

'ost  of  Materials 

Used. 

Miscellaneous 
Expenses. 

Total. 

Purchased  in 
Raw  State. 

Purchased  in 
Partially  Man-' 
ufactured 
Form. 

Fuel, 
Freight, 
etc. 

Value  of  Prod- 
ucts, Including 
Custom  Work 
and  Repairing. 

$1,030,110,125 
124,623,253 

$7,363,132,083 

482,736,991 
6,917,518 

3,690,916 

$2,391,668,276 

8,851,162 
60,576 

1,037,343 

$4,648,561,271 

462,510,619 
6,607,447 

2,365,089 

$322,902,536 

11,375,210 
249,495 

288,484 

$13,058,562,917 

1,183,615,478 
22,010,391 

6,640,692 

2,524,681 
902,962,191 

8,895,774 
6,860,890,884 

1,431,529 

2,380,287,666 

7,437.420 
4,169,640,696 

26,825 
310,962,522 

29,762,675 
11,816,533,681 

tutions,  and  establishments  with  a  product  of  less  than  $500,  are  included  in  Table  only. 


—COMPARATIVE  SUMMARY:    1850   TO   1900. 
Vols.VII.andVIII. 


Date  of  Census. 

Per  Cent  of  Increase. 

1870. 

1860. 

1850. 

1890 
to 
1900. 

1880 
to 
1890. 

1870 
to 

1880. 

1860 
to 
1870. 

1850 
to 

1860. 

252,148 
$2,118,208,769 
(3) 
(3) 
2,053,996 
$775,584,343 
1,615,598 
(3) 
323,770 
(3) 
114,628 
(3) 
(5) 
$2,488,427,242 
$4,232,325,442 

$1,009 

1 

$378 
1 

$1,031 

$1,885 

140,433 

.855,715 
I3) 
,3) 
311,246 
878,966 
040,349 

3) 

270,897 

3 
'] 

605,092 
861,676 

123,025 
$533,245,351 
(3) 
(3) 
957,059 
$236,755,464 
731,137 
(3) 
225,922 
(3) 
(3) 
(3) 
(5) 
$555,123,822 
$1,019,106,616 

44.1 
50.7 
4  13.  9 
3.1 
25.0 
23.1 
23.7 
21.7 
28.4 
30.8 
39.5 
54.3 
62.8 
42.3 
38.8 

40.0 
133.8 

0.7 
31.7 

79.6 
109.8 

14.1 
89.4 

55  '.6' 
99.5 
64.8 

"33.6" 
22.2 
25.0 

56.6 
104.7 
55.3 

37.0 
60.0 
42.3 

51.2 

64.2 

19.5 

19.9 

433.6 

58.7 

52  '.6 

74.5 

36.5  ' 
26.9 

141.2  ' 
124.4 

"85.8" 
85.1 

employees  engaged  at  a  fixed  compensation  per  annum,  and  the  wage-earning  class,  i.e.,  em- 
ployees paid  by  the  hour,  the  day,  the  week,  or  the  piece,  for  work  performed  and  only  fof 
such  work.  Prior  to  1890  such  salaried  officials,  if  returned  at  all,  were  returned  with  the 
wage-earners  proper.  At  the  census  of  1890  the  number  and  salaries  of  proprietors  and  firm 
members  actively  engaged  in  the  business,  or  in  supervision,  were  reported,  combined  with 
clerks  and  other  officials.  Where  proprietors  and  firm  members  were  reported  without  sala- 
ries, the  amount  that  would  ordinarily  be  paid  for  similar  services  was  estimated.  At  the 
census  of  1900  the  number  of  proprietors  and  firm  members  actively  engaged  in  industry  or 
in  supervision  was  ascertained,  but  no  salaries  were  reported  for  this  class,  salaries,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  being  rarely  paid  in  such  cases,  proprietors  and  firm  members  depending  upon  the 
earnings  of  the  business  for  their  compensation. 

3.  Employees  and  Wages. — At  the  censuses  of  1850  and  1860  the  inquiries  regarding  em- 
ployees and  wages  called  for  "the  average  number  of  hands  employed:  male,  female,"  "the 
average  monthly  cost  of  male  labor,"  and  "the  average  monthly  cost  of  female  labor."  At 
the  census  of  1870  the  average  number  of  hands  employed  was  called  for.  divided  between 
"males  above  16  years,  females  above  15  years,  and  children  and  youth,"  and  the  "total 
amount  paid  in  wages  during  the  year"  was  first  called  for.  The  inquiries  at  the  census  of 
1880  were  like  those  of  1870,  though  more  extended  for  some  of  the  selected  industries. 

At  the  census  of  1890  the  average  number  of  persons  employed  during  the  entire  year  was 
called  for,  and  also  the  average  number  employed  at  stated  weekly  rates  of  pay,  and  the 
average  number  was  computed  for  the  actual  time  the  establishments  were  reported  as  being 
in  operation.  At  the  census  of  1900  the  greatest  and  least  numbers  of  employees  were  reported 
and  al-o  the  average  number  employed  during  each  month  of  the  year.  The  average  number 
of  wage-earners  (men,  women,  and  children)  employed  during  the  entire  year  was  computed 
in  the  Census  Office  by  using  12,  the  number  of  calendar  months,  as  a  divisor  into  the  total 
of  the  average  numbers  reported  for  each  month.  This  difference  in  the  method  of  ascertain- 


260 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


ing  the  average  number  of  wage-earners  during  the  entire  year  resulted  in  a  variation  in  the 
average  number  as  between  the  two  censuses. 

Furthermore,  the  schedules  for  1890  included  in  the  wage-earning  class  "overseers,  and 
foremen  or  superintendents  (not  general  superintendents  or  managers),"  while  the  census  of 
1900  separates  from  the  wage-earning  class  such  salaried  employees  as  general  superintendents, 
clerks,  and  salesmen.  It  is  probable  that  this  change  in  the  form  of  the  question  has  resulted 
in  eliminating  from  the  wage-earners,  as  reported  by  the  present  census,  many  high-salaried 
employees  included  in  1890. 

4.  Miscellaneous  Expenses. — This  item  was  not  shown  at  any  census  prior  to  that  of  1890. 
Comparison  between  the  totals  reported  can  safely  be  made  between  the  last  two  censuses. 

5.  Materials. — The  same  statement  is  true  regarding  the  materials  used  in  manufactures. 
With  the  exception  of  the  schedules  on  which  a  few  selected  industries  were  reported  at  the 
census  of  1880,  the  question  concerning  materials  was  as  follows:    "Value  of  materials  used 
(including  mill  supplies  and  fuel)."     At  the  census  of  1890  the  schedule  contained  separate 
questions  as  to  the  kind,  quantity,  and  cost  of  the  principal  materials,  and  the  cost  of  "mill 
supplies,"  "fuel,"  and  "all  other  materials."      The  amounts  paid  for  rent  of  power  and  heat 
were  also  included  under  this  head  in  1890.     It  is  probable  that  some  of    the  items    included 
the  cost  of  materials  at  the  census  of  1880 were  included  in  "miscellaneous  expenses"  at  the 
inquiries  of  1890  and  1900. 

6.  Products. — These  statistics  are  comparable  beginning  with  the  census  of  1870. 


COMPARATIVE    SUMMARY,    BY    SPECIFIED     INDUSTRIES: 

[Twelfth  Census,  Vol.  VII.  page  3,  and  Vol.  VIII.  page  18.] 


1900. 


Num- 

Wag 

e-earners. 

Value  of  Prod- 

ber  of 

Cost  of 

Industry. 

Estab- 
lish- 
ments. 

Capital. 

Average 
Num- 
ber 

Total  Wages. 

Materials 
Used. 

Custom  Work 
and  Repair- 
ing. 

Total  

512,191 

$9,813,834,390 

5,306,143 

$2,320,938,168 

$7,343,627,875 

$13,000,149,159 

Agricultural     im- 

plements   

715 

157,707,951 

46,582 

22,450,880 

43,944,628 

101,207,428 

Ammunition  

33 

6,719,081 

5,231 

2,560,954 

7,436,748 

13,027,635 

Artificial  feathers 

and  flowers  

227 

3,633,869 

5,333 

1,561,763 

2,765,151 

6,297,805 

Artificial  limbs.  .  . 

87 

290,104 

249 

146,620 

126,062 

749,854 

Artists'  materials.. 

21 

376,736 

200 

79,267 

249,107 

497,046 

Awnings,      tents, 

and  sails 

858 

4,342,728 

4,400 

2,038,613 

6,480,685 

11,728,843 

Axle  grease  
Babbitt  metal  and 

29 

577,195 

127 

55,238 

360,411 

718,114 

solder  

51 

3,115,568 

535 

294,584 

7,998,369 

9,191,409 

Bags,  other  than 

paper  

78 

7,696,732 

4,039 

1,133,128 

16,849,311 

20,123,486 

Bags,  paper  

63 

6,900,291 

2,029 

683,783 

4,659,001 

7,359,975 

Baking  and  yeast 

powders  

191 

8,337,723 

1,938 

717,000 

7,126,967 

14,568,380 

Baskets,  &  rattan 

and  willow  ware. 

550 

2,989,568 

4,396 

1,280,511 

1,398,374 

3,851,244 

Bells  

23 

1,038,305 

663 

307,991 

602,856' 

1,247,730 

Belting  and  hose, 

leather  

105 

7,410,219 

1,667 

913,937 

7,500,413 

10,623,177 

Belting  and  hose, 

linen  

7 

526,059 

254 

64,102 

452,430 

717,137 

Belting  and  hose, 

rubber  

18 

5,493,885 

1,771 

918,191 

4,075,702 

6,169,044 

Bicycle  and  tricy- 

cle repairing.  .  .  . 

6,328 

6,760,070 

5,749 

2,505,974 

5,224,886 

13,766,033 

Bicycles  and  tri- 

cycles   

312 

29,783,659 

17,525 

8,189,817 

16,792,051 

31,915,908 

Billiard  tables  and 

materials  

75 

884,9'01 

•     455 

278,218 

730,046 

1,650,868 

Blacking  

121 

2,718,504 

1,250 

424,174 

2,186,809 

4,504,965 

Blacksm  i  t  h  i  n  g 
and       wheel 

wrighting  
Bluing  

51,771 
65 

54,976,341 
415,119 

36,193 
220 

17,974,264 
79,380 

24,701,632 
244,970 

85,971,630 
575,804 

Bone,  ivory,  and 

lamp  black  

15 

782,247 

85 

46,107 

105,712 

359,787 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


261 


COMPARATIVE     SUMMARY,    BY     SPECIFIED     INDUSTRIES:     1900—  Continued. 


Num- 

Wage-earners. 

Value  of  Prod- 

ber of 

Cost  of 

ucts,  Including 

Industry.           Estab- 
lish- 

Capital. 

Average 
Num- 

Total Wages. 

Materials 
Used. 

Custom  Work 
and  Repair- 

ments. 

ber 

ing. 

Bookbinding  and 

blank-book 

making  

954 

$12,744,628 

15,971 

$6,671,666 

$7,702,543 

$20,790,858 

Boot  and  shoe  cut 

stock  

342 

7,003,080 

6,155 

2,230,691 

17,800,282 

23,242,892 

Boot     and      shoe 

findings  

186 

3,277,958 

2,993 

1,127,784 

4,627,048 

7,145,820 

Boot     and     shoe 

uppers  

132 

273,796 

256 

125,627 

401,680 

700,225 

Boots  and  shoes, 

custom  work 

and  repairing.     .     23,560 

9,262,134 

9,698 

4,128,361 

8,288,664 

26,550,678 

Boots  and  shoes, 

factory  product 
Boots  and  shoes, 

1,600 

101,795,233 

142,922 

59,175,883 

169,604,054 

261,028,580 

rubber 

22 

33,667,533 

14,391 

6,426,579 

22,682,543 

41,089,819 

Bottling  

2,064 

16,620,152 

7,680 

3,589,447 

28,087,823 

41,640,672 

Boxes,  cigar  

315 

3,288,272 

4,609 

1,439,599 

3,061,193 

5,856,915 

Boxes,  fancy  and 

paper  

729 

14,979,305 

27,653 

8,151,625 

11,765,424 

27,316,317 

Boxes,    wooden 

packing  

896 

21,952,757 

22,034 

7,827,955 

22,807,627 

38,216,384 

Brass  

10 

503,367 

162 

98,796 

1,152,635 

1,419,817 

Brass  and  copper, 

rolled  

19 

15,629,766 

6,759 

3,512,781          30,000,632 

37,536,325 

Brass  castings  and 

brass  finishing.  .           442 

21,925,039 

11,964 

6,070,762          18,871,141 

30,343,044 

Brassware  204 

12,194,715 

7,668 

3,550,074 

9,830,319 

17,140,075 

Bread   and   other  ; 

bakery  products      14,917 

81,049,553        60,271 

27,893,170 

95,221,915 

175,657,348 

Brick  and  tile.  .  .  . 

5,423 

82,086,438 

61,979 

21,883,333 

11,006,148 

51,270,476 

Bridges  

196 

16,768,948 

12,181 

6,711,260 

16,258,561 

30,151,624 

Bronze  castings.  .  . 

21 

881,769 

621 

372,797 

1,339,722 

2,229,329 

Brooms           and 

brushes  

1,526 

9,616,780 

10,349 

3,788,046 

9,546,854 

18,490,847 

Butter,  rework'g  .. 

10 

255,525 

148 

67,747 

1,345,418 

2,114,935 

Buttons  

238 

4,212,568 

8,685 

2,826,238 

2,803,246 

7,695,910 

Calcium  lights.  .  .  . 

19 

95,114 

55 

24,418 

34,982 

118,666 

Cardboard  

5 

1,168,495 

626 

264,427 

705,527 

1,270,416 

Card  cutting  and 

designing  

43 

337,642 

325 

135,139 

312,760 

618,488 

Carpentering  

21,315 

71,327,047 

123,985 

71,049,737 

142,419,410 

316,101,758 

Carpets  and  rugs, 

other  than  rag.  . 

133 

44,449,299 

28,411 

11,121,383 

27,228,719 

48,192,351 

Carpets,  rag  

1,014 

975,190 

1,504 

492,656 

681,311 

1,993,756 

Carpets,  wood.  .  .  . 

31 

412,357 

608 

362,112 

418,343 

1,056,702 

Carriage     and 

wagon  materials 

588 

19,085,775 

15,387 

5,987,267 

13,048,608 

25,027,173 

Carriages  and 
sleds,  children's. 

77 

2,906,472 

2,726 

1,090,296 

1,996,070 

4,289,695 

Carriages  and 

wagons  

7,632 

118,187,838 

62,540 

29,814,911 

56,676,073 

121,537,276 

Cars   and   general 

shop  construc'n 

and   repairs   by 

steam     railroad 

companies  

1,295 

119,473,042 

173,595 

96,006,570 

109,472,353 

218,113,658 

Cars,  railroad  and 

street,    and    re- 

pairs,    not     in- 

cluding    estab- 

lishments  oper- 

ated   by    steam 

railroad       com- 

panies   

193 

106,721,188 

44,063 

23,342,763 

70,046,354 

107,186,359 

Celluloid  and  cel- 

luloid goods  (1890) 
Charcoal  

1 
18 

3,158,487 
811,225 

939 

1,786 

447,120 
431,381 

856,180 
405,339 

2,575,736 
1,133,638 

262 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


COMPARATIVE     SUMMARY,    BY     SPECIFIED     INDUSTRIES:     1900— Continued. 


Num- 

Wag 

e-earners. 

Value  of  Prod- 

ber  of 

Cost  of 

nets   Including? 

Industry. 

Estab- 

Capital. 

Average 

Materials 

Custom  Work 

lish- 
ments. 

Num- 
ber. 

Total  Wages. 

Used. 

. 

and  Repair- 
ing. 

Cheese,       butter, 

and    condensed 

milk  

9,355 

$36,508,015 

12,865 

$6,170,670 

$109,151,205 

$131,199,277 

CliGrnic&ls 

459 

89,091,430 

19  054 

9,401,467 

34,564,137 

62  676  730 

China  decorating  . 

169 

372,017 

360 

148,004 

261,819 

'6931800 

Chocolate  and  co- 

coa products.  .  . 

24 

6,890,732 

1,314 

525,875 

6,876,682 

9,666,192 

Cleansing  and  pol- 

ishing  prepara- 

tions   

154 

943,328 

508 

209,438 

965,242 

2,193,019 

Clocks      . 

46 

8,792,653 

6,037 

2,650,703 

3,028,606 

7,157,856 

Cloth,      sponging 

and  refinishing.  . 

46 

288,894 

534 

268,191 

17,490 

566,000 

Clothing,  horse.  .  . 

26 

653,545 

575 

176,687 

847,846 

1,305,164 

Clothing,  men's  ... 

28,014 

173,034,543 

191,043 

79,434,932 

197,742,067 

415,256,391 

Clothing,  women's 

dressmaking     .  . 

14,479 

13,815,221 

45,595 

14,352,453 

16,503,754 

48,356,034 

Clothing,  wom'n's, 
factory  product. 

2.701 

48,431,544 

83,739 

32,586,101 

84,704,592 

159,339,539 

Coffee  and  spice, 

roasting  and 

grinding.  ..... 

458 

28,436,897 

6,387 

2,486,759 

55,112,203 

69,527,108 

Coffins,     burial 

cases,    and    un- 

dertakers' goods 

217 

13,585,162 

6,840 

3,077,481 

6,945,348 

13,952,308 

Coke  

241 

36,502,679 

16,999 

7,085,736 

19,665,532 

35,585,445 

Collars  and  cuffs, 

paper  (1890).  .  . 

3 

237,764 

82 

35,125 

223,077 

301,093 

Combs  

34 

832,791 

1,399 

572,467 

951,514 

1,976,129 

Confectionery.  .  .  . 
Cooperage.  ...... 

4,297 
2,146 

35,155,361 

22,568,873 

33,583 
22,938 

10,867,687 
9,200,303 

45,534,153 
23,299,312 

81,290,543 
40,576,462 

Copper,    smelting 

and  refining    ... 
Cordage  and  twine 

47 
105 

53,063,395 
29,275,470 

11,324 
13,114 

8,529,021 
4,113,112 

122,174,129 
26,632,006 

165,131,670 
37,849,651 

Cordials  &  syrups 

39 

1,153,006 

362 

116,917 

1,505,096 

2,107,132 

Cork,  cutting  

62 

2,683,683 

2,340 

687,796 

2,403,829 

4,392,364 

Corsets  

216 

7,481,048 

12,729 

3,791.509 

6,555,467 

14,878,116 

Cotton,  compress- 

ing   

111 

8,323,558 

2,742 

738,288 

353,910 

2,629,590 

Cotton,  ginning  ..  . 

11,369 

23,228,130 

14,135 

1,930,039 

3,912,303 

14,748,270 

Cotton  goods  .... 

1,055 

467,240,157 

302,861 

86,689,752 

176,551,527 

339,200,320 

Cotton  waste  ... 

26 

2,560,759 

1,116 

336,827 

4,950,490 

5.8S0.024 

Crucibles  

11 

1,843,616 

671 

250,654 

1,673,290 

2,607,308 

Cutlery  and  edge 

tools  

309 

16,532,383 

12,069 

5,673,619 

5,116,042 

14,881,478 

Dentistry  .Mechan 

ical  (1890)    .... 

3,214 

4,019,637 

1,486 

768,401 

1,475,255 

7,864,299 

Dentists'  materi'ls 

68 

2,112,236 

1,017 

508,603 

2,109,231 

3,721,150 

Druggists'  prepa- 

rations, not  in- 

eluding   pre- 

scriptions   
Drug  grinding  .... 
Dyeing  and  clean- 
ing   

250 

26 

1,810 

16,320,120 
2,837,911 

4,673,211 

5,766 
644 

5,424 

2,041,061 
291,823 

2,271,066 

11,022,417 
3,315,228 

1,434,292 

23,192,785 
4,308,144 

7,567,358 

Dyeing  and  finish- 
ing textiles  

298 

60,643,104 

29,776 

12,726,316 

17,958,137 

44,963,331 

Dye  stuffs  and  ex- 
tracts. .  . 

77 

7,839,034 

1,647 

787,942 

4,745,912 

7,350,748 

Electrical  appara- 
tusand  supplies. 

580 

83,130,943 

40,890 

20,190,344 

48,916,440 

91,348,889 

Electrical  con- 

struction    and 

repairs  

1,162 

5,438,087 

5,949 

3,312,126 

7,673,507 

15,907,420 

Electroplating.  .  .  . 
Emery  wheels  .  .  . 

422 
34 

1,460,692 
1,489,527 

2,275 
546 

1,036,750 
303,091 

836,726 
508,753 

3,007,455 
1,381,675 

Enameling  and. 
enameled  goods. 

129 

9,184,178 

7,675 

2,259,003 

5,466,971 

9,978,509 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


COMPARATIVE     SUMMARY,    BY     SPECIFIED     INDUSTRIES:     1900— Continued. 


Industry. 

Num- 
ber of 
Estab- 
lish- 
ments. 

Capital. 

Wage-earners. 

Cost  of 
Materials 
Used. 

Value  of  Prod- 
ucts, Including 
Custom  Work 
and  Repair- 
ing. 

Average 
Num- 
ber. 

Total  Wages. 

Engravers'      ma- 

terials   

12 

$104,741 

79 

$46,064 

$143,270 

$289,339 

Engraving     and 

die-sinking  

414 

790,461 

1,034 

572,874 

225,637 

1,683,690 

Engraving,    steel, 

including    plate 

printing.     

286 

5,061,520  :        3,299 

2,006,824 

1,206,462 

5,068,558 

Engraving,  wood. 

145 

231,817             337 

206,537 

63,272 

616,166 

Envelopes  
Explosives  —  ... 

51 
97 

5,612,509 
19,465,846 

2,984 
4,502 

1,150,463 
2,383,756 

3,665,275 
10,334,974 

6,299,330 
17,125,418 

Fancy  articles,  not 

elsewhere   spec- 

. 

ified  

392 

5,081,806 

5,718 

1,921,578  I          4,061,400 

9,046,342 

Felt  goods  

36 

7,125,276 

2,688 

1,024,835 

•  3,801,028 

6,461,691 

Fertilizers  

422 

60,685,753 

11,581 

4,185,289 

28,958,473 

44,657,385 

Files  

86 

3,857,647 

3,160 

1,277,199 

1,166,414 

3,403,906 

Firearms.  .  ...... 

32 

6,916,231 

4,482 

2,542,366 

1,305,421 

5,444,659 

Fire     extinguish- 

ers, chemical.   .  . 

17 

136,933 

64 

•    32,828 

70,874 

217,833 

Fireworks  

46 

1,086,133 

1,638 

506,990 

627,761 

1,785,271 

Fish,  canning  and 

preserving 

312 
36 
352 

16,310,987 
666,033 
3,319,716 

11,318 
509 
1,254 

2,986,996 
148,933 
478,975 

11,644,118 
547,165 
3,294,380 

18,432,613 
1,038,052 
6,314,552 

Flags  and  banners 
Flavoring  extracts- 

Flax  dressed 

4 

71,496 

211 

46,000                 91.032  !                 158.650 

Flouring  and  grist 
mill  products  .  . 

25,258 

218,714,104 

37,073 

17,703,418 

475,826,345 

560,719,063 

Food  preparations 

644 

20,998,102 

8,154 

3,051,718 

23,675,165 

38,457,651 

Foundry  and  ma- 

chine shop  prod- 

ucts   

9,324 

665,038,245      350,327 

182,232,009 

286,357,107 

644,990,999 

Foundry  supplies. 

30 

981,817 

278 

135,877 

628,160 

1,128,856 

Fruits  and   vege- 

tables,   canning 

and  preserving.  . 
Fur  goods  

1,808 
994 

27,743,067 
13,373,867 

36,401 

8,588 

8,050,793 
4,273,192 

37,524,297 
15,113,365 

56,668,313 
27,735,264 

Furnishing  goods, 
men's  

470 

20,163,222 

30,216 

9,680,077          23,404,969 

43,902,162 

Furniture,  includ- 

ing cabinetmak- 

mg,  repairing,  & 

upholstering  .  .  , 
Furs,  dressed  

7,972 
92 

117,982,091  !    100,018 
798,030  ;           835 

42,638,810 
478,190 

65,499,877 
519,699 

153,168,309 
1,400,455 

Galvanizing  

28 

1,775,770            535 

229,406 

1,677,584 

2,470,703 

Gas  and  lamp  fix- 
tures 

223 

10,009,239 

7,642 

3,504,301 

5,013,597 

12,577,806 

Gas  and  oil  stoves 

35 

3,766,065 

2,471 

1,138,442 

2,501,568 

4,579,700 

Gas,  illuminating 

and  heating  ..  .  . 

877 

567,000,506 

22,459 

12,436,296 

20,605,356 

75,716,693 

Gas  machines  and 

meters  

114 

4,605,624 

2,167 

1,185,959 

1,943,769 

4,392,730 

Glass   .... 

355 

61,423,903 

52,818 

27,084,710 

16,731,009 

56,539,712 

Glass,  cutting, 

staining,  and  or- 

" 

namenting    .... 

417 

4,013,534 

4,931 

2,403,591 

3,540,097 

8,776,006 

Gloves    and    mit- 

% 

tens  

394 

9,089,809 

14,345 

4,182,518 

9,483,130 

16,926,156 

Glucose  

8 

41,011,345 

3,288 

1,755,179 

15,773,233 

21,693,656 

Glue  

61 

6,144,407 

1,618 

685,096 

3,767,023 

5,389,006 

Gold    and    silver, 

leaf  and  foil.  .  .  . 

93 

1,086,854 

1,163 

498,692 

1,604,013 

2,666,224 

Gold    and    silver, 

reducing  and  re- 

fining, not  from 

the  ore  

57 

1,944,124 

219 

141,400 

10,932,361 

11,811,537 

Graphite    and 

graphite     refin- 

* 

ing  11 

411,128 

137 

64,376 

216,560 

429,173 

264 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


COMPARATIVE     SUMMARY,    BY      SPECIFIED     INDUSTRIES:     1900—  Conti 


Num- 

Wage-earners. 

Value  of  Prod- 

ber  of 

Cost  of         not  *    TnpluHincr 

Industry. 

Estab- 

Capital.        Average 

Materials        Custom  Work 

lish- 
ments. 

Num- 
ber. 

Total  Wages. 

Used. 

and  Repair- 
ing. 

Grease  and  tallow. 

289 

$7,080,692  !        2,046 

$1,069,683 

$8,761,857 

$11,969,821 

Grindstones   . 

25 

903  348  !        11  67 

407,153 

263  811 

1,088  909 

Hairwork  

397 

1,009,908 

1,101 

375,156 

6731004 

1J952J92 

Hammocks  . 

13 

308,254 

339 

101,626 

242  950 

480  114 

Hand  knit  goods.  . 

86 

205,488 

304 

75,870 

124,009 

352^226 

Hand  stamps  

268 

1,203,910 

1,052 

490,036 

522,659 

1,937,628 

Hardware  

381 

39,311,745 

26,463 

11,422,758 

14,605,244 

35,846,656 

Hardware,      sad- 

dlery 

80 

3,335,274 

2,940 

1,217,202 

1  fion  IRS 

4,149  489 

Hat  and  cap  ma- 

terials 

70 

1,744,419 

1,371 

434,148            2,797,756 

3,849,116 

Hats  and  caps,  not 

including     wool 

1 

hats  

816 

25,095,798 

31,425 

14,144,552  |        24,421,052 

49,205,667 

Hones  and  whet- 

stones 

18 

216,836 

189 

72,879                 64  278 

196  323 

Hooks  and  eyes.  .  . 

9 

1,882,394 

300 

127,518               255^427 

499^543 

H  orseshoes  ,     fac- 

tory product.  .  . 

6 

344,151 

167 

90,527               172,237 

387,619 

Hosiery  and  knit 

goods.  

921 

81,860,604 

83,387 

24,358,627          51,071,859 

95,482,566 

House  furnishing 

goods,  not  else- 

where specified  . 

210 

10,638,248 

5,212' 

1,837,552            9,198,803 

14,280,575 

Ice,  manufact'd  .. 

775 

38,019,507 

6,880 

3,402,745  j          3,312,393 

13,780,978 

Ink  

104 

3,821,514 

787 

412,140  i          2,109,142 

4,372,707 

Instruments,  pro- 

fessional     and 

scientific  
Iron  and  steel.  .  .  . 

265 
668 

4,491,627          2,786 
573,391,663      222,490 

1,433,715 
120,820,276 

1,385,292 
522,398,932 

4,896,631 
803,968,273 

Iron     and     steel, 

bolts,     nuts, 

washers,     and 

rivets.  .  

72 

10,799,692 

7,660 

2,991,857 

8,071,071 

13,978,382 

Iron     and     steel, 

doors  and  shut- 

ters 

13 

261,958 

117 

85,683               115,718 

319,629 

Iron     and     steel, 

forgings  

91 

9,677,193 

4,688 

2,559,433            5,213,550 

10,439,742 

Iron     and     steel, 

nails  and  spikes, 

cut  and  wrought, 

including     wire 

nails  '. 

102 

10,751,359 

4,477 

2,042,250 

8,561,571 

14,777,299 

Iron     and     steel, 

pipe,  wrought.  . 

19 

18,343,977 

5,536 

2,495,898 

15,523,858 

21,292,043 

Ironwork,    archi- 

tectural and  or- 

namental   

672 

33,062,409 

20,646 

11,111,226 

31,140,636 

53,508,179 

Ivory    and    bone 

work  

70 

939,714 

1,334 

529,051 

930,224 

1,873,357 

Japanning  

38 

117,639 

160 

75,453 

55,305 

215,506 

Jewelry  

908 

28,120,939 

20,676 

10,746,375 

22,356,067 

46,501,181 

Jewelry    and    in- 

* 

strument  cases.  . 

63 

547,753 

819 

322,566 

435,717 

1,156,977 

Jute      and      jute 

goods  

18 

7,027,293 

4,506 

1,181,790 

3,015,362 

5,383,797 

Kaolin  and  other 

earth  grinding.  . 
Kindling  wood.  .  . 

145 

85 

12,212,341 
1,775,272 

2,094 
1,525 

820,678 
566,635 

1,651,335 
735,844 

3,722,151 
1,784,690 

Labels  and  tags.  .  . 

47 

848,115 

754 

289,273               387,517 

1,104,652 

Lamps     and     re- 

flectors   
Lapidary  work.  .  . 

156 
60 

6,375,474 
3,087,390 

4,725 
498 

2,076,980            3,497,236 
498,715            4,655,765 

8,341,374 

5,786,281 

Lard,  refined  

19 

1,335,759 

499 

237,930            7,496,845 

8,630,901 

Lasts.  .  . 

65 

1,484,966 

1,131 

649,654               526,670 

1  879  742 

Lead,    bar,    pipe, 

and  sheet  

34 

3,949,330 

605 

321,598            6,279,497 

7,477,824 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK.                   265 

COMPARATIVE     SUMMARY,    BY     SPECIFIED     INDUSTRIES:     1900—  Continued. 

Num- 

Wage-earners. 

lvalue  of  Prod- 

ber  of 

Cost  of           'llf.ts.  Tnp.hidinor 

Industry. 

Estab- 
lish- 
ments. 

Capital. 

Average 
Num- 
ber. 

Total  Wages. 

Materials 
Used. 

Custom  Work 
and  Repair- 
ing. 

Lead,    smelting 

and  refining  .... 

39 

$72,148,933 

8,319 

$5,088,684 

$144,195,163 

$175,466,304 

Leather  board  .  .  . 

3 

49,500 

71 

24,350 

49,451 

108,734 

Leather  goods  ..  .. 

313 

5,467,294 

6,253 

2,256,280 

6,162,148 

11,717,401 

Leather,    tanned, 

curried,  and  fin- 

ished   

1,306 

173,977,421 

52,109 

22,591,091 

155,000,004 

204,038,127 

Lime  and  cement  . 

1,000 

48,833,730 

19,107 

7,749,815 

11,041,577 

28,689,135 

Linen  goods  

18 

5,688,999 

3,283 

1,036,839 

2,550,517 

4,368,159 

Liquors,  distilled. 

967 

32,551,604 

3,722 

1,733,218 

15,147,784 

96,798,443 

Liquors,  malt.  .  .  . 

1,509 

415,284,468 

39,532 

25,826,211 

51,674,928 

237,269,713 

Liquors,  vinous.  .  . 

359 

9,838,015 

1,163 

446,055 

3,689,330 

6,547,310 

Lit  ho  graphing 

and  engraving.  . 

263 

22,676,142 

12,994 

6,882,168 

7  886,045 

22,240,679 

Lock       and   gun- 

smithing  

2,103 

2,250,300 

1,553 

769,351 

929,700 

3,703,127 

Looking-glass  and 

picture  frames  .  . 

1,629 

7,747,382 

7,712 

3,370,072 

6,887,331 

15,570,293 

Lumber  and  tim- 

ber products  .  .  . 

33,010 

611,429,574 

283,179 

104,563,603 

317,832,865 

566,621,755 

Lumber,    planing 

mill      products, 

including    sash, 

doors,  and  blinds 

4,204 

119,271,631 

73,627 

32,685,210 

99,927,707 

168,343,003 

Malt  

146 

39,288,102 

1,990 

1,182,513 

14,816,741 

19,373,600 

Mantels,    slate, 

marble,  and 

marbleized  

36 

811,995 

449 

291,050 

487,965 

1,153,540 

Marble  and  stone 

work  

6,070 

67,509,533 

54.370 

28,663,241 

30,443,297 

85,101,591 

Masonry,       brick 

and  stone  

8,333 

48,070,239        93,568 

53,152,258 

87,280,964 

203,593,634 

Matches  

22 

3,893,000  !        2,047 

612,715 

3,420,740 

6,005,937 

Mats  and  matting 

9 

994,155 

1,197 

237,282 

516,137 

1,165,330 

Mattresses     and 

spring  beds. 

797 

8,298,772 

7,959 

3,213,268 

10,444,009 

18,463,704 

Millinery  and  lace 

goods  

591 

10,764,813 

16,871 

5,817,855 

15,654,295 

29,469,406 

Millinery,  custom 

work                 * 

16,151 

27,740,386 

33,298 

9  570  536 

36  455  043 

70,363,752 

Millstones 

3 

49,238 

37 

20,957 

30,995 

75,922 

Mineral  and  soda 

waters  

2,816 

20,518,708 

8,985 

4,169,113 

8,801,467 

23,874,429 

Mirrors   . 

103 

3,184,426 

2,555 

1,231,689 

4,995,671 

8,004,301 

Models    and    pat- 

terns   

532 

2,250,484 

2,608 

1,565,728 

825,111 

3,836,518 

Mucilage  &  paste. 

117 

1,265,426 

480 

205,082 

1,657,342 

2,629,299 

Musical  i  n  s  t  r  u- 

ments  and  ma- 

terials, not  spec- 

ified   

229 

3,896,101 

2,405 

1,232,039 

1,205,337 

3,394,734 

Musical  i  n  s  t  r  u- 

ments,     organs, 

and  materials.  .  . 

129 

5,011,987 

3,435 

-     1,720,727 

2,220,165 

5,691,504 

Musical  instru- 

ments,     pianos 

and  materials.  .  . 

261 

38,790,494 

17,869 

9,818,996 

15,147,520 

35,324,090 

Needles  and  pins.  . 

43 

3,235,158 

2,353 

939,846 

972,570 

2,738,439 

Nets  and  seines.  .  . 

19 

1,160,782 

748 

222,146 

865,908 

1,476,022 

Oakum  

7 

416,199 

171 

51,343 

283,862 

440,237 

Oil,  castor  

3 

539,221 

49 

29,068 

293,408 

395,400 

Oil,     cotton    seed 

and  cake  

369 

34,451,461 

11,007 

3,143,459 

45,165,823 

58,726,632 

Oil,  essential 

7C 

612,657 

199 

69,100 

596,112 

850,093 

Oil.  lard. 

7 

369,773 

78 

42,205 

971,647 

1,221,841 

Oil,  linseed  

48 

15,460,512 

1,328 

693,311 

24,395,775 

27,184,331 

Oil,  not  elsewhere 

.specified  

193 

9,441,984 

1,353 

679,730 

9,807,859 

17,089,799 

266 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


COMPARATIVE     SUMMARY,    BY     SPECIFIED     INDUSTRIES:     1900— Continued. 


Num- 
ber of 

Wag 

e-earners. 

Cost  of 

Value  of  Prod- 

Industry. 

Estab- 
lish- 
ments. 

Capital. 

Average 
Num- 
ber. 

Total  Wages. 

Materials 
Used. 

Custom  Work 
and  Repair- 
ing. 

Oil,  resin  

8 

$284,110 

90 

$53,596 

$535,320 

$738,680 

Oilcloth,  enamel'd 

9 

1,702,904 

512 

300,878 

2,696,412 

3,595,515 

Oilcloth,  floor.  .  .  . 

18 

7,176,198 

2,718 

1,327,235 

4,853,260 

7,807,105 

Oleomargarine.  .  . 
Optical  goods.  .  .  . 

24 
350 

3,023,646 
5,567,809 

1,084 
4,341 

534,444 
1,935,219 

7,639,501 
3,233,430 

12,499,812 
7,790,970 

Ordnance  and  ord- 

nance stores  .... 

4 

3,468,713 

989 

615,280 

802,706 

2,239,797 

Oysters,    canning 

and  preserving  .. 

39 

1,240,696 

2,779 

630,016 

2,608,757 

3,670,134 

Painting  and  pa- 

per hanging.  .  .  . 

16,939 

27,217,086 

59,191 

34,822,819 

26,304,784 

88,396,852 

Paints 

419 

42,501,782 

8,151 

3,929,787 

33,799,386 

50  874  995 

Paper   and    wood 

Pulp  •  -     •  

763 

167,507,713 

49,646 

20,746,426 

70,530,236 

127,326,162 

Paper  goods,  not 
elsewhere  spec- 

ified   

190 

'  11,370,585 

6,117 

2,242,702 

9,819,820 

16,785,269 

Paper  hangings.  .  . 

51 

8,889,794 

4,172 

2,074,138 

6,072,809 

10,663,209 

Paper  patterns.  .  . 

16 

256,075 

836 

262,559 

124,854 

563,653 

Patent  medicines 

and  compounds. 

2,026 

37,209,793 

11,809 

4,407,988 

18,185,513 

59,611,335 

Paving  and   pav- 

ing materials.  .  . 

1.729 

37,888,412 

34,090 

14,570,408 

20,152,477 

40,447,719 

Pencils  lead   . 

7 

2,227,406 

2,162 

683,281 

1,030,917 

2,222,270 

Pens,  fountain  and 

stylographic.  .  .  . 

23 

590,629 

318 

141,012 

351,932 

906,454 

Pens,  gold  

22 

496,246 

378 

229,679 

312,537 

799,078 

Pens,  steel  

3 

357,460 

473 

138,433 

52,466 

294,340 

Perfumery       and 

cosmetics  

266 

3,499,168 

1,768 

569,286 

3,136,853 

7,095,713 

Petroleum  refining 

67 

95,327,892 

12,199 

0,717,087 

102,859,341 

123,929,384 

Phonographs  and 

graphophones  .. 

11 

3,348,282 

1,267 

608,490 

827,529 

2,246,274 

Photographic  ap- 

paratus   

48 

1,849,724 

1,961 

779,890 

595,925 

2,026,063 

Photographic  ma- 

terials   

105 

3,668,026 

1,483 

662,958 

2,782,285 

5,773,325 

Photography  
Photolithograph  - 

7,553 

13,193,589 

8,911 

4,013,018 

6,841,853 

23,238,719 

ing  and  photo- 

engraving   

204 

1,999,921 

2,698 

1,756,578 

728,743 

4,226,106 

Pickles,  preserves, 

and  sauces   .  . 

474 

10,656,854 

6,812 

2  161  962 

12  422  432 

21,507,046 

Pipes,  tobacco.  .  .  . 

98 

1,111,144 

1,585 

737J647 

1,106,299 

2,  '471,  '908 

Plated  and  britan- 

nia  ware  

66 

•  16,486,471 

6,392 

3,088,224 

5,875,312 

12,608,770 

Plumbers'    s  u  p  - 

plies     .  . 

174 

13,598,528 

8,024 

3,930,594 

7  289,867 

14,771,185 

Plumbing.and  gas 
and  steam  fitti'g 

11,876 

47,111,264 

53,916 

31,873,866 

65,334,689 

131,852,567 

Pocketbooks  

68 

991,876 

1,653 

588,595 

1,278,226 

2,495,188 

Pottery,  terra  cot- 

ta,  and  fire-clay 

products  

1,000 

65,951,885 

43,714 

17,691,737 

11,915,236 

44,263,386 

Printing  and  pub- 

lishing   

22,312 

292,517,072 

162,992 

84,249,954 

86,856,290 

347,055  050 

Printing  materials 

70 

905,603 

560 

232,799 

406,357 

1,088,432 

Pulp,    from    fiber 

other  than  wood 

3 

479,158 

121 

28,462 

42,204 

103,204 

Pulp  goods  

22 

2,316,985 

691 

283,835 

646,639 

1,267,013 

Pumps,     not     in- 

cluding     steam 

pumps. 

130 

1,260,710 

632 

247,193 

637  768 

1  341  713 

Refrigerators  

95 

4,782,110 

3,329 

1,287,488 

2,476,518 

5,317!880 

Regalia    and    so- 

c  i  e  t  y  banners 

and  emblems.  .  . 

120 

1,795,858 

1,586 

476,580 

1,608,415 

3,077,945 

Registers,  car  fare 

5 

104,408 

52 

25,775 

17,403 

80,865 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


267 


COMPARATIVE     SUMMARY,    BY     SPECIFIED     INDUSTRIES:     1900— Continued. 


Industry. 

Num- 
ber of 
Estab- 
lish- 
ments. 

Capital. 

Wage-earners. 

Cost  of 
materials 
Used. 

Value  of  Prod- 
ucts, Including 
Custom  Work 
and  Repair- 
ing. 

Average 
Num- 
ber. 

Total  Wages. 

i 

Registers,  cash  ..  . 
Rice,  cleaning  and 
polishing  
Roofing  and  roof- 
ing materials.  .  . 
Rubber  and  elas- 
tic goods  
Rules,  ivory  and 

13 
80 
2,162 
202 
11 

12,934 
35 
159 

& 

86 
33 

7 
39C 

58 
1,116 
986 
105 
102 
483 
44 
59 

1,134 

61 
558 

30 
144 

48 
139 
124 

113 

227 
97 

92 
140 

4 
30 

832 
219 
147 
57 

$5,137,965 
2,601,352 
17,594,162 
39,304,853 
202,724 

43,354,136 
5,479,879 
27,123,364 

1,372,307 
8,508,487 

6,307,576 
7,931,457 

1,333,341 
331,433 

18,739,459 
77,362,701 
20,312,412 
5,272,929 
1,152,898 
81,082,201 
1,999,921 
12,142,008 

190,706,927 

5,200,523 
38,068,334 

4,202,452 
2,018,737 

4,684,278 
13,954,176 
11,671,567 

4,494,507 

18,233,173 
2,691,304 

532,528 
2,389,215 

25,070 
20,141,719 

184,245,519 
2,487,494 
366,077 
6,650,047 

2,015 
651 
15,362 
20,405 
213 

24,123 
2,033 
4,774 

274 
3,215 

2,775 
3,527 

2,653 
310 

10,635 
46,781 
38,492 
1,926 
1,363 
65,416 
1,437 
4,376 

69,441 

983 
9,487 

963 
2,230 

2,102 
10,002 
2,655 

3,032 

9,252 
1,147 

418 
2,408 

54 
1,970 

14.262 
1.539 
180 
3,671 

$1,223,966 
265,585 
6,996,810 
8,082,738 
66,732 

10,725,647 
1,017,237 
1,911,140 

144,183 
1,692,757 

1,436,839 
1,423,838 

1,065,180 
154,036 

6,213,938 
24,839.163 
11,425,101 
748,948 
708,211 
20.982,194 
803,662 
2,639,480 

33,923,253 

532,068 
3,754,767 

549,939 
810,943 

1,061,006 
3,730,241 
1,099,696 

958,471 

4,982,857 
525,332 

206,231 
1,458,977 

14,381 
1,092,207 

6,945,811 
620,801 
91,140 
1,889,917 

$903,834 
7,575,522 
14,624,759 
33,485,694 
72,657 

33,127,926 
1,689,148 
3,335,922 

681,240 
2,600,217 

1,533,379 
1,720,455 

1,533,880 
220,537 

7,809,796 
33,486,772 
23,662,317 
4,875,192 
1,057,666 
62,406,665 
1,229,158 
4,554,487 

686,860,891 

5,899,935 
33,143,230 

997,436 
1,802,903 

3,024,656 
7,333,028 
5,806,422 

2,128,445 

10,219,506 
1,546,398 

140,711 
766,603 

12,933 

4,803,796 

222,503,741 
1,291,580 
177,038 
26,728,150 

$5,594,500 
8,723,726 
29,916,592 
52,627,030 
207,757 

62,630,902 
3,927,867 
7,966,897 

1,175,895 
6,443,748 

5,239,788 
4,658,467 

2,815,142 
710,123 

18,314,419 

74,578,158 
49,022,845 
6,730,974 
2,467,901 
107,256,258 
2,936,462 
10,569,121 

790,252,586 

7,784,695 
53,231,017 

3,015,493 
3,633,396 

5,690,499 
14,546,191 
9,232,984 

5,065,869 

22,084,860 
3,493,710 

673,784 
3,772,025 

36,985 
7,323,857 

240,969,905 
3,932,358 
513,112 
31,892,011 

Saddlery  and  har- 
ness  .  . 

Safes  and  vaults.  . 
Salt     

Sand   and    emery 
paper  and  cloth  . 
Saws  
Scales     and     bal- 
ances   
Screws  
Sewing     machine 

Sewing     machine 

Sewing   machines 
and  attachments 
Shipbuilding  
Shirts  
Shoddy        .  . 

Show  cases  
Silk  and  silk  goods 
Silversmithing.  .  . 
Silverware  
Slaughtering  and 
meat     packing, 
not  including  re- 
tail butchering  . 
Smelting  and  re- 
fining, not  from 
the  ore  
Soap  and  candles  . 
Soda    water    ap- 
paratus .  . 

Sporting  goods  .  .  . 
Springs,  steel,  car 
and  carriage.  .  .  . 
Stamped  ware  .... 
Starch  
Stationery  goods, 
not    elsewhere 
specified  
Steam  fittings  and 
heating  appara- 
tus   

Steam  packing  .  .  . 
Stencils    and 
brands  

Stereotyping  and 
electrotyoing.  .  . 
Straw  goods,  not 
elsewhere  speci- 
'    fied  
Sugar  and  molas- 
ses, beet  
Sugar  and  molas- 
ses, refining.  .  .  . 
Surgical  applianc's 
Taxidermy 

Tin  and  terneplate 

268 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


COMPARATIVE     SUMMARY,    BY     SPECIFIED     INDUSTRIES:     1900— Continued. 


Num- 

Wag 

g-earners. 

Value  of  prod- 

Industry. 

ber  of 
Estab- 
lish- 
ments. 

Capital. 

Average 
Num- 
ber. 

Total  Wages. 

Cost  of 
Materials 
Used. 

ucts,  Including 
Custom  Work 
and  Repair- 
ing. 

Tinfoil 

15 

$2,094,327 

582 

$227,774 

$1,074,192 

$1,593,169 

Tinsmithing,  cop- 

persm  i  t  hi  n  g, 

and     sheet-iron 

working  

12,466 

55,703,509 

45,575 

22,155,039 

50,329,282 

100,310,720 

Tobacco,  chewing, 

smoking,     and 

snuff  

437 

43,856,570 

29,161 

7,109,821 

35,038,287 

103,754,362 

Tobacco,  cigars 

and  cigarettes.   . 

14,539 

67,706,493 

103,462 

40,925,596 

57,946,020 

160,223,152 

Tobacco,  stem- 

ming    and     re- 

handling  

276 

12,526,808 

9,654 

1,817,067 

14,198,349 

19,099,032 

Tools,     not    else- 

where specified. 

448 

13,690,047 

7,615 

3,781,763 

4,657,200 

13,360,920 

Toys  and  games  .  . 

170 

3,289,445 

3,330 

1,123,593 

1,668,199 

4,024,999 

Trunks  and  valises 

391 

7,046,649 

7,084 

2,834,892 

6,045,387 

12,693,225 

Turpentine    and 

rosin  

1,503 

11,847,495 

41,864 

8,393,483 

6,186,492 

20,344,888 

Type  founding.  .  . 

22 

2,269,370 

1,424 

803,470 

863,689 

2,842,384 

Typewriter      r  e  - 

pairing   

85 

134,123 

185 

116,220 

110,603 

367,176 

Typewriters     and 

supplies  

47 

8,400,431 

4,340 

2,403,604 

1,402,170 

6,932,029 

Umbrellas     and 

canes  

261 

4,677,917 

5,695 

1,889,673 

8,457,167 

13,855,908 

Upholstering  ma- 

terials       .  . 

270 

7  593  598 

5  098 

1  715  073 

5,881,621 

10  048  164 

Varnish  

181 

17,550,892 

1^46 

995,803 

10,939,131 

18,687,240 

Vault   lights   and 

ventilators  

14 

120,750 

138 

81,184 

140,719 

338,111 

Vinegar  and  cider. 

1,152 

6,187,728 

1,801 

720,316 

3,272,565 

6,454,524 

Washing  machi'es 

and    clothes 

wringers  

118 

2,404,569 

1,509 

548,707 

2,174,762 

3,735,243 

Watch  and  clock 

materials  

20 

367,291 

331 

152,234 

105,549 

345,347 

Watch  cases  

30 

8,119,292 

3,907 

1,924,847 

4,393,647 

7,783,960 

Watch,  clock,  and 

jewelry    repair- 

ing 

12  229 

12,741,973 

8  380 

4,683,086 

4,432,108 

20,235,039 

Watches  

13 

14,235,191 

6,880 

3,586,723 

1,291,318 

6,822,611 

Whalebone      and 

rattan 

3 

56  200 

14 

7,856 

98  875 

135  000 

Wheelbarrows.  ..  . 

15 

513,467 

321 

127,398 

180,036 

454,441 

Whips.  

60 

1,893,703 

1,287 

478,176 

1,278,324 

2,734,471 

Windmills  

68 

4,308,666 

2,045 

940,474 

2,172,098 

4,354,312 

Window  shades.  .  . 

207 

5,507,842 

2,012 

871,532 

6,046,062 

8,868,259 

Wire  

29 

4,242,173 

1,603 

859,645 

7,014,319 

9,421,238 

Wirework,  includ- 

ing    wire     rope 

and  cable  

597 

16,374,629 

9,255 

3,934,525 

10,858,229 

19,942,882 

Wood,  preserving. 

21 

1,229,746 

478 

205,105 

1,825,355 

2,395,748 

Wood,  turned  and 

carved  

1,171 

10,278,418 

11,569 

4,375,345 

5,835,492 

14,338,503 

Wooden  ware,  not 

elsewhere  speci- 

fied 

104 

3,824  512 

3,206 

1,073,303 

1  468  383 

3,585  542 

Wool  hats  

24 

2,050,802 

2,108 

937,855 

21042^202 

3,591,940 

Wool  pulling  

31 

944,715 

475 

247,950 

53,975 

531,287 

Wool  scouring 

25 

1,061,123 

720 

338,606 

193,826 

889,809 

Woolen  goods  .... 
Worsted  goods.  .  . 

1,035 
186 

124,386,262 
132,168,110 

68,893 
57,008 

24,757,006 
20,092,738 

71,011,956 
77,075,222 

118,430,158 
120,314,344 

Zinc,     smelting 

and  refining  .... 

31 

14,141,810 

4,869 

2,355,921 

13,286,058 

18,188,498 

All    other    indus- 

tries   

4 

447,959 

132 

58,661 

299,339 

503,449 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


269 


INDUSTRY    GROUPS    RANKED    BY    CAPITAL,    NUMBER    OF    WAGE- 
EARNERS,  WAGES,  AND  GROSS  AND  NET  VALUE 

OF  PRODUCTS:   1900. 
[Twelfth  Census,  Vol.  VII,  page  clxiv,  and  Vol.  VIII,  page  18.] 


Number 

Average 

Industry  Group. 

of  Estab- 
lishments. 

Rank. 

Capital. 

Rank. 

Number 
of  Wage- 

Rank. 

earners. 

Total  

512,191 



$9,813,834,390 

5,306,143 



Food  and  kindred  products.  .  .  . 
Textiles  

61,266 
30,048 

2 
4 

937,686,610 
1,366,604,058 

5 
2 

311,717 
1,029,910 

7 
1 

Iron  and  steel  and  their  prod- 

ucts   

13,896 

11 

1,528,979,076 

1 

733,968 

2 

Lumber  and  its  remanufact'res. 

47,054 

3 

945,934,565 

4 

546,872 

4 

Leather  and  its  finished  prod- 

ucts   

16,989 

7 

343,600,513 

13 

238,202 

10 

Paper  and  printing  
Liquors  and  beverages.  
Chemicals  and  allied  products.  . 
Clay,  glass,  and  stone  products. 

26,747 
7,861 
5,443 
14,809 

6 
13 
14 
10 

557,610,887 
534,101,049 
498,282,219 
350,902,367 

6 
7 
8 
12 

297,551 
63,072 
101,489 

244,987 

8 
14 
13 
9 

Metals    and    metal    products, 

other  than  iron  and  steel.  .  .  . 

16,305 

8 

410,646,057 

9 

190,757 

11 

Tobacco  

15,252 

9 

124,089,871 

14 

142,277 

12 

Vehicles  for  land  transportati'n 
Shipbuilding  

10,112 
1,116 

12 
15 

396,671,441 
77,362,701 

10 
15 

316,157 

46,781 

6 
15 

Miscellaneous  industries  

29,479 

5 

1,348,920,721 

3 

483,273 

5 

Hand  trades 

215,814 

1 

392,442,255   i       11 

559,130 

3 

Value  of  Products. 

Industry  Group. 

Wages. 

Rank. 

Gross. 

Rank. 

Net. 

Rank. 

Total      . 

$2,320,938,168 

$13,000,149,159 

$8,367,997,844 

Food  and  kindred  products. 

128,667,428 

8 

2,273,880,874 

1 

1,750,811,817 

1 

Textiles  

341,734,399 

2 

1,637,484,484 

3 

1,081,961,248 

2 

Iron   and   steel   and   their 

products.     .  . 

381,875,499 

1 

1,793,490,908 

2 

983,821,918 

3 

Lumber   and    its    remanu- 

factures  

212,124,780 

4 

1,030,695,350 

5 

547,227,860 

6 

Leather    and    its    finished 

products  

99,759,885 

10 

583,731,046 

9 

329,614,996 

11 

Paper  and  printing.  . 

140,092,453 
36,946,557 

7 
14 

606,317,768 
425,504,167 

8 
12 

419,798,101 
349,157,618 

7 
10 

Liquors  and  beverages  

Chemicals  and  allied  prod- 

ucts           43,850,282 

13 

552,797,877 

10 

372,538,857 

8 

Clay,  glass,  and  stone  prod- 

ucts   

109,022,582 

9 

293,564,235 

13 

245,447,118 

14 

Metals  and  metal  products, 

other  than  iron  and  steel  . 

96,749,051 

11 

748,795,464 

7 

371,154,446 

9 

Tobacco 

49  852  484 

12 

283  076  546 

14 

264  052  573 

12 

Vehicles  for  land  transpor- 

tation  .  , 

164  559  022 

6 

508  524  510 

11 

250  622  377 

13 

Shipbuilding  

24,839,163 

15 

74,578,158 

15 

42,492,518 

15 

Miscellaneous  industries.  .  . 

202,746,162 

5 

1,004,092,294 

6 

638,191,538 

5 

Hand  trades.  . 

288,118,421 

3 

1.183.615.478 

4 

721.104.85S 

4 

270 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


BANK  OF  INDUSTRIES  WITH  PRODUCTS 
[Twelfth  Census,  Vol.  VII,  page 


Industry. 

Number 
of  Estab- 
lish- 
ments. 

Rank. 

Capital. 

Rank. 

Iron  and  steel  

668 

41 

$573,391,663 

3 

Slaughtering  and  meat  packing,  not  including  retail 
butchering  

1,134 

31 

190,706,927 

10 

9,324 

15 

665,058,245 

1 

Lumber  and  timber  products  
Flouring  and  grist  mill  products  
Clothing,  men's  
Printing  and  publishing  
Cotton  manufactures  
Carpentering  
Woolen  manufactures  
Boots  and  shoes,  factory  product  
Sugar  and  molasses,  refining  
Liquors,  malt  

33,010 
25,258 
28,014 
22,312 
1,055 
21,315 
1,414 
1,600 
832 
1,509 

2 
4 
3 
5 
33 
6 
28 
26 
37 
27 

611,429,574 
218,714,104 
173,034,543 
292,517,072 
467,240,157 
71,327,047 
310,179,749 
101,795,233 
184,245,519 
415,284,468 

2 
9 
13 
8 
5 
31 
7 
21 
11 
6 

Cars  and  general  shop  construction  and  repairs  by 
steam  railroad  companies  
Leather,  tanned,  curried,  and  finished  
Masonry   brick  and  stone  

1,295 
1,306 
8,333 
14,917 

30 
29 
16 
9 

119,473,042 
173,977,421 
48,070,239 
81,049,553 

16 
12 
39 

28 

Lead,  smelting  and  refining  
Lumber,  planing  mill  products,  including  sash,  doors, 
and  blinds,  

39 
4,204 

55 
22 

72,148,933 
119,271,631 

30 

17 

Copper  smelting  and  refining  .           

47 

54 

53,063,395 

37 

14,539 

10 

67,706,493 

32 

Clothing,  women's,  factory  product  
Furniture,    including    cabinetmaking,    repairing,    and 
upholstering     .'  
Plumbing,  and  gas  and  steam  fitting  

2,701 

7,972 
11,876 
9,355 

23 

17 
13 
14 

48,431,544 

117,982,091 
47,111,264 
36,508,015 

38 

19 
40 

47 

763 

38 

167,507,713 

14 

67 

53 

95,327,892 

22 

Carriages  and  wagons  
Silk  and  silk  goods  
Cars,  railroad  and  street,  and  repairs,  not  including  es- 
tablishments operated  by  steam  railroad  companies.  . 
Tobacco,  chewing,  smoking,  and  snuff  
Agricultural  implements  
Tinsmithing,  coppersmithing,  and  sheet-iron  working  .  . 
Liquors,  distilled.  <  

7,632 
483 

193 
437 
715 
12,466 
967 

18 
44 

52 
47 
39 
12 
34 

118,187,838 
81,082,201 

106,721,188 
43,856,570 
157,707,951 
55,703,509 
32,551,604 

18 

27 

20 
41 
15 
35 
51 

921 

35 

81,860,604 

26 

580 

42 

83,130,943 

24 

Painting  and  paper  hanging.  
Blacksmithing  and  wheelwrighting  
Marble  and  stone  work  
Confectionery  

16,939 
51,771 
6,070 
4,297 

877 

7 
1 
19 
21 
36 

27,217,086 
54,976,341 
67,509,533 
35,155,361 
567  000  506 

55 
36 
33 

48 
4 

Shipbuilding                                                

1,116 

32 

77,362,701 

29 

16,151 

8 

27,740,386 

54 

Coffee  and  spice,  roasting  and  grinding  

458 
459 

46 
45 

28,436,897 
89,091,430 

52 
23 

12,934 

11 

43  354  136 

42 

Patent  medicines  and  compounds  
Oil,  cottonseed  and  cake  
Fruits  and  vegetables,  canning  and  preserving  
Glass  
Ironwork,  architectural  and  ornamental  
Soap  and  candles.  
Rubber  and  elastic  goods  
Brick  and  tile  
Paints.  .                                               

2,026 
369 
1,808 
355 
672 
558 
262 
5,423 
419 

24 
49 
25 
50 
40 
43 
51 
20 
48 

37,209,793 
34,451,461 
27,743,067 
61,423,903 
33,062,409 
38,068,334 
39,304,853 
82,086,438 
42,501,782 

46 
49 
53 
34 
50 
45 
44 
25 
43 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


271 


VALUED    AT    OVER    $50,000,000:     1900. 
clxiii,  and  Vol.  VIII,  page  18.] 


Average 
Number 
of  Wage- 
earners. 

Rank. 

Wages. 

Rank. 

Value  of  Products. 

Net, 

Rank. 

Gross. 

Rank. 

222,490 

4 

$120,820,276 

2 

$432,687,119 

3 

$803,968,273 

1 

69,441 

17 

33,923,253 

15 

684,119,221 

1 

790,252,586 

2 

350,327 

1                 182,232,009 

1 

377,812,876 

4 

644,990,999 

3 

283,179 

3 

104,563,603 

3 

307,838,590 

5 

566,621,755 

4 

37,073 

34 

17,703,418 

35 

540,052,649 

2 

560,719,063 

5 

191,043 

5 

79,434,932 

7 

220,140,823 

8 

415,256,391 

6 

162,992 

7 

84,249,954 

6 

264,859,062 

7 

347,055,050 

7 

302,861 

2 

86,689,752 

5 

296,633,150 

6 

339,200,320 

8 

123,985 

10 

71,049,737 

8 

176,611,706 

12 

316,101,758 

9 

159,108 

8 

57,933,817 

10 

218,637,292 

9 

296,990,484 

10 

142,922 

9 

59,175,883 

9 

93,701,767 

19 

261,028,580 

11 

14,262 

45 

6,945,811 

46 

49,216,847 

40 

240,969,905 

12 

39,532 

33 

25,826,211 

23 

202,582,268 

10 

237,269,713 

13 

173,595 

6 

96,006,570 

4 

111,622,240 

16 

218,113,658 

14 

52,109 

26 

22,591,091 

27 

186,389,057 

11 

204,038,127 

15 

93,568 

13 

53,152,258 

11 

125,356,555 

14 

203,593,634 

16 

60,271 

21 

27,893,170 

21 

89,262,303 

23 

175,657,348 

17 

8,319 

52 

5,088,684 

49 

97,425,341 

18 

175,466,304 

18 

73,627 

16 

32,685,210 

16 

74,205,166 

28 

168,343,003 

19 

11,324 

49 

8,529,021 

42 

76,502,702 

26 

165,131,670 

20 

103,462 

11 

40,925,596 

13 

152,300,012 

13 

160,223,152 

21 

83,739 

14 

32,586,101 

17 

75,315,179 

27 

159,339,539 

22 

100,018 

12 

42,638,810 

12 

91,151,488 

22 

153,168,309 

23 

53,916 

24 

31,873,866 

18 

68,035,688 

30 

131,852,567 

24 

12,865 

46 

6,170,670 

48 

124,008,573 

15 

131,199,277 

25 

49,646 

27 

20,746,426 

32 

77,954,480 

25 

127,326,162 

26 

12,199 

47 

6,717,087 

47 

107,512,092 

17 

123,929,384 

27 

62,540 

19 

29,814,911 

19 

67,172,479 

ai 

121,537,276 

28 

65,416 

18 

20,982,194 

31 

86,483,994 

24 

107,256,258 

29 

44,063 

31 

23,342,763 

26 

39,326,856 

47 

107,186,359 

30 

29,161 

39 

7,109,821 

45 

92,915,542 

20 

103,754,362 

31 

46,582 

29 

22,450,880 

28 

60,535,599 

36 

101,207,428 

32 

45,575 

30 

22,155,039 

29 

51,638,038 

38 

100,310,720 

33 

3,722 

55 

1,733,218 

55 

91,451,293 

21 

96,798,443 

34 

83,387 

15 

24,358,627 

25 

54,544,999 

37 

95,482,566 

35 

40,890 

32 

20,190,344 

33 

44,583,830 

41 

91,348,889 

36 

59,191 

22 

34,822,819 

14 

62,541,861 

35 

88,396,852 

37 

36,193 

36 

17,974,264 

34 

63,764,914 

34 

85,971,630 

38 

54,370 

23 

28,663,241 

20 

69,097,079 

29 

85,101,591 

39 

33,583 

37 

10,867,687 

38 

44,179,706 

42 

81,290,543 

40 

22,459 

41 

12,436,296 

36 

64,276,431 

33 

75,716,693 

41 

46,781 

28 

24,839,163 

24 

42,492,518 

46 

74,578,158 

42 

33,298 

38 

9,570,536 

40 

34,529,813 

51 

70,363,752 

43 

6,387 

54 

2,486,759 

54 

64,741,832 

32 

69,527,108 

44 

19,054 

44 

9,401,467 

41 

36,918,124 

48 

62,676,730 

45 

24,123 

40 

10,725,647 

39 

30,677,173 

52 

62,630,902 

46 

11,809 

48 

4,407,988 

50 

43,819,968 

44 

59,611,335 

47 

11,007 

50 

3,143,459 

53 

43,196,446 

45 

58,726,632 

48 

36,401 

35 

8,050,793 

44 

36,668,635 

49 

56,668,313 

49 

52,818 

25 

27,084,710 

22 

43,905,999 

43 

56,539,712 

50 

20,646 

42 

11,111,226 

37 

23,398,179 

54 

53,508,179 

51 

9,487 

51 

3,754,767 

52 

24,228,062 

53 

53,231,017 

52 

20,405 

43 

8,082,738 

43 

35,278,808 

50 

52,627,030 

53 

61,979 

20 

21,883,333 

30 

50,312,022 

39 

51,270,476 

54 

8,151 

53     !               3,929,787 

51 

18,545,525 

55 

50,874,995 

55 

272 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


ESTABLISHMENTS   AND   PRODUCTS   CLASSIFIED   BY   CHARACTER 
OF  ORGANIZATION,  BY  GROUPS  OF  INDUSTRIES:    1900.* 

[Twelfth  Census,  Vol.  VII,  pages  Ixvi  and  503.] 


Industry  Group. 


Total.  . . 


Food  and  kindred  products 

Textiles 

Iron  and  steel  and  their  products 

Lumber  and  its  remanufactures 

Leather  and  its  finished  products 

Paper  and  printing 

Liquors  and  beverages 

Chemicals  and  allied  products 

Clay,  glass,  and  stone  products 

Metals  and  metal  products,  other  than 

iron  and  steel 

Tobacco 

Vehicles  for  land  transportation 

Shipbuilding 

Miscellaneous  industries 

Hand  trades.  .  , 


Character  of  Organization. 


Total. 

Individual. 

Number 
of  Estab- 
lishments. 

Value  of 
Products. 

Number 
of  Estab- 
lishments. 

Value  of 
Products. 

512,191 

$13,000,149,159 

372,692 

$2,674,426,373 

61,266 

2,273,880,874 

42,569 

444,230,465 

30,048 

1,637,484,484 

18,701 

262,342,066 

13,896 

1,793,490,908 

5,717 

107,343,147 

47,054 

1,030,695,350 

28,463 

265,781,468 

16,989 

583,731,046 

12,906 

26,747 

606,317,768 

16,392 

127,116,593' 

7,861 

425,504,167 

5,063 

69,353,112 

5,443 

552,797,877 

2,085 

14,809 

293,564,235 

8,761 

"'69,147,764' 

16,305 

748,795,464 

10,666 

15,252 

283,076  546 

12,803 

'7"9,9i9,99i  ' 

10,112 

508,524,510 

5,750 

43,223,011 

1,116 

74,578,158 

748 

12,592,136 

29,479 

1,004,092,294 

18,545 

173,848,128 

215,814 

1,183,615,478 

183,523 

777,274,319 

Industry  Group. 

Character  of  Organization. 

Firm  and  Limited 
Partnership. 

Incorporated  Com- 
pany. 

Cooperative  and 
Miscellaneous. 

Num- 
ber of 
Estab- 
lish- 
ments. 

Value  of 
Products. 

Num- 
ber of 
Estab- 
lish- 
ments. 

Value  of 
Products. 

Num- 
ber of 
Estab- 
lish- 
ments. 

Value  of 
Products. 

Total  

Food  and  kindred  products.  .  .  . 
Textiles  
Iron  and  steel  and  their  prod- 
ucts   
Lumber  and  its  remanufact'res. 
Leather  and  its  finished  prod- 
ucts   

96,701 

11,905 
8,084 

3,329 
13,893 

2,990 

$2,565,242,473 

394,387,619 
547,349,114 

177,415,968 
256,014,803 

208,571,042 
106,830,193 

eO.Ysi  J25 
66,327,320 

88,143,271 
74,456,334 

6,4141398' 
188,153,370 
305,612,005 

40,705 

4,994 
3,245 

4,843 
4,670 

1,091 
4,490 
1,333 
2,205 
2,132 

1,470 
358 
2,282 
151 
4,750 
2,691 

$7,729,520,548 

1,410,298,055 
827,705,447 

1,508,493,141 
508,341,338 

257,808,524 
368,923,042 
305,129,467 
450,008,084 
157,336,458 

578,172,577 
128,478,983 
430,731,303 
55,571,624 
641,875,764 
100,646,741 

2,093 

1,798 
18 

7 
28 

183 
2 

1 
25 

2 
6 
1 

'  '  16' 

10 

$30,959,765 

24,964,735 

87,857 

238,652 
557,741 

'  3,453,946 

Paper  and  printing  
Liquors  and  beverages  
Chemicals  and  allied  products.  . 
Clay,  glass,  and  stone  products. 
Metal    and     metal     products, 
other  than  iron  and  steel.  .  .  . 
Tobacco.  .  .  . 

5,682 
1,463 
1,152 
3,891 

4,167 
2,085 
2,079 
217 
6,174 
29,590 

752,693 
221,238 

Vehicles  for  land  transportati'n 
Shipbuilding  
Miscellaneous  industries  
Hand  trades  

215,032 
82,413 

*In  this  table  values  have  been  omitted  wherever  they  disclosed  the  products  of  individual 
establishments. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


273 


ESTABLISHMENTS  CLASSIFIED  BY  NUMBER  OF  EMPLOYEES,  NOT 

INCLUDING  PROPRIETORS  AND  FIRM  MEMBERS:    1900. 

[Twelfth  Census,  Vol.  VII,  pages  Ixxiii  and  582.J 


Industry  Group. 

Total 
Num- 
ber of 
Estab- 
lish- 
ments. 

Number  of  Establishments  Reporting. 

No. 
Em- 
ploy- 
ees. 

Under 
5. 

232,716 

5 

to 
20. 

112,120 

8,129 
9,722 

4,349 
20,039 

1,644 
7,962 
2,070 

1,689 
6,121 

3,542 
3,004 

3,080 
361 
8,026 
2  32,382 

21 
to 
50. 

32,403 

1,888 
3,458 

2,186 
4,814 

857 
2,139 
569 

806 
2,186 

951 
672 

829 
152 
3,123 

37,773 

51 
to 
100. 

11,658 

101 
to 
250. 

251 
to 
500. 

501 
to 
1000. 

Over 
1000. 

Total  

512,191 

110,509 

8,475 

2,804 

1,063 

443 

Food  and  kindred  prod- 
ucts   
Textiles  
Iron  and  steel  and  their 

61,266 
30,048 

13,896 
47,054 

16,989 
26,747 
7,861 

5,443 
14,809 

16,305 
15,252 

10,112 
1,116 
29,479 
215,814 

14,611 
1,300 

783 
2,069 

5,028 
2,400 
671 

643 
1,022 

2,950 
3,637 

1,183 

198 
5,191 
68,823 

34,759 
11,036 

3,102 
16,836 

8,163 

12,628 
4,185 

1,607 
3,876 

8,029 
7,273 

3,772 
211 
10,403 
1  106,836 

912 

1,828 

1,395 
1,892 

560 

874 
228 

390 

857 

386 
309 

467 
83 
1,477 

696 
1,620 

1,244 
1,128 

472 
565 
103 

224 
562 

291 
233 

416 
56 
865 

161 
669 

513 
218 

196 
143 

27 

64 
134 

85 
85 

229 
29 
251 

81 
295 

221 
51 

50 
30 

6 

10 
42 

51 

28 

88 
17 
93 

-~2g 

120 
103 

7 

19 
6 
2 

10 
9 

20 
11 

48 
9 
50 

Lumber  and  its  reman  u- 
factures 

Leather  and  its  finished 
products 

Paper  and  printing  
Liquors  and  beverages.  .  . 
Chemicals   and   allied 
products  
Clay,    glass,    and    stone 
products  
Metals  and  -metal  prod- 
ucts,  other  than  iron 
and  steel  
Tobacco.  .  . 

Vehicles  for  land  trans- 
portation. . 

Shipbuilding  
Miscellaneous  industries  . 
Hand  trades  

1  Includes  establishments  with  1  to  5  employees. 

2  Includes  establishments  with  6  to  20  employees. 

3  Includes  establishments  with  over  20  employees. 


AMERICAN   IRRIGATION. 

There  are  in  the  United  States  some 
500,000,000  acres  in  what  is  known 
as  the  Arid  Belt.  These  are  not  avail- 
able for  agriculture  until  they  have 
been  irrigated.  "It  is  now  estimated 
that  at  least  15,000,000  acres  will  be 
added  to  the  available  domain  of  the 
country  during  the  first  ten  years" 
following  the  enactment  of  a  new  law, 
"while  the  authorities  in  charge  of  the 
work  insist  that  under  its  operations 
it  will  be  possible  to  bring  into  actual 
cultivation  and  use  some  years  earlier 
than  had  been  anticipated  the  100,000 
square  miles  included  in  the  original 
estimate." 

The  new  law  referred  to  "repealed 
the  previous  enactment  permitting 


single  individuals  to  take  up  land  to 
the  amount  of  160  acres  under  the 
Homestead  timber  culture  and  pre- 
emption systems,  making  480  acres  in 
all."  It  provided,  among  other  things, 
that  160  acres  should  be  the  maximum. 
—London  "Times,"  October  31,  1903. 

POPULATION  OF  EUROPE. 

The  population  of  Europe  has  been 
carefully  estimated  at  recent  dates  by 
MM.  Levasseur  and  Bodio  with  these 
results : 

YEAR.  POPULATION. 

1900 401,098  000 

1886 346,700,000 

1880 331,000,000 

1878 325,700.000 

1860 289,000,000 

— Daily  Mail  Year  Book. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


COST  OF  MATERIALS  USED   IN  EACH  OF  THE  FIFTEEN  GROUPS 
OF  INDUSTRIES:  1900. 

[Twelfth  Census,  Vol.  VII.  page  cxxxvii.] 


Industry  Group. 

Cost  of  Materials  Used. 

Per  Cent  of  Cost  of 
Materials  to  Gross 
Value  of  Products. 

Per  Cent 
of  Cost  of 
Materials 
Purchased 
in  Raw 
State  of 
Net  Value 
of  Prod- 
ucts. 

Purchased 
in  Raw 
State. 

Purchased 
in  Partially 
Manufac- 
tured Form. 

Fuel, 
Freight, 
etc. 

Purchased 
in  Partial- 
ly Manu- 
factured 
Form. 

Purchased 
in  Raw 
State. 

Total  

$2,389,138,828 

$4,632.151,315 

$322,337,732 

35  6 

18.4 

28.6 

Food    and    kindred 
products  
Textiles  
Iron  and  steel  and 
their  products.  .  .  . 
Lumber  and  its  re- 
manufactures.  .  .  . 
Leather  and  its  fin- 
ished products.  .  .  . 
Paper  and  printing.  . 
Liquor    and    bever- 
ages 

1,279,450,388 
314,089,230 

74,781,646 
64,502,232 

134,809,625 
11,396,844 

37,340,408 
154,470,332 
18,971,906 

98,737,311 
86,709,511 

1,342,802 

523,069,057 
555,523,236 

809.668,990 
483,467,490 

254,116,050 
186,519,667 

76,346,549 
180,259,020 
48,117,117 

377,641,018 
19,023,973 

257,902,133 
32,085,640 

365,900.756 
462,510,619 

35,148,815 
26,372,330 

102,747,734 
13,440,897 

6,625,557 
16,241,912 

8.531,116 
21,422,432 

27,526,258 

20,601,039 
1,449,172 

8,966,610 
1,401,132 

20,487,518 
11,375,210 

23.0 
33.9 

45.1 
46.9 

43.5 
30.8 

17.9 
32.6 
16.4 

50.4 

6.7 

50.7 
43.0 

36.4 
39.1 

56.3 
19.2 

4.2 
6.3 

23.1 
1.9 

8.8 
27.9 
6.5 

13.2 
30.6 

0.3 

73.0 
29.0 

7.6 
11.8 

40.9 

2.7 

10.7 
41.5 
7.7 

26.6 
32.8 

0.5 

Chemicals  and  al  ied 
products  
Clay,  glass,  and  stone 
products.  .  .  . 

Metals    and    metal 
products,       other 
than      iron      and 
steel  

Tobacco   . 

Vehicles     for     land 
transportation.  .  . 
Shipbuilding  

Miscellaneous        in- 
dustries   

103,685,431 
8,851,162 

10.3 
0.7 

16.2 
1.2 

Hand  trades  

.  TOURISTS  IN  SWITZERLAND. 

The  following  figures  with  regard 
to  tourists  in  Switzerland  have  been 
compiled  by  Herr  Freuler,  of  Zurich. 

Money  paid  annually  by  visitors  to 
hotel  proprietors— between  $15,000,000 
and  $20,000,000 ;  paid  to  railway  com- 
panies, etc.,  $3.375,000;  gross  profit 
is  estimated  at  $12,375,000,  from 
which  $8,000  has  to  be  taken  for  de- 
preciation and  improvements.  The 
capital  outlay  is  estimated  at  $120,- 
000,000. 

There  are  some  1,896  hotels  and 
pensions,  etc.,  with  104,800  beds;  945 
are  only  open  in  the  season,  951  are 
open  all  the  year,  22,000  people  find 
.egular  employment  in  these  hotels, 
and  5,000  irregularly,  with  wages 
totaling  9  to  11  million  francs  and 
gratuities  amounting  to  3  1-2  to  4 
million  francs. — "  Daily  Mail  "  Year 
Book. 


JURA  TUNNEL. 

The  Grand  Council  of  the  Canton 
of  Berne,  in  the  year  1903,  agreed  to 
grant  a  subvention  for  the  construc- 
tion of  the  projected  Jura  Tunnel  for 
a  line  between  Soleure  and  Munster, 
which  will  give  access  to  the  proposed 
tunnel  through  the  Bernese  Alps  for 
communication  with  the  Simplon  Tun- 
nel. An  agreement  has  also  been  ar- 
rived at  between  the  Federal  Council 
and  the  Simplon  Tunnel  Company  by 
which  the  latter  will  receive  an  in- 
creased amount  for  the  construction 
of  the  Simplon  Tunnel,  but  will  not 
be  liberated  from  its  obligation  to  con- 
struct a  second  tunnel.  The  company 
agrees  to  transfer  the  tunnel  to  the 
Federal  Government. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


275 


iS^ii 

Jj  to  £.s 


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1900. 


DIVISION     OF     INDUSTRIES.  —  SEGMENTS 

ARE  BASED  ON  PRODUCTION  IN 

THE  CENSUS  YEAR  1890. 


276 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SUMMARY    OF    EXPORTS    OF    DOMESTIC    MERCHANDISE    DURING 

THE  YEAR  ENDING  JUNE  30,  1903. 

(Bureau  of  Statistics). 


Articles. 

Quantities. 

Values. 

AGRICULTURAL,  IMPLEMENTS: 
Mowers  and  reapers,  and  parts  of  
Plows  and  cultivators,  and  parts  of. 



Dollars. 
10,326,641 
3  169  961 

All  other,  and  parts  of  

7,510,020 

Total  
Aluminum,  and  manufactures  of  

21,006,622 
133,256 

ANIMALS: 
Cattle  
gogs  
Horses  

.  .  .  No.  .  . 
No. 
No 

402,178 
4,031 
34,007 

29,848,936 
40,923 
3  152  159 

Mules  
Sheep  

No... 
No 

4,294 
176,961 

521,725 
1  067  860 

All  other,  including  fowls.  .  . 

149  590 

Total  

Art  works  :  Paintings  and  statuary  
Asbestos,  and  manufactures  of  
Asphaltum,  and  manufactures  of  

34,781,193 

512,558 
133,427 
104  586 

Babbitt  metal  

44  635 

Bark,  and  extract  of,  for  tanning.  .  .  . 

239  ygg 

Beeswax  

Ibs 

70  811 

21  337 

Billiard  balls  

4  228 

Bird  skins.  
BLACKING  : 
^    Stove  polish  
%  All  other  

650 

198,152 
511  136 

Clones,  hoofs,  horns,  and  horn  tips,  strips,  and  waste. 

193  817 

Books,  maps,  engravings,  etchings,  and  other  pcinted 
Brass,  and  manufactures  of  

matter  

4,442,653 
2  000  432 

BREADSTUFFS  : 
Barley  

8  429  141 

4  662  544 

Bread  and  biscuit  

Ibs 

11,104,575 

589  536 

Buckwheat  
Corn  
Corn  meal  
Oats  
Oatmeal  

....  bush.  .  . 
.  .  .  .  bush.  .  . 
.  ...bbls... 
.  .  .  .  bush.  .  . 
Ibs 

117,953 
74,833,237 
451,506 
4,613,809 
67,823,935 

75,713 
40,540,637 
1,382,127 
1,850,728 
1  839  106 

Rye.  . 

5  422  731 

3143  Qlfl 

Rye  flour  
Wheat  
Wheat  flour  
Preparations  of,  for  table  food  

....bbls.. 
.    .  bush.  . 
....bbls.. 

3,757 
114,181,420 
19,716,484 

12,818 
87,795,104 
73,756,404 
2  667  409 

All  other,  for  animal  feed  — 
Bran,  middlings,  and  mill  feed  
Dried  grains  and  malt  sprouts  
All  other  

....  tons.  . 
....  tons.  . 

49,513 
73,104 

945,053 
1,320,065 
661  131 

Total  ..:. 

221  242  285 

BRICKS: 
Building 

o  7oe 

Fire  

403  598 

Total  

429  908 

Bristles  

515 

Broom  corn  

211  253 

Brooms  and  brushes.  .  .  . 

283  994 

Candles.  .  . 

Ibs 

fi  323  554 

Z-IA  7S3 

Carbon  

44.494 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


277 


SUMMARY  OF  EXPORTS  OF  DOMESTIC  MERCHANDISE— Continued. 


Articles. 

Quantities. 

Values. 

CARRIAGES,  CARS,  OTHER  VEHICLES, 
Automobiles,  and  parts  of  ......... 
Cars,  passenger  and  freight,  and  pa 
For  steam  railways  
For  other  railways  
Cycles,  and  parts  of  
All  other  carriages  and  parts  of  ... 

Total  

AND  PARTS  OF: 

"ts  of— 

Dollars. 
1,207,065 

2,687,303 
915,273 
2,132,629 
3,556,925 

10,499,195 

249,488 
419,361 
37,238 
5,118 
27,242 

219,568 
60,376 
397,965 
736,137 
619,645 
796,008 
987,067 
3,407,696 
320,122 
352,537 
5,800,480 

bbls..  . 

271,272 

Chalk,  crayons,  etc  

Charcoal  

CHEMICALS,  DRUGS,  DYES,  AND  MEDICINES: 

Ashes,  pot  and  pearl  
Baking  powder  
Copper,  sulphate  of  

.  .  Ibs.  .  . 
Ibs... 
Ibs... 

"."".".  '.'.'.  Ibs'.  '.  '. 

1,193,258 
1,178,540 
18,101,320 

"isi.oss" 

59,449,811 

Dyes  and  dyestuffs  
Ginseng  
Lime   acetate  of.  . 

Roots,  herbs,  and  barks,  not  elsewhere  specified  
Washing  powders  or  mixtures,  etc.                                           Ibs. 

'"6,322,357" 

All  other.  
Total 

13,697,601 
84,084 

4,402 
149,897 

1,091,724 
1,041,805 

Cider  

galls... 

598,119 

CLAYS: 
Fire 

All  other  
CLOCKS  AND  WATCHES: 
Clocks,  and  parts  of  
Watches,  and  parts  of  

Total  

COAL  AND  COKE: 
Coal- 
Anthracite  
Bituminous  

2,133,529 

tons.  .  . 
tons.  .  . 

1,388,653 
5,210,322 

6,732,571 
14,473,927 

Total  coal  
Coke  

6,598,975 

21,206,498 

tons. 

380,038 
4,834 

1,912,459 

15,531 
213,476 

3,295,968 
89,899 

41 
2,650 

927,417 

Coal  tar.  .  .  . 

bbls 

Cocoa,  ground  or  prepared,  and  choc< 
COFFEE: 
Raw  or  green.  . 

)late  .  . 

...Ibs... 
Ibs 

29,233,837 
535,108 

Roasted  or  prepared  
COINS,  UNITED  STATES: 
Copper  

Nickel  

COPPER  AND  MANUFACTURES  OF: 
Ore  

12,868 

Ingots,  bars,  plates,  and  old  
All  other  manufactures  of  

Ibs... 

297,056,122 

37,354,061 
2,313,135 

Total,  not  including  ore  
Copper  residue. 

39,667,196 

Ibs 

522,280 

42,385 
33,844 

Cork,  manufactures  of  

278 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SUMMARY  OF  EXPORTS  OF  DOMESTIC  MERCHANDISE— Continued. 


Articles. 


Quantities. 


Values. 


COTTON,  AND  MANUFACTURES  OF: 
Unmanufactured  — 
Sea  Island 

(  bales. 

51,688 
20,205,080 
6,886,591 
3,522,837,942 

6,938,279 
3,543,043,022 

Dollars. 

\      4,038,370 
j-  312,  142,  059 

j-  316,  180,429 

Upland  and  other 

1  1bs.  .  .  . 
.  .  .  j  bales.  .  . 
1  1bs.  .  .  . 

.  .  <  bales.  .  . 
)  Ibs.  .  .  . 

Ibs 

Total  unmanufactured  
Waste 

26,098,947 

884,842 

Manufactures  of  — 
Cloths- 
Colored 

yds 

169,511,667 
325,867,530 

8,443,148 
16,909,436 

Uncolored                                         

yds.  .  . 

Total  cloths                    

495,379,197 

25,352,584 

2,600,136 
1,294,064 
2,969,520 

32,216,304 

1,698 
401,761 

519,159 
63,900 

583,059 

325,571 

48,108 

19,975 

9,654 
1,389 
216,345 
141,257 

6,344,224 
380,077 

387,840 
935,587 
3,331,101 
636,420 

Wearing  apparel  .                   

Waste   cop  and  mill 

Ibs. 

22,997,428 

All  other 



EARTHEN,  STONE,  AND  CHINA  WARE: 
Earthen  and  stone  ware  . 

Total 



JVjrg                                                                                       

doz.  .  . 

1,517,189 

EMERY,  AND  MANUFACTURES  OF: 

Manufactures  of  — 
Cloth 

Paper     •                                     

Wheels 



Feathers                             

FERTILIZERS: 

tons. 

817,503 
16,677 

'9,1  19,620' 

All  other  

.  .  tons.  .  . 

FIBRES,  VEGETABLE,  AND  TEXTILE  GRASSES,  MANUFACTURES  OF: 
Bags                  

Ibs. 

Total                                                             

5,290,948 

60,692 

148,557 
33,632 
23,020 

7,360 
74,346 

4,350,791 
869,352 
105,228 
39,278 

FISH: 

Ibs..  . 

1,568,753 

3,043,497 
1,202,680 
467,525 

524 
19,167 

50,353,334 

Dried!  smoked,  or  cured— 

Ibs. 

Ibs.  .  . 
Ibs... 

.  .  bbls.  .  . 
bbls... 

All  other  
Pickled— 

All  nthpr                                                              

Salmon  — 

..  .....Ibs... 

All  other,  fresh  or  cured.  .  .  ...  ...... 

Caviare.  .  . 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


279 


SUMMARY  OF  EXPORTS  OF  DOMESTIC  MERCHANDISE— Continued. 


Articles. 

Quantities. 

Values. 

FISH—  (Continued). 
Shellfish— 

Dollars. 
630,935 

All  other 

296  307 

All  other  fish  and  fish  products.  .                      

77,776 

Total                                                                    

6,717,274 

Flowers   cut  .                                                

5,290 

38,579 

FRUITS  AND  NUTS: 
Fruits  — 

39,646,297 

2,378,635 

Apples,  green  or  ripe  bbls.  .  . 
Apricots   dried                                                                      .      Ibs.  .  . 

1,656,129 
9,190,081 

4,381,801 
713,887 

465  397 

Prunes                                                                                 Ibs.  .  . 

66,385,215 

3,512,507 

4,280,028 

284,530 

All  other  green,  ripe,  or  dried  
Preserved  — 
Canned                                                        

4,215,034 
1,739,571 

All  other 

66,757 

Nuts.  .                                                              

299,558 

Total.  .  .                                     

18,057,677 

^124  856 

Furs  and  fur  skins.  .  .                                       .        

6,188,115 

Ginger  ale                                                                                   doz.  qts. 

1,501 

1  911 

GLASS  AND  GLASSWARE: 
Window  glass  
All  other.  .                                                                   

59,519 
2,091,180 

Total.  .  .                                                                   

2,150,699 

Glucose  or  grape  sugar.  .  .        ...                         Ibs.  .  . 

126,239,981 

2,460,022 

Glue                                                                                                       Ibs. 

2,569,164 

253  768 

Goldbeaters'  skins  
Graphite 

1  140 
12*246 

Grasses,  dried  (Pampas  plumes,  etc.)  

15,294 

Grease,  grease  scraps,  and  all  soap  stock  
GUNPOWDER  AND  OTHER  EXPLOSIVES: 

1,112,490 

2,926,565 
151  658 

2  302  852 

Total  



2,454,510 

Hair,  and  manufactures  of 

616  133 

50  974 

828  483 

Hides  and  skins,  other  than  furs.                                    .              Ibs. 

12,859  549 

1  224  409 

Honey 

64  220 

Hops  Ibs..  . 
Household  and  personal  effects.  .  . 

7,794,705 

1,909,951 
2  652  783 

Ice                                                                                                       tons 

19  626 

41  073 

INDIA  RUBBER,  MANUFACTURES  OF: 
India  rubber,  reclaimed  

93  265 

India  rubber,  scrap  and  old.  .  . 

404  586 

Belting,  hose,  and  packing  

819,985 

Boots  and  shoes  pairs.  .  . 
All  other.  .  . 

2,307,401 

1,056,491 
2  299  875 

Total 



4  674  202 

INK: 

Printers'.  ...                           .  .                           

220  544 

All  other.  ,  . 

138.103 

280 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SUMMARY  OF  EXPORTS  OF  DOMESTIC  MERCHANDISE— Continued. 


Articles. 


INSTRUMENTS  AND  APPARATUS  FOR  SCIENTIFIC  PURPOSES: 
Electrical  appliances,  including  telegraph  and  telephone  in- 
struments  

All  other.  . . 


Quantities. 


IRON  AND  STEEL,  AND  MANUFACTURES  OF: 
Iron  ore 


tons. 


.  .  .tons..  . 

...  tons. .  . 

...  tons. .  . 

Ibs... 

Ibs... 

Ibs... 

.  .  .tons..  . 
Ibs... 

.  .  .tons. .  . 
.  .  tons. .  . 


Pig  iron — 

Ferro-manganese 

All  other 

Scrap  and  old,  fit  only  for  reman ufacture 

Bar  Iron 

Bars  or  rods  of  steel — 

Wire  rods 

All  other 

Billets,  ingots,  and  blooms 

Hoop,  band,  and  scroll 

Rails  for  railways — 

Iron 

Steel 

Sheets  and  plates — 

Iron Ibs. .  . 

Steel Ibs... 

Tin  plates,  terne  plates,  and  taggers  tin Ibs. .  . 

Structural  iron  and  steel .  .  tons. .  . 

Wire Ibs... 

Builders'  hardware,  saws,  and  tools — 

Locks,  hinges,  and  other  builders'  hardware 

Saws 

Tools,  not  elsewhere  specified. 

Car  wheels No. .  . 

Castings,  not  elsewhere  specified 

Cutlery- 
Table 

All  other 

Firearms > 

Machinery,  machines,  and  parts  of — 

Cash  registers No. .  . 

Electrical  machinery '. 

Laundry  machinery 

Metal  working  machinery 

Printing  presses,  and  parts  of 

Pumps  and  pumping  machinery 

Sewing  machines,  and  parts  of.     

Shoe  machinery 

Steam  engines,  and  parts  of — 

Fire No. .  . 

Locomotive No. .  . 

Stationary No. .  . 

Boilers,  and  parts  of  engines 

Typewriting  machines,  and  parts  of 

All  other 

Nails  and  spikes — 

Cut .  .  Ibs. .  . 

Wire Ibs. .  . 

All  other,  including  tacks Ibs. .  . 

Pipes  and  fittings 

Safes No. .  . 

Scales  and  balances 

Stoves,  ranges,  and  parts  of 

All  other  manufactures  of  iron  and  steel 

Total,  not  including  ore 

Ivory,  manufactures  of,  and  scrap 

Jewelers'  ashes  and  sweepings 

JEWELRY,  AND  OTHER  MANUFACTURES  OF  GOLD  AND  SILVER: 

Jewelry 

All  other  manufactures  of  gold  and  silver 

Lamps,  chandeliers,  and  all  other  devices  for  illuminating  purposes. 


77,220 


18,198 

6,043 
40,583,205 

71,360,171 

30,447,664 

2,127 

3,740,234 

81 
22,896 

6,491,690 

31,680,206 

1,555,146 

32,952 

224,153,085 


22,106 


16,786 


10 

289 

1,459 


16,129,436 
62,997,105 
5,556,014 


2,933 


939,797 

353,224 

1,133,290 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


281 


SUMMARY  OF  EXPORTS  OF  DOMESTIC  MERCHANDISE— Continued. 


Articles. 


Quantities. 


Values. 


LEAD,  AND  MANUFACTURES  OF:  Dollars. 

Pigs,  bars,  and  old Ibs. .  .              308,807  15,527 

Type Ibs. .  .              407,647  137,875 

All  other  manufactures  of 299,300 

LEATHER,  AND  MANUFACTURES  OF: 

Sole  leather Ibs,.  .         37,428,437  6,920,467 

Upper  leather — 

Kid,  glazed   ! 1,995,200 

Patent  or  enameled 122,782 

Splits,  buff,  grain,  and  all  other  upper i 13,493,499 

All  other  leather i 982,251 

Manufactures  of — 

Boots  and  shoes pairs. .  .  I         4,197,566  6,665,017 

Harness  and  saddles 373,677 

All  other 1,064,496 

Total 31,617,389 

Lime.  .  .                                                                                           .  .bbls..  .                39,658  32,694 

Malt bush. .  .              347,147  252,801 

MARBLE  AND  STONE,  AND  MANUFACTURES  OF: 

Unmanufactured 194,879 

Manufactures  of — 

Roofing  slate 628,612 

All  other 641,753 

Total 1,465,244 

Matches.  .  56,330 

Metal  polish i 32,274 

Mica | 4,615 

Mineral  specimens i 10,306 

Moss  and  seaweeds I 46,499 

Mucilage 12,563 

MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS: 

Organs No. .  .                15,986  1,137,713 

Pianofortes No. .  .                  2,019  419,029 

All  other,  and  parts  of 1,824,767 

Total i 3,381,509 

Natural  history  specimens 13,119 

NAVAL  STORES: 

Rosin bbls. .  .  i         2,396,498  4,817,052 

Tar bbls. .  .  '              18,622  50,802 

Turpentine  and  pitch bbls  .  .                15,972  36,379 

Turpentine,  spirits  of  .  .                                                   galls. .  .         16,378,787  8,014,322 

Total 12,918,708 

NICKEL: 

Oxide  and  matte Ibs. .  .  i         2,997,400  864,221 

Manufactures  of '.   97,787 

Notions,  not  elsewhere  specified 186,653 

Nursery  stock .  .  158,959 

Oakum 26,740 

OIL  CAKE  AND  OIL-CAKE  MEAL: 

Corn-oil  cake Ibs. .  .           8,093,222  95,568 

Cotton-seed Ibs. .  .    1  100,392,988  12,732,497 

Flaxseed  or  linseed Ibs. .  .  |     570.908.149  7,011,214 

Total !  1,679,394,359  19,839,279 

OILCLOTHS: 

For  floors 56,902 

All  other i .  .  . 164,515 


282 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SUMMARY  OF  EXPORTS  OF  DOMESTIC  MERCHANDISE— Continued. 


Articles. 

Quantities. 

Values. 

OILS: 
Animal  — 
Fish 

galls 

1,293,393 
356,658 
19,092 
221,669 

Dollars. 
377,551 
306,334 
13,174 
159,505 

Lard  
Whale.  .  . 

galls... 
galls. 

All  other  

galls... 

Total  animal 

1,890,812 

856,564 

Mineral,    crude,    including  all   natural   oils, 
gravity  

Mineral,  refined  or  manufactured  — 
Naphthas,  including  all  lighter  products  ( 
Illuminating  
Lubricating,  and  heavy  paraffin  
Residuum,  including  tar,  and  all  other, 
bodies  have  been  distilled  

Total  refined  or  manufactured  

Vegetable- 
Corn.  .  .  . 

•without   regard   to 
galls... 

}f  distillation.  galls.  .  . 
galls... 
galls.  .  . 
from  which  the  light 
bbls... 

134,892,170 

6,329,899 

13,139,228 
699,807,201 
93,318,257 

542,893 

1,225,661 
47,078,931 
12,052,927 

566,115 

60,923,634 

1,467,493 
14,211,244 
98,116 

34,943 
252,770 
169,796 

galls. 

3,788,035 
35,642,994 
182,330 

13,033 

Cotton  seed  
Linseed  

galls.  .  . 
galls.  . 

Volatile  or  essential  — 
Peppermint  
All  other 

Ibs... 

All  other  vegetable  
Total  vegetable  

16,234,362 

PAINTS,  PIGMENTS,  AND  COLORS: 
Carbon  black,  gas  black,  and  lamp  black.  .  .  . 

299,587 

Ibs 

11  091,960 

446  786 

All  other  

1,604,564 

Total  

PAPER,  AND  MANUFACTURES  OF: 
Paper  hangings 

2,350,937 
256,243 

Printing  paper  
Writing  paper  and  envelopes  
All  other  

..Ibs... 

97,880,037 

2,613,117 
901,700 
3,408,954 

Total   .  . 

7,180,014 

Paraffin  and  paraffin  wax  
Paste.  . 

..Ibs... 

201,325,210 

9,411,294 
5,631 

Pencils  
Pens  and  penholders  

186,363 
66,317 

Perfumery  and  cosmetics.  .  . 

390  502 

Photographic  materials  
Plaster,  builders'.  .  . 

758,320 
50,427 

Plaster  of  Paris  
Plated  ware  
Platinum   and  manufactures  of,  and  scrap 

21,459 
662,708 
15,786 

PROVISIONS,  COMPRISING  MEAT  AND  DAIRY  PRODUCTS: 
Meat  products  — 
Beef  products  — 

Ibs. 

76,307,114 

7  916,928 

Beef,  fresh  
Beef  salted  or  pickled.  .  .  . 

..Ibs... 
Ibs. 

254,795,963 
52,801,220 

25,013,323 
3,814,671 

Ibs 

1,126  032 

102,184 

Tallow  
Hog  products  — 
Bacon              .             

..Ibs... 
.  .Ibs..  . 

27,368,924 
207,336,000 

1,623,852 
22,178,525 

Ibs. 

214,183,365 

25,712,633 

Pork,  canned  

.  .  Ibs.  .  . 

13,590,897 

1,369,687 

Pork,  fresh  
Pork   salted  or  pickled. 

..Ibs... 
Ibs. 

20,966,113 
95,287,374 

2,035,491 
9,959,762 

Lard.  . 

..Ibs... 

490,755,821 

50,854,504 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SUMMARY  OF  EXPORTS  OF  DOMESTIC  MERCHANDISE— Continued. 


Articles. 

Quantities. 

Values. 

PROVISIONS,  COMPRISING  MEAT,  ETC.  —  Continued. 
Lard   compounds,    and   substitutes   for   (cottolene,   lardine, 
etc.)  Ibs..  . 

46,130,004 
6,144,020 

126,010,339 
7,645,652 

Dollars. 

3,607,542 
532,476 

11,981,888 
798,273 
1,079,056 
585,088 
1,964,524 

1,831,940 
2,101,785 

1,604,327 
2,250,229 
921,026 

Mutton 

Ibs 

Oleo  and  oleomargarine  — 
Oleo,  the  oil.  .  .  . 

Ibs 

Oleomargarine,  imitation  butter.  . 
Poultry  and  game.  . 

Ibs... 

Sausage  and  sausage  meats  . 
Sausage  casings  

Ibs... 

5,264,648 

All  other  meat  products  — 
Canned  

All  other 

Dairy  products  — 
Butter 

Ibs 

8,896,166 
18,987,178 

Cheese  

Ibs. 

Milk 

Total.  .  .            

179,839,714 

762,201 
3,976 
89,710 
27,048 
122,589 

Quicksilver   .          

Ibs. 

1,415,464 

Quills    crude  and  prepared.  . 

Rags  and  paper  stock  

Rice  
Rice  bran   meal   and  polish 

Ibs... 
Ibs 

532,092 
19,218,356 

Roofing  felt  and  paper  
Root  beer        

104,280 
834 
70,296 
73,956 

1,549,687 
532,732 
5,698,492 
853,829 
581,773 
238,770 

doz   qts 

949 
16,446,380 

Salt                  

....    .Ibs.. 

Sand                       

SEEDS: 
Clover  

..Ibs... 

15,522,527 
51,622,370 
4,128,130 
18,289,917 

Cotton. 

Ibs... 
bush. 

Flaxseed  or  linseed 

Timothy.  ...                                   .... 

Ibs... 

Other  grass  se^ds 

All  other.  .                                 

Total 



9,455,283 

94,766 
57,406 

412,415 
19,968 

573,588 
1,879,189 

2,452,777 

44,915 

36,787 

1,082,982 
95,758 

Shells 

Shoe  findings.  ...                                   ... 

SILK: 

Waste 

Ibs... 

149,400 

SOAP: 

All  other  . 

Ibs.    . 

46,590,354 

Total.  .  . 

Spermaceti  and  spermaceti  wax 

Ibs. 

197,966 

Spices  

SPIRITS,  WINES,  AND  MALT  LIQUORS: 
Malt  liquors  — 
In  bottles 

doz   qts 

759,027 
400,072 

In  other  coverings  
Total  malt  liquors 

galls... 

1,178,740 

Spirits,  distilled  — 
Alcohol  — 
Wood.  .  . 

proof  galls. 

833,629 

120,697 
18,117 
1,096,719 

452,892 

23,510 
19,213 
1,458,393 

All  other,  including  pure,  neutral, 
Brandy 

or  cologne  spirits 
proof  galls.  .  . 
proof  galls. 

Rum  

proof  galls.  .  . 

284 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SUMMARY  OF  EXPORTS  OF  DOMESTIC  MERCHANDISE— Continued. 


Articles. 


SPIRITS,  ETC. — Continued. 

Whisky- 
Bourbon 

Rye 

All  other.  .  . 


Quantities. 


^  proof  galls. 

.".proof  galls. 

proof  galls. 


Total  spirits,  distilled 

Wine- 
In  bottles doz.  qts. . 

In  other  coverings galls. . 

Total  wines.    

Total  spirits,  wines,  and  malt  liquors 

Sponges .  .Ibs. . 

Starch Ibs. . 

Stereotype  and  electrotype  plates 

Straw 

Straw  and  palm  leaf,  manufactures  of 

SUGAR,  MOLASSES,  AND  CONFECTIONERY: 

Molasses galls. . 

Sirup galls. '. 

Sugar — 

Brown Ibs. . 

Refined Ibs. . 

Total 


104,236 
48,014 

2,390,808 


5,232 
678,150 


95,159 
27,759,599 


3,413,387 
12,265,295 

99,101 
10,421,055 


Candy  and  confectionery. 

535,412 

Teasels  

34,258 

Teeth,  artificial  

4,715 

Theatrical  effects,  etc.  .  . 

41,656 

TINS: 
Matte  and  scrap.  .  . 

6,611 

Manufactures  of.  .  . 

656,096 

TOBACCO,  AND  MANUFACTURES  OF: 
Unm  anuf  actured  — 
Leaf  

Ibs 

357,496,342            34,972,033 

Stems  and  trimmings  

Ibs... 

10,687,742     |            278,860 

Total  unmanufactured  

368,184,084     >       35,250,893 

Manufactures  of  — 
Cigars  

M 

1,966                   46  962 

Cigarettes. 

M 

1  456  452              2  281  531 

Plug  

Ibs 

7,335,640              1,683  152 

All  other  

1  182  151 

Total  manufactures.  . 

5  193  796 

Toys  
Tripoli  

281,591 
20  262 

Trunks,  valises,  and  traveling  bags  
Varnish  
Vegetables: 
Beans  and  pease.  .  .  . 

..'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.galls..'.' 

188,875 
660,553                 667,475 

232  841                 530  875 

Onions.  .  . 

145  509                 116  624 

Potatoes  
Vegetables,  canned  

bush.  .  . 

843,075                 552,533 
597,759 

All  other,  including  pickles  and  sauces.  .  . 

745  697 

Total  

0    KA<1    AQO 

VESSELS  SOLD  ABROAD: 
Steamers  

No 

123                 196  164 

Sailing  vessels  

No 

Total..  . 

123                  196.164 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


285 


SUMMARY  OF  EXPORTS  OF  DOMESTIC  MERCHANDISE— Continued. 


Articles. 


Quantities. 


Vinegar galls. .  .  103,417 

Vulcanized  fiber ; 

Wax,  shoemakers' 

Whalebone Ibs. .  .  [  113,204 

White  metal 

WOOD,  AND  MANUFACTURES  OF: 

Timber  and  unmanufactured  wood — 

Sawed M  feet 530,659 

Hewn cubic  feet. .  .          3,291,498 

Logs,  and  other 

Lumber — 

Boards,  deals,  and  planks M  feet. .  .  1,065,771 

Joists  and  scantling M  feet. .  .  46,894 

Shingles M. .  .  38,211 

Shocks- 
Box 

All  other No. .  .  566,205 

Staves No. .  .        55,879,010 

Heading 

All  other 

Total  unmanufactured 

Manufactures  of — 

Doors,  sash,  and  blinds 

Furniture,  not  elsewhere  specified ! 

Hogsheads  and  barrels,  empty ; 

Trimmings,  moldings,  and  other  house  finishings 

Wooden  ware 

Wood  pulp Ibs. .  .        22,464,472 

All  other j 

Total  manufactures 1 

Total  wood,  and  manufactures  of ! 

WOOL,  AND  MANUFACTURES  OF: 

Wool,  raw Ibs. .  .  _        518,919 

Manufactures  of — 

Carpets , yds. .  .  69,337 

Dress  goods yds. .  .  7,719 

Flannels  and  blankets 

Wearing  apparel 

All  other 

Total  manufactures 

Yeast 

ZINC,  AND  MANUFACTURES  OF: 
Unmanufactured — 

Dross 

Ore tons. .  .  48,731 

Manufactures  of — 

Pigs,  bars,  plates,  and  sheets Ibs. .  .  I         3,539,071 

All  other ' 

Total  manufactures 285,673 

All  other  articles 150,315 

Total  value  of  exports  of  domestic  merchandise 1,392,231,302 

Carried  in  cars  and  other  land  vehicles 129,189,875 

CARRIED  IN  AMERICAN  VESSELS: 

Steam 

Sailing 

CARRIED  IN  FOREIGN  VESSELS: 

Steam 1,114,951,632 

Sailing 59,730,133 


286 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


MERCHANDISE    IMPORTED    AND    EXPORTED,    AND    THE    ANNUAL 

EXCESS  OF  IMPORTS  OR  OF  EXPORTS,  1860  TO  1903— 

SPECIE    VALUES. 


Year 
end- 

Exports. 

Total  Ex- 

Excess of 

Excess  of 

ing 
June 
30 

Domestic. 

Foreign. 

Total. 

Imports. 

ports  and 
Imports. 

over 
Imports. 

over 
Exports. 

1860 
1861 
1862 

Dollars. 

316,242,423 
204,899,616 
179,644,024 

Dollars. 

17,333,634 
14,654,217 
11,026,477 

Dollars. 

333,576,057 
219,553,833 
190,670,501 

Dollars. 

353,616,119 
289,310,542 
189,356,677 

Dollars. 

687,192,176 
508,864,375 
380,027,178 

Dollars. 

1.  3  1  3,824 

Dollars. 

20,040,662 
69,756,709 

1863 

186,003,912 

17,960,535 

203,964,447 

243,335,815 

447,300,262 

39  371  368 

1864 
1865 
1866 

143,504,027 
136,940,248 
337,518,102 

15,333,961 
29,089,055 
11,341,420 

158,337,988 
166,029,303 
348,859,522 

316,447,283 
238,745,580 
434,812,066 

475,285,271 
404,774,883 
783,671,588 

157,609,295 
72,716,277 
85,952,544 

1867 
1868 

279,786,809 
269,389,900 

14,719,332 
12,562,999 

294,506,141 
281,952,899 

395,761,096 
357,436,440 

690,267,237 
639,389,339 

101,254,955 
75  483  541 

1869 
1870 

275,166,697 
376,616,473 

10,951,000 
16,155,295 

286,117,697 
392,771,768 

417,506,379 
435,958,408 

703,624,076 
828,730,176 

131,388,682 
43  186  640 

1871 
1872 

428,398,908 
428,487,131 

14,421S270 
15,690,455 

442,820,178 
444,177,586 

520,223,684 
626,595,077 

963,043,862 
,070,772,663 

77,403,506 
182,417  491 

1873 

1874 

505,033,439 
569,433,421 

17,446,483 
16,849,619 

522,479,922 
586,283,040 

642,136,210 
567,406,342 

,164,616,132 
,153,689,382 

18,876,698 

119,656,288 

1875 

499,284,100 

14,158,611 

513,442,711 

533,005,436 

,046,448,147 

19,562,725 

1876 
1877 
1878 
1879 
1880 
1881 
1882 
1883 

525,582,247 
589,670,224 
680,709,268 
698,340,790 
823,946,353 
883,925,947 
733,239,732 
804,223,632 

14,802,424 
12,804,996 
14,156,498 
12,098,651 
11,692,305 
18,451,399 
17.302,525 
19,615,770 

540,384,671 
602,475,220 
694,865,766 
710,439,441 
835,638,658 
902,377,346 
750,542,257 
823,839,402 

460,741,190 
451,323,126 
437,051,532 
445,777,775 
667,954,746 
642,664,628 
724,639,574 
723,180,914 

,001,125,861 
,053,798,346 
,131,917,298 
,156,217,216 
,503,593,404 
,545,041,974 
,475,181,831 
,547,020,316 

79,643,481 
151,152,094 
257,814,234 
264,661,666 
167,683,912 
259,712,718 
25,902,683 
100,658,488 

1884 
1885 
1886 
1887 
1888 

724,964,852 
726,682,946 
665,964,529 
703,022,923 
683,862,104 

15,548,757 
15,506,809 
13,560,301 
10,160,288 
12,092,403 

740,510,609 
742,189,755 
679,524,830 
716,183,211 
695,954,507 

667,697,693 
577,527,329 
635,436,136 
692,319,768 
723,957,114 

,408,211,302 
,319,717,084 
,314,960,966 
,408,502,979 
,419,911,621 

72,815,916 
164,662,426 
44,088,694 
23,863,443 

28,002,607 

1889 

730,282,609 

12,118,766 

742,401,375 

745,131,652 

,487,533,027 

2,730,277 

1890 

845,293,828 

12,534,856 

857,828,684 

789,310,409 

,647,139,093 

68,5i8,275 

1891 

1892 

872,270,283 
1,015,732,011 

12,210,327 
14,546,137 

884,480,810 
1,030,278,148 

844,C16,196 
827,402,462 

,729,397,006 
,857,680,610 

39,564,614 
202,875,686 

1893 

831,030,785 

16,634,409 

847,665,194 

866,400,922 

,714  066,116 

18,735,728 

1894 
1895 

869,204,937 
793,392,599 

22,935,635 
14,145,566 

892,140,572 
807,538,165 

654,994,622 
731,969,965 

,547,135,194 
1,539,508,130 

237,145,950 
75,568,200 

1896 
1897 

863,200,487 
,032,007,603 

19,406,451 
18,985,953 

882,606,938 
,050,993,556 

779,724,674 
764,730,412 

1,662,331,612 
1,815,723,968 

102,882,264 
286,263,144 

1898 
1899 

,210,291,913 
,203,931,222 

21,190,417 
23,092,080 

,201,482,330 
,227,023,302 

616,049,654 
697,148,489 

1,847,531,984 
1,924,171,791 

615,432,676 
529,874,813 

1900 

,370,763,571 

23,719,511 

,394,483,082 

849,941,184 

2  244  424  266 

544  541,898 

1901 
1902 
1903 

,460,462,806 
,355,481,861 
,392,231,302 

27,302,185 
26,237,540 
27,910,377 

,487,764,991 
,381,719,401 
1,420,141,679 

823,172,165 
903,320,948 
1,025,719,237 

2,310,937,156 
2,285,040,349 
2,445,860,916 

664,592,826 
478,398,453 
394,422,442 

— Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United  States. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


287 


UNITED    STATES    TRADE  -  IN    1903. 


INCREASED  TRADE  WITH  CANADA TRADE  WITH  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  THE  EMPIRE. 

By  Hon.  O.  P.  Austin,  Chief  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Statistics. 


The  commerce  of  the  United  States 
in  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1903, 
has  been  the  largest  in  the  history  of 
the  country.  This  is  true  both  of  in- 
ternal and  foreign  commerce.  In  the 
case  of  foreign  commerce  it  is  easily 
shown  from  the  official  figures  of  the 
imports  and  exports  of  the  year.  In 
the  case  of  internal  commerce,  conclu- 
sions can  be  drawn  from  certain  great 
facts  of  production,  transportation, 
and  importation  for  manufacturing 
purposes. 

The  total  foreign  commerce  of  the 
year  amounted  to  practically  2  1-2  bil- 
lions of  dollars,  and  the  internal  com- 
merce to  fully  twenty  billions  of  dol- 
lars. 

As  already  indicated,  the  measure- 
ment of  the  internal  commerce  of  the 
country  is  not  easy,  but  there  are  cer- 
tain great  factors  of  production,  trans- 
portation, and  the  activity  of  the  man- 
ufacturing industry,  which  make  pos- 
sible a  fair  statement  of  the  internal 
commerce. 

The  Census  states  the  value  of  the 
great  products  of  the  country,  such  as 
manufactures,  agricultural  products, 
the  products  of  the  forests,  the  fisher- 
ies, etc. ;  and  by  taking  these  great  fac- 
tors as  a  basis  and  calculating  for  but 
a  single  transaction  in  each  of  them,  we 
get  a  grand  total  of  20  billions  of  dol- 
lars value,  a  sum  practically  equal  to 
the  international  commerce  of  the 
world. 

The  last  census  showed  the  gross 
value  of  manufactures  in  1900  to  be 
13  billions  of  dollars;  the  value  of  the 
agricultural  products,  nearly  4  bil- 
lions ;  products  of  the  mines,  a  billion 
dollars ;  and  adding  to  these  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  forests,  fisheries  and  mis- 
cellaneous, and  the  cost  of  transporta- 
tion to  the  consumer,  it  becomes  ap- 
parent that  a  single  transaction  in 
each  article  would  bring  the  total  up  to 
20  billions  of  dollars.  And  all  of  the 
records  of  production  and  transporta- 
tion for  1903  show  that  its  activities 
were  even  greater  than  those  of  the 
census  year.  Every  factory  was  busy  ; 
the  railroads,  even  though  equipped 
with  additional  carrying  facilities, 
were  working  up  to  the  limit  of  their 
capacity,  and  the  reports  of  the  Bu- 


reau of  Statistics  from  the  great  lake- 
carrying  trade  showed  a  larger  busi- 
ness than  in  any  preceding  year. 

This  record  of  the  freight  movement 
on  the  Great  Lakes  is  an  important 
index  to  the  activities  of  the  country, 
both  in  production  and  manufacturing. 
The  section  of  the  country  fronting  on 
Lake  Superior  is  a  great  producer  of 
wheat  and  of  iron  ore  and  copper.  So 
the  record  of  movements  of  freight 
through  the  canals  connecting  Supe- 
rior with  the  lower  lakes  is  an  impor- 
tant indication  of  the  demand  of  the 
great  manufacturing  section  for  iron 
and  copper,  and  of  the  supply  which 
that  great  region  has  of  agricultural 
products  for  distribution  to  the  world. 
The  records  of  the  Bureau  of  Statis- 
tics for  the  month  of  June  and  the 
portion  of  the  navigation  year  ending 
with  June  shows  a  greater  movement 
of  freight  through  these  canals  than  in 
any  preceding  year. 

That  the  iron  furnaces  and  works  of 
the  country  vyere  working  up  to  their 
highest  capacity  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  despite  the  high  prices  which  pre- 
vailed, the  consumers  of  the  country 
were  compelled  to  turn  to  foreign 
countries  to  obtain  a  part  of  the  iron 
and  steel  which  they  required ;  the  im- 
ports of  iron  and  steel  being  greater  in 
1903  than  in  many  years. 

The  pig  iron  produced  in  the  United 
States  in  the  calendar  year  1902 
amounted  to  17,821,307  gross  tons. 
This  makes  the  pig-iron  production  of 
the  United  States  in  1902  larger  than 
that  of  any  two  other  countries  of  the 
world.  The  pig-iron  production  of 
1902  is  double  that  of  1896.  and  more 
than  three  times  that  of  1886. 

Yet,  despite  this  unparalleled  pro- 
duction, the  importations  of  iron  and 
steel  were  greater  in  value  in  the  fiscal 
year  1903  than  in  any  year  since  1891, 
and  with  that  single  exception,  greater 
than  in  any  year  since  1883.  The 
above  facts  regarding  the  production 
and  importation  of  iron  and  steel  are 
stated  somewhat  in  detail  because  of 
the  general  belief  that,  in  the  United 
States  at  least,  the  consumption  of  iron 
and  steel  is  a  reliable  index  of  the 
business  activity  of  the  country.  If 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


this  be  true,  it  may  be  safely  asserted 
that  the  business  of  the  year  1903  has 
exceeded  in  value  that  of  any  of  its 
predecessors. 

LABOR. — Another  indication  of  the 
general  activity  was  the  difficulty  re- 
ported everywhere  in  obtaining  labor. 
This  was  especially  noticeable  during 
the  harvest  season.  The  crop  was 
abundant,  and  the  demand  for  labor 
far  in  excess  of  the  supply,  so 
much  so  that  reports  from  the  West 
showed  that  in  some  cases  farmers 
flagged  railroad  trains  and  after  stop- 
ping them  passed  through  the  trains 
soliciting  the  passengers  to  step  off 
and  accept  employment  in  the  harvest 
field.  Curiously  these  incidents  were 
reported  especially  from  the  State  of 
Kansas,  which  a  few  years  ago  was 
the  scene  of  the  greatest  discontent 
because  of  the  crop  shortage,  heavy 
farm  indebtedness,  and  general  con- 
ditions of  financial  depression.  But 
the  same  general  reports  of  difficulty 
of  obtaining  labor,  especially  in  the 
agricultural  districts,  came  from  all 
parts  of  the  country- 

IMMIGRATION. — One  effect  of  the 
prosperity  and  general  demand  for  la- 
bor in  the  United  States  in  the  past 
few  years  is  noticeable  in  the  in- 
creased immigration.  The  number  of 
immigrants  entering  the  United  States 
in  1903  was  larger  than  in  any  pre- 
ceding year.  The  total  number  of  im- 
migrants entering  the  United  States 
in  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30.  1903, 
was  857,056.  This  was  25  per  cent,  in 
excess  of  any  preceding  year,  practi- 
cally twice  as  many  as  in  1900,  and 
about  four  times  as  many  as  in  1898. 

The  attractions  in  the  United  States 
seem  to  have  resulted  in  a  marked  in- 
crease in  the  immigration  from  the 
United  Kingdom,  though  the  largest 
increase  is  from  the  countries  of  south- 
ern Europe  and  Russia.  The  arrivals 
from  England  in  the  fiscal  year  1903 
were  26,219  against  13,571  in  1902; 
those  from  Scotland.  6,153  against 
2,560  in  1902;  and  those  from  Ire- 
land, 35,300  against  29,138  in  1902. 
From  Germany  the  number  was  40,- 
086  against  28,304  in  the  preceding 
year.  The  largest  increase,  however, 
was  from  Italy,  Austria-Hungary,  and 
Russia.  The  number  from  Italy  was 
230622,  against  178.375  in  the  pre- 
ceding year ;  from  Austria-Hungary, 
206,011  ~  against  171,889  in  the  pre- 
ceding year ;  and  from  Russia,  136,093 
against  107,347  in  1902. 

The  reviews  of  the  statistics  of  im- 
migration which  this  unprecedented 


flood  of  arrivals  has  suggested  show 
that  the  total  number  of  immigrants 
arriving  in  the  United  States  since 
1800  is  over  21  millions,  and  the  num- 
ber of  persons  of  foreign  birth  now 
residing  in  the  country,  over  10  mil- 
lions. Notwithstanding  the  demand 
for  labor  in  the  agricultural  sections, 
however,  the  bulk  of  this  large  im- 
migration remains  in  the  cities.  There 
is  a  great  demand  for  labor  in  the 
manufacturing  towns  and  cities,  and 
they  absorb  a  large  proportion  of  the 
arrivals,  while  the  mining  regions  also 
draw  largely  upon  the  new  arrivals. 
This  is  especially  true  of  the  people 
from  southern  Europe  and  Russia,  the 
chief  additions  to  the  agricultural  pop- 
ulation being  those  from  Norway, 
Sweden,  and  Germany. 

The  foreign  commerce  of  the  year 
1903,  as  already  indicated,  was  the 
largest  in  the  history  of  the  country. 
This  statement,  however,  relates  to  the 
commerce  as  a  whole,  combining  im- 
ports and  exports  under  that  term. 
In  imports  the  figures  of  the  year 
were  the  largest  in  the  history  of  the 
country,  but  in  exports  the  figures 
were  slightly  below  the  high  record  of 
1900.  The  total  imports  were  $1,025,- 
000,000,  and  the  total  exports  $1,420,- 
000,000.  These  figures,  it  will  be  ob- 
served, are  stated  in  round  millions, 
because  they  are  more  readily  assim- 
ilated in  this  form. 

This  increase  of  imports  and  de- 
crease of  exports  was  doubtless  due  in 
both  cases  to  the  general  prosperity 
and  business  activity  already  noted. 

IMPORTS. — The  increase  in  imports 
was  chiefly  in  material  for  use  in 
manufacturing,  though  there  was  a  very 
considerable  increase  in  importation  of 
finished  manufactures.  This  is  quite 
natural  in  a  time  of  business  prosper- 
ity, when  money  is  plentiful.  The  in- 
crease in  importations  of  manufac- 
tures ready  for  consumption  amounted 
to  about  28  million  dollars  compared 
with  the  preceding  year,  and  of  dia- 
monds and  other  precious  stones,  about 
7  millions.  In  manufacturing  mate- 
rial, however,  the  importations  showed 
the  greatest  growth.  In  raw  material 
for  use  in  manufacturing  the  importa- 
tions of  the  year  were  48  million  dol- 
lars in  excess  of  the  preceding  year, 
and  in  partly  manufactured  material 
for  use  in  manufacturing,  the  increase 
was  23  millions,  making  the  total  in- 
crease in  manufacturing  materials  im- 
ported over  70  million  dollars  as  com- 
pared with  the  preceding  year. 

The  increase  in  partly  manufactured 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


289 


materials  was  chiefly  in  pig-iron,  plates 
and  bars  of  iron,  etc.  The  increase  in 
raw  materials  was  chiefly  in  raw  silk, 
fibres,  tin  chemicals,  india-rubber,  and 
other  articles  of  this  character. 

EXPORTS. — In  exports  the  reduction 
was  doubtless  due  to  the  unusual  home 
demand  both  for  foodstuffs  and  manu- 
factures. Exports  of  iron  and  steel 
were  25  million  dollars  below  those  of 

1900,  and  those  of  agricultural  prod- 
ucts were  70  millions  below  those  of 

1901.  Yet  the   iron   and  steel  manu- 
facturing establishments  of  the  coun- 
try   were   turning   out   more    of   their 
products  than  ever  before,  and  the  ag- 
ricultural    production     of     1903     was 
quite  up  to  the  usual  total  in  most  of 
the  great  staples. 

TJ.  S.  COLONIAL  TRADE. — One  inter- 
esting development  of  the  year  1903, 
and  one  which  attracted  some  atten- 
tion because  of  its  novelty,  was  the 
announcement  that  the  commerce  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  its  non- 
contiguous territory  amounted  to  100 
million  dollars  in  1903.  This  was 
the  first  time  that  the  country  had 
a  clear  view  of  the  value  of  its  com- 
merce with  the  colonies,  or  noncon- 
tiguous territory,  as  they  are  general- 
ly designated. 

Soon  after  the  annexation  of  the 
Hawaiian  Islands  and  Porto  Rico, 
they  were  made  customs  districts  of 
the  United  States,  and  as  there  was  no 
kw  authorizing  the  collection  of  the 
statistics  of  commerce  between  the 
customs  districts,  the  persons  engaged 
in  that  commerce  refused  to  furnish 
statements  of  the  value  of  their  ship- 
ments to  and  from  the  islands.  As  a 
result  the  country  was  without  any 
information  regarding  the  value  or 
growth  in  this  commerce. 

The  Bureau  of  Statistics,  seeing  the 
importance  of  some  system  by  which 
this  commerce  could  be  measured,  pre- 
pared a  bill,  which  was  passed  by  Con- 
gress, authorizing  the  collection  of 
these  statistics  in  the  same  manner  as 
those  of  the  commerce  with  foreign 
commerce.  As  a  result,  the  country 
has  now,  for  the  first  time  since  the 
annexation,  a  record  of  the  commerce 
between  the  United  States  and  all  of 
its  noncontiguous  territorv.  This  shows 
a  grand  total  of  100  million  dollars. 
Of  this  grand  total  of  100  millions, 
about  37  millions  was  merchandise 
shiDped  to  the  territory  in  question,  58 
millions  merchandise  received  from  it, 
and  nearly  5  millions  gold  bullion 
produced  in  Alaska  territory.  The  ter- 
ritories included  in  this  statement  are 


Alaska,  Porto  Rico,  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  and  the  Philippines.  It  is  a 
novel  experience  for  the  people  of  the 
United  States,  and  they  find  it  espec- 
ially interesting  to  observe  their  own 
territory  furnishing  them  a  market  for 
37  million  dollars'  worth  of  merchan- 
dise, while  their  sales  to  the  same  ter- 
ritory in  1893  were  less  than  8  million 
dollars. 

U.  S.  A.  AND  GREAT  BRITAIN. — The 
development  of  the  commerce  of  1903, 
with  reference  to  the  United  Kingdom 
and  British  territory  in  general,  was 
of  marked  interest.  The  exports 
to  the  United  Kingdom  fell  24  million 
dollars,  while  the  imports  from  that 
country  increased  26  millions.  This  is 
especially  interesting  because  of  the 
fact  that  to  practically  all  other  Euro- 
pean countries  the  exports  increased. 
The  total  exports  to  all  Europe  were 
1,039  million  dollars  against  1,008  mil- 
lions in  1902,  but  those  to  the  United 
Kingdom  were  524  millions  against 
548  millions  in  1902.  To  Germany 
there  was  an  increase  of  20  millions ; 
to  Russia  an  increase  of  6  millions ;  to 
France  6  millions,  and  to  Netherlands 

3  millions. 

The  chief  falling  off  in  the  exports 
to  the  United  Kingdom  was  in  cotton 
and  wheat.  The  falling  off  in  cotton 
amounted  to  4  millions,  and  that  of 
»vheat  19  millions,  though  the  latter 
was  offset  in  part  by  an  increase  of  3 
millions  in  flour. 

Of  the  20  millions  increase  in  im- 
ports from  the  United  Kingdom  about 

4  millions  was  in  coal,  chiefly  due  to 
the  coal  strike  in  the  early  part  of  the 
year,  and  the  remainder,  manufactures 
of   various   sorts,   especially   iron    and 
steel,   of  which   the  total   imports  ex- 
ceeded those  of  last  year  by  24  mil- 
lion dollars. 

U.  S.  A.  AND  BRITISH  COLONIES. — 
To  practically  all  other  parts  of  the 
British  Empire  the  exports  of  the  year 
showed  an  increase.  Canada,  despite 
the  decrease  in  duty  on  products  of 
Great  Britain  and  the  Colonies,  made 
in  1897,  1898  and  1900.  which  was  ex- 
pected to  place  the  United  States  at  a 
great  disadvantage,  increased  her  tak- 
ings of  the  products  of  the  United 
States,  12  millions,  the  total  exports 
to  Canada  in  the  fiscal  year  being  123 
million  dollars.  The  imports  from 
Canada  also  increased,  being  55  mil- 
lions against  48  millions  in  1903. 

RESULTS  OF  CANADA'S  TARIFF. — 
The  first  reduction  in  the  Canadian  tar- 
iff on  products  of  the  United  King- 
dom and  most  of  the  Colonies  occurred 


290 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


in  April,  1897,  a  reduction  of  12%  per 
cent,  in  the  tariff  on  merchandise  from 
the  United  Kingdom  and  her  Colonies, 
while  there  was  no  reduction  on  mer- 
chandise from  the  United  States.  On 
June  30th,  1898,  another  reduction 
of  12%  per  cent  occurred,  and  in 
1900  the  reduction  was  made  33  1-3 
per  cent.  Yet,  comparing  the  imports 
for  consumption  in  1902  with  those  of 
1896,  as  shown  by  the  Canadian  Sta- 
tistical Year  Book,  the  imports  from 
the  United  Kingdom  have  increased 
16  million  dollars  and  those  from  the 
United  States,  62  million  dollars, 
while  the  figures  of  the  United  States 
for  1903  show  «  further  increase  of 
about  13  millions  in  exports  to  Can- 
ada. 

CANADA'S  TRADE  WITH  THE  U.  S.  A. 
AND  GREAT  BRITAIN. — In  1882,  ac- 
cording to  the  Canadian  Statistical 
Year  Book  above  quoted,  the  imports 
of  Canada  from  Great  Britain  were 
50  millions,  and  those  from  the  Uni- 
ted States  48  millions.  In  1902,  20 
years  later,  those  from  Great  Britain 
were  49  millions,  and  those  from  the 
United  States  120  millions,  notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  the  tariff  on 
products  from  Great  Britain  had  been 
reduced  one-third  as  against  those 
from  the  United  States. 

Comparing  1902  with  1882,  there  is 
a  slight  reduction  in  the  imports  from 
the  United  Kingdom  and  an  increase 
of  about  150  per  cent  in  those  from  the 
United  States.  Of  the  123  million 
dollars'  worth  of  exports  from  the 
United  States  to  Canada  in  1903, 


about  20  millions  were  manufactures 
of  iron  and  steel ;  6  millions  coal ;  8 
millions  wheat,  flour  and  corn ;  4  mil- 
lions agricultural  implements ;  3  mil- 
lions cotton  manufactures;  and  the 
bulk  of  the  remainder  miscellaneous 
manufactures. 

The  convenience  of  buying  from  the 
salesman  who  brings  the  samples  to 
the  door  of  the  purchaser  and  orders 
whatever  is  wanted  by  telephone 
across  the  border  with  the  assurance 
that  the  goods  will  be  delivered  the 
next  day,  if  desired,  apparently  more 
than  balances  the  difference  of  33  1-3 
per  cent  in  duty. 

U.  S.  A.  TRADE  WITH  THE  BRITISH 
EMPIRE. — In  general  terms  it  may  be 
said  that  the  commerce  between  the 
United  States  and  the  British  Empire 
in  1903  was  over  a  billion  dollars,  of 
which  746  millions  was  exports  and 
325  millions  imports.  Of  the  746  mil- 
lions of  exports  to  British  territory 
524  millions  was  to  the  United  King- 
dom ;  123  millions  to  Canada ;  33  mil- 
lions to  British  Africa ;  32  millions  to 
Australasia  and  New  Zealand ;  10 
millions  to  the  British  West  Indies ; 
and  8  millions  to  Hongkong.  Of  the 
325  millions  of  imports  from  the  Brit- 
ish Empire,  191  millions  was  from  the 
United  Kingdom ;  55  millions  from 
Canada ;  50  millions  from  India ;  13 
millions  from  the  West  Indies ;  and 
7  millions  from  Hongkong. 

ANALYSIS  OF  COMMERCE,  1893-1903. 
— The  following  tables  present  an 
analysis  of  the  commerce  of  the  United 
States  from  1893  to  1903 : 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  TRADE  OF  THE  U.S.A. 

Imports  into  the  United  States. 
(According  to  Continents.)     [In  millions  of  dollars.] 


Europe. 

N.  America. 

S.  America. 

Asia. 

Oceania. 

Africa. 

Year. 

Mills. 

Per 

Mills. 

Per 

Mills. 

Per 

Mills. 

Per 

Mills. 

Per 

Mills. 

Per 

Dolls. 

Cent. 

Dolls. 

Cent. 

Dolls. 

Cent. 

Dolls. 

Cent. 

Dolls. 

Cent. 

Dolls. 

Cent 

1893 

458 

52.91 

183 

21.21 

102 

11.80 

87 

10.11 

25 

3.00 

9 

.97 

1894 

295 

45.05 

166 

25.49 

100 

15.29 

66 

10.10 

21 

3.28 

3 

.79 

1895 

383 

52.41 

133 

18.29 

112 

15.32 

77 

10.61 

17 

2.39 

5 

.98 

1896 

418 

53.69 

126 

16.27 

108 

13.96 

"89 

11.49 

24 

3.16 

11 

.43 

1897 

430 

56.26 

105 

13.85 

107 

14.04 

87 

11.41 

24 

3.19 

9 

.25 

1898 

305 

40.66 

91 

14.83 

92 

14.95 

92 

15.03 

26 

4.36 

7 

.17 

1899 

353 

50.76 

112 

16.09 

86 

12.42 

107 

15.36 

26 

3.87 

10 

.50 

1900 

440 

51.84 

130 

15.30 

93 

11.02 

139 

16.45 

34 

4.07 

11 

.32 

1901 

429 

52.19 

145 

17.63 

110 

13.41 

117 

14.30 

11 

1.38 

8 

.09 

1902 

475 

52.61 

151 

16.73 

119 

13.26 

129 

14.35 

14 

1.57 

13 

.48 

1903 

550 

53.63 

188 

18.42 

107 

10.47 

145 

14.21 

21 

2.05 

12 

.22 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


291 


Exports  from  the  U.  S.  A. 
(According  to  Continents). 


Europe.       I   N.  America. 

S.  America. 

Asia. 

Oceania. 

Africa. 

Year. 

Mills. 

Per 

Mills. 

Per 

Mills. 

Per 

Mills. 

Per 

Mills. 

Per 

Mills. 

Per 

Dolls. 

Cent. 

Dolls. 

Cent. 

Dolls. 

Cent. 

Dolls. 

Cent. 

Dolls. 

Cent. 

Dolls. 

Cent. 

1893 

661 

78.10 

119 

14.13 

32 

3.85 

16 

1.91 

11 

1.32 

5 

.69 

1894 

700 

78.57 

119 

13.42 

33 

3.72 

20 

2.34 

11 

1.34 

4 

.61 

1895 

627 

77.76 

108 

13.45 

33 

4.15 

17 

2.15 

13 

1.62 

6 

.87 

1896 

673 

76.26 

116 

13.21 

36 

4.11 

25 

2.90 

17 

1.95 

13 

.57 

1897 

813 

77.39 

124 

11.89 

33 

3.21 

39 

3.74 

22 

2.16 

16 

.61 

1898 

973 

79.07 

139 

11.35 

33 

2.75 

44 

3.63 

22 

1.78 

17 

.42 

1899 

936 

76.33 

157 

12.87 

35 

2.91 

48 

3.94 

29 

2.43 

18 

.52 

1900 

1,040 

74.60 

187 

13.45 

38 

2.79 

64 

4.66 

43 

3.11 

19 

.79 

1901 

1,136 

76.39 

196 

13.21 

44 

2.98 

49 

3.34 

35 

2.36 

25 

.72 

1902 

1,008 

72.96 

203 

14.75 

38 

2.76 

63 

4.63 

34 

2.48 

33 

2.4<j 

1903 

1,029 

72.49 

215 

15.18 

41 

2.89 

57 

4.09 

37 

2.64 

38 

2.71 

Exports  of  Domestic  Merchandise  from  the  U.  S.  A.,  1893  to  1903. 
(According  to  classes.) 


Year 
end- 

Manufac- 
tures. 

Agricultural 
Products. 

Products 
of  the 
Mines. 

Products 
of  the 
Forests. 

Products 
of  the 
Fisheries. 

Miscel- 
laneous 
Products. 

Total. 

ing 

June 
30 

Mills. 

Per 

Mills. 

Per 

Mills. 

Per 

Mills. 

Per 

Mills. 

Per 

Mills. 

Per 

Mills. 

Dolls. 

Cent. 

Dolls. 

Cent. 

Dolls. 

Cent. 

Dolls. 

Cent. 

Dolls. 

Cent. 

Dolls. 

Cent. 

Dolls. 

1893 

158 

19.02 

615 

74.05 

20 

2.41 

28 

3.38 

5 

.67 

3 

.47 

831 

1894 

183 

21.14 

628 

72.28 

20 

2.35 

28 

3.22 

4 

.49 

4 

.52 

869 

1895 

183 

23.14 

553 

69.73 

18 

2.33 

28 

3.61 

5 

.67 

4 

.52 

793 

1896 

228 

26.48 

569 

66.02 

20 

2.32 

33 

3.91 

6 

.79 

4 

.48 

863 

1897 

277 

26.87 

683 

66.23 

20 

2.01 

40 

3.92 

6 

.63 

3 

.34 

1,032 

1898 

290 

24  .  02 

853 

70.54 

19 

1.60 

37 

3.13 

5 

.45 

3 

.26 

1,210 

1899 

339 

28.21 

784 

65.19 

28 

2.34 

42 

3.49 

5 

.50 

3 

.27 

1,203 

1900 

433 

31.65 

835 

60.98 

37 

2.76 

52 

3.81 

6 

.46 

4 

.34 

1,370 

1901 

412 

28.22 

943 

64.62 

37 

2.60 

54 

3.72 

7 

.53 

4 

.31 

1,460 

1902 

403 

29.77 

851 

62.83 

39 

2.90 

48 

3.55 

7 

.57 

5 

.38 

1,355 

1903 

408 

29.32 

873 

62.72 

38 

2.79 

57 

4.15 

7 

.56 

6 

.46 

1,392 

Imports  into  the  U.  S.  A.,  1893  to  1903. 
(According  to  classes.) 


1 

Articles  Wholly 

Year 
end- 
ing 

Food  and 
Live  Animals. 

Crude  Articles 
for  Domestic 
Industries. 

or  Partially 
Manufactured 
for  Use  as 
Materials  in 

Articles  Manu- 
factured Ready 
for  Consump- 
tion. 

Luxuries,  and 
other  Articles 
of  Voluntary 
Use. 

Total. 

June 

Mechanic  Arts. 

Mills. 

Per 

Mills. 

Per 

Mills. 

Per 

Mills. 

Per 

Mills. 

Per 

Mills. 

Dolls. 

Cent. 

Dolls. 

Cent. 

Dolls. 

Cent. 

Dolls. 

Cent. 

Dolls. 

Cent. 

Dolls. 

1893 

269 

31.89 

218 

25.85 

94 

11.20 

153 

18.22 

108 

12.84 

844 

1894 

275 

43.33 

126 

19.89 

65 

10.32 

99 

15.60 

69 

10.86 

636 

1895 

226 

30.97 

187 

25.64 

83 

11.46 

140 

19.25 

92 

12.68 

731 

1896 

228 

30.13 

201 

26.57 

79 

10.46 

160 

21.09 

89 

11.75 

759 

1897 

254 

32.27 

207 

26.26 

.69 

8.85 

165 

20.91 

92 

11.72 

789 

1898 

170 

29.08 

188 

32.16 

58 

9.91 

94 

16.15 

74 

12.70 

587 

1899 

207 

30.27 

218 

31.82 

60 

8.76 

110 

16.15 

89 

13.00 

685 

1900 

216 

26.02 

299 

36.04 

80 

9.70 

130 

15.72 

103 

12.51 

830 

1901 

213 

26.45 

270 

33.54 

74 

9.27 

135 

16.81 

112 

13.93 

807 

1902 

201 

22.26 

327 

36.27 

91 

10.09 

150 

16.66 

132 

14.72 

903 

1903 

218 

21.18 

375 

36.58 

114 

11.15 

170 

16.61 

147 

14.38 

1,025 

—Daily  Mail  Year  Book. 


292 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


IMPORTS    OF   MERCHANDISE,   BY   PRINCIPAL   ARTICLES   AND 
CLASSES,  IN  ORDER  OF  MAGNITUDE  IN  1903. 


Articles. 


1903. 


Dollars. 

Sugar 72,088,973 

Chemicals,  drugs,  and  dyes 64,351,199 

Coffee 59,200,749 

Hides  and  skins 58,031,613 

Cotton,  manufactures  of 52,462,755 

Iron  and  steel,  and  manufac- 
tures of 51,617,312 

Silk,  unmanufactured 50,011,050 

Fibres,  vegetable,  etc.,  mariu- 

iactures  of 39,334,521 

Silk,  manufactures  of 35,963,552 

Fibres,  vegetable,  etc.,  unman- 
ufactured   34,462,513 

Diamonds,  and  other  precious 

stones 31,479,223 

India  rubber  and  gutta-percha, 

crude 31,004,541 

Wood,  manufactures  of 28,746,271 

Fruits  and  nuts 23,726,636 

Tin,  in  bars,  blocks,  or  pigs 23,618,802 

Wool,  unmanufactured 22,152,961 

Tobacco,  and  manufactures  of.  .  20,579,120 

Wool,  manufactures  of 19,546,385 

Copper,  and  manufactures  of .  .  .  17,505,247 
Spirits,     malt      liquors,      and 

wines 17,171,617 

Tea 15,659,229 

Furs,  and  manufactures  of 15,301,912 

Oils 12,283,957 

Leather,  and  manufactures  of.  .  11,294,167 

Cotton,  unmanufactured 10,892,591 

Coal,  bituminous 10,562,185 

Earthen,     stone,     and     china 

ware 10,512,052 

Fish 8,635,583 

Cocoa,  crude,  and  leaves  and 

shells  of 7,820,087 

Glass  and  glassware 7,255,879 


Articles. 


Articles,  the  growth,  etc.,  of  the 

United  States,  returned 

Metals,  and  manufactures  of. ...  ] 

Spices 

Paper,  and  manufactures  of.  ... 
Provisions:     Meat    and    dairy  j 

products 

Vegetables 

Animals I 

Books,  maps,  engravings,  etc .  .  . 

Art  works ' 

Toys., ! 

Lead,  in  ore 

Hats,  bonnets,  and  hoods,  and 

materials  for 

Matting,  for  floors,  etc 

Cement 

Copper  ore 

Fertilizers 

Rice 

Breadstuffs 

Paper  stock,  crude 

Household  and  personal  effects . 

Seeds 

Hair,  and  manufactures  of 

Clocks  and  watches,  and  parts  of 

Bristles 

Cork  wood,  or  cork  bark,  and 

manufactures  of 

Feathers  and  downs,  crude,  not 

dressed,  etc 

Iron  ore.     

Hay 

Jewelry,   and  manufactures  of 

gold  and  silver 

All  other  articles 


Total.  . 


1903. 
Dollars. 

7,170,573 
7,057,202 
4,815,125 
4,733,036 

4,703,536 
4,581,355 
4,533.845 
4,323,938 
4,310,315 
4,232,074 
4,073,099 

3,871,278 
3,780,050 
3,607,666 
3,385,524 
3,100,276 
3,061,473 
3,023,160 
3,015,084 
2,856,007 
2,831,279 
2,775,084 
2,672,310 
2,654,604 

2,567,580 

2,476,659 
2,351,278 
2,238,109 

2,007,433 
55,637,603 

1,025,719,237 


— Foreign  Commerce  and  Navigation,  Bureau  of  Statistics. 


MOTIVE-POWER    APPLIANCES. 
By  Edward  H.  Sanborn,  Expert  Special  Agent  Twelfth  Census. 


The  1,170  establishments  covered 
by  the  report  produced  during  the 
census  year  40,533  steam  boilers,  rep- 
resenting an  aggregate  of  2,928,983 
horsepower,  with  a  total  value  of  $25,- 
663,445.  Of  steam  engines  of  all  types 
there  were  manufactured  29,120,  rep- 
resenting 2,210,727  horsepower,  and 
valued  at  $28,019,971.  The  number 
of  internal-combustion  engines,  using 
gas,  petroleum,  or  other  vapors,  pro- 
duced by  these  establishments  was  18.- 
531,  their  aggregate  horsepower  was 
164,662,  and  their  total  value  amount- 
ed to  $5,579,398.  There  were  also 
manufactured  2,680  water  motors,  in- 
cluding overshot  and  undershot  wheels, 
turbines,  and  impact  wheels,  with  an 
estimated  total  of  367,934  horsepower. 


and  an  aggregate  value  of  $1,520,849. 
The  totals  for  all  primary  powers,  ex- 
clusive of  steam  boilers,  were  as  fol- 
lows :  Number  of  units,  50,331 ;  ag- 
gregate horsepower,  2.743,323 ;  total 
value,  $35,120,218.  The  other  prod- 
ucts of  these  1,170  establishments 
amounted  in  value  to  $84,754,239;  the 
amounts  received  for  custom  work  and 
repairing  reached  a  total  of  $26,664,- 
243,  and  the  total  output  of  all  prod 
ucts  and  all  classes  of  work  represent- 
ed a  value  of  $172,202,145. 

The  table  shows  the  number,  ag- 
gregate horsepower,  and  total  value  of 
each  kind  of  motive-power  appliances 
produced  by  these  establishments  dur- 
ing the  census  year. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


NUMBER,  AGGREGATE  HORSEPOWER, 

Number  of  establishments 1,170 

Steam  boilers: 
Fire  tube — 

Number 35,802 

Aggregate  horsepower 1,943,222 

Total  value $18,037,451 

Water  tube — 

Number .  ~\  . . .  ;       4,731 

Aggregate  horsepower 985,761 

Total  value $7,625,994 

Steam  engines: 
Marine — 

Number 767 

Aggregate  horsepower 396,047 

Total  value $7,018,369 

Fixed  cut-off  throttling — 

Number 21,806 

Aggregate  horsepower 658,111 

Total  value $7,963,805 

High  speed  variable  automatic 
cut-off — 

Number 3,823 

Aggregate  horsepower 314,668 

Total  value $3,282,787 


AND  VALUE  OF  PRIMARY  POWERS:  1900. 
Low  speed   variable  automatic 
cut-off — 

Number 2,724 

Aggregate  horsepower 841,901 

Total  value $9,755,010 

Internal-combustion  engines: 

Number 18,531 

Aggregate  horsepower 164,662 

Total  value $5,579,398 

Overshot  or  undershot  water  wheels 

Number 

Aggregate  horsepower 

Total  value 

Turbine  water  wheels: 

•  Number 

Aggregate  horsepower 

Total  value 

Impact  water  wheels: 

Number 

Aggregate  horsepower.  .  .  . 

Total  value 

Primary  powers,  all  kinds: 

Number 

Aggregate  horsepower.  .  .  . 
Total  value.  . 


58 
1,257 
$12,250 

1,665 

311,527 

$1,232,090 

957 

55,150 

$276,509 


50,331 
.  2,743,323 
.$35,120,218 


POWER,  COMPARATIVE   SUMMARY:    1870  TO   1900. 
[Twelfth  Census,  Vol.  VII,  pages  cccxvi,  and  582.] 


Power. 

Date  of  Census. 

Per  Cent,  of  Increase. 

1900. 

1890. 

1880. 

1870. 

1890 
to 
1900. 

1880 
to 
1890. 

1870 
to 
1880. 

Total  number  of  establishments. 
Total  number  of  establishments 
reporting  power  
Per   cent    of   establishments 
reporting   power    to    total 
number  
Total  horsepower 

512,191 
169,364 

33.1 
11,298,119 

355,405 
100,726 

28.3 
5,954,204 

253,852 
85,923 

33.8 
3,410,837 

252,148 
C1) 

2,346,142 

44.1 

68.1 

89  '.8 
12.9 

70.7 
90.8 

40.0 

17.2 

'  74'.  e' 

48.9 

61.8 
109.6 

0.7 

45.4 
826.9 

"7V.  8 

Average  horsepower  per  es- 
tablishment. . 

66.7 

156,051 
8,741,338 

77.4 

14,884 
143,850 

1.3 

39,168 
1,726,661 

15.3 

16,912 
310,729 

2.8 

2,144 
54,490 

0.5 
321,051 

2.8 
183,682 

137,369 

59.1 

91,403 
4,581,305 

76.9 

8,930 
0.1 

39,005 
1,255,045 

21.1 

0) 
15,569 

0.3 

0) 
4,784 

0.1 

88,571 

1.5 

(4) 

(4) 

39.7 

56,483 

2,185,458 

64.1 

0) 
C1) 

55,404 
1,225,379 

35.9 

0) 

(X) 

29.3 

C) 
1,215,711 

51.8 

0) 
C1) 

P) 
1,130,431 

48.2 

0) 
0) 

Steam  engines: 
Number  
Horsepower  
Per  cent  of  total  horse- 
power. .  .  . 

Gas  engines: 
Number  .  . 

Horsepower  
Per  cent  of  total  horse- 
power .  .  . 

1,510.9 

Water  wheels: 
Number  . 

0.4 
37.6 

329.6 
2.4 

'  '  8'.  4' 

Horsepower  
Per  cent  of  total  horse- 
power 

Electric  motors: 
Number  
Horsepower  
Per  cent  of  total  horse- 
power   
Other  power: 
Number  
Horsepower  
Per  cent  of  total  horse- 
power   
Total  rented  horsepower  
Per  cent  of  total  horse- 
power   
Electric  rented  horsepower  . 
All    other    rented    horse- 
power   

i,895".8 

0) 
C1) 

•(iy 
••(!)••• 

0) 

(') 

0) 

••(iy 

"C1)"' 
C1) 

i,039'.0 
"262  '.5 

...... 

:::::: 

1  Not  reported.     2  Average  for  all  establishments.     3  Decrease.     4  Not  reported  separately 

294 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


METAL-WORKING    MACHINERY    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES— KIND, 
QUANTITY,  AND  VALUE  OF  PRODUCTS:    1900. 


Number   of    establishments   re- 
porting ................... 

Hammers  —  steam,    power,    and 

drop: 
Number  ................... 

Value  ..................... 

Forging  machines,  including  bolt 

headers,  and  all  other  ma- 

chines for  forging  hot  metal 

with  dies  and  by  pressure: 

Number  ................... 

Value  ......  ............... 

Stamping,  flanging,  and  forming 
machines  for  plate  and  sheet 
metal  : 
Number  ................... 

Value  ..................... 

Punching  and  shearing  machines  : 
Number  ................... 

Value  ..................... 

Bending  and  straightening  rolls  : 
Number  ................... 

Value  ..................... 

Riveting  machines: 

Number  ................... 

Value  ..................... 

Lathes: 
Hand- 

Number  ................  . 

Value  ................... 

Engine  — 

Number  ................. 

Value  ................... 

Turret,  including  all  automatic 

or  semi-automatic  lathes 

for      making      duplicate 

pieces  — 

Number  .....  .  ........... 

Value  ................... 


397 


857 

$671,287 


821 

$424,774 


7,895 
$1,180,960 

5,269 
$1,219,605 

914 
$202,230 

202 
$139,295 


3,945 
$306,081 

12,089 
$4,451,867 


3,687 
$2,449,121 


Boring  and  turning  mills  or  verti- 
cal lathes: 

Number .• 534 

Value $1,123,314 

Boring  and  drilling  machinery, 
including  all  machines  using 
drills  or  boring  bars: 

Number 22,890 

Value.. $2,779,983 

Planers,  including  plate-edge 
planers : 

Number 1,543 

Value $1,808,955 

Blotters  and  shapers : 

Number 3,076 

Value $1,136,350 

Milling  machines,  including  all 
machines  using  a  milling 
cutter: 

Number 4,119 

Value $2,171,966 

Sawing  machines: 

Number 2,846 

Value $222,563 

Grinding  and  polishing  machin- 
ery, including  all  machines 
using  abrasive  cutters: 

Number 10,014 

Value $880,965 

Bolt,  nut,  and  pipe  threading 
and  tapping  machines: 

Number 2,088 

Value $698,362 

Pneumatic  hand  tools: 

Number 6,751 

Value $143,325 

All  other  metal  working  machines, 

value $2,726,901 

All  other  products,  value $16,375,956 

Amount    received    for    custom 

work  and  repairing $3,271,369 

Total  value  of  all  products $44,385,229 

— U.  S.  Census  Bulletin. 


OUR  IRON  AND  STEEL    PRODUCTION. 


The  statement  that  in  1902  forty 
per  cent,  of  the  pig  iron  in  the  world 
was  produced  in  the  United  States 
gives  one  no  very  definite  realization 
of  the  quantity  of  that  product,  though 
he  be  reminded  on  every  hand  by  iron 
and  steel  ships,  bridges,  railroads, 
buildings,  machinery,  tools,  nails, 
tacks,  etc.,  ad  nauseam,  that  this  is 
the  iron  age.  Even  the  statement  that 
the  United  States  last  year  mined  over 
thirty  million  long  tons  of  iron  ore 
gives  one  no  adequate  impression  of 
the  vastness  of  this  amount.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  one  should  see  the  entire 
iron  ore  production  of  the  year  piled 
up  in  a  single  heap,  he  would  readily 
comprehend  this  quantity  by  a  com- 
parison of  the  pile  with  familiar  ob- 
jects in  the  landscape.  This  shows  us 
that  it  is  large  numbers  instead  of 


large  quantities  which  confuse  the 
mind  ;  for  example,  the  statement  that 
a  wagon  holds  over  30,000,000  grains 
of  coal  would  give  a  person  a  very  hazy 
idea  of  the  actual  quantity  specified, 
but  he  would  immediately  comprehend 
the  quantity  if  told  that  it  represent- 
ed two  tons ;  for  a  larger  unit  of 
weight  would  be  used,  thereby  reduc- 
ing the  count  to  a  figure  well  within 
the  mental  grasp.  Thus  in  trying  to 
represent  to  our  readers  just  how  large 
are  the  quantities  of  materials  used  in 
the  iron  and  steel  industry,  we  have 
endeavored  to  choose  larger  units  of 
measurement ;  and  finding  that  our 
standard  measures  are  far  too  small 
for  the  purpose,  we  have  resorted  to 
the  use  of  familiar  landmarks  as  bases 
of  comparison. 

As  a  unit  of  bulk,  no  larger  single 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


295 


Copyright;  1903,  by  Munn  &  Co. 


COMPARATIVE  DIAGRAM  SHOWING  THE  TOTAL  ANNUAL  AMOUNT  OF  RAW 
MATERIALS  OF  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRY  IN  THE  UNITED 
STATES,  AS  COMPARED  WITH  THE  FINISHED  PRODUCTS  SHOWN  ON 
PAGES  296,  297  AND  298. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


monument  has  man  produced  than  the 
old  pyramid  of  Cheops,  and  large 
though  it  be,  it  is  all  too  small  when 
used  as  a  unit  by  which  to  measure 
the  stupendous  volume  of  material 
used  in  our  pig-iron  production  of  a 
single  year.  In  the  accompanying  il- 
lustration, the  huge  blast  furnace 
shown  at  the  left  represents  a  furnace 
which  would  receive  at  a  single  charge 
all  our  iron  ore  production  during  the 
year  1902,  together  with  the  fuel  and 
limestone  used.  The  charge  measures 
approximately  two  billion  cubic  feet, 
or  to.  use  our  proposed  unit  of  bulk, 
this  would  be  equivalent  to  twenty- 
four  pyramids.  As  many  individuals 
may  have  formed  no  adequate  concep- 
tion of  the  size  of  the  Great  Pyramid, 
we  have  used  as  an  additional  basis 
of  comparison  the  tallest  building  in 


umn  400  feet  square,  the  column  would 
reach  an  altitude  of  6,500  feet.  No 
human  monument  is  large  enough  to 
give  us,  by  comparison  with  this  col- 
umn, any  idea  of  such  a  height.  If 
the  base  of  the  column  were  situated 
at  sea  level,  a  person  at  the  top  could 
look  down  on  the  summit  of  Mount 
Washington,  N.  H.,  and  it  would  over- 
top every  mountain  in  this  country 
east  of  the  Rockies. 

Our  column  of  coal  includes  both 
anthracite  and  bituminous.  In  the 
last  two  years  there  has  been  a  con- 
siderable falling  off  in  the  use  of  an- 
thracite, while  bituminous  coal  mixed 
with  coke  has  shown  a  great  increase 
over  former  years,  so  that  our  column 
would  probably  be  made  up  of  two 
parts  bituminous  to  one  part  anthra- 
cite coal.  Their  combined  bulk  would 


Copyright,  1903,  by  Munn  &  Co. 

PROPORTION     OF     FINISHED     PRODUCTS     FORMED 
INTO    RAIL. 


the  world,  namely,  the  Park  Row 
Building  in  New  York.  This  building 
measures  390  feet  in  height,  and  it 
would  require  thirteen  such  buildings 
placed  one  above  the  other,  to  equal 
the  height  of  our  hypothetical  blast 
furnace. 

FUEL. 

Of  the  contents  of  the  blast  furnace 
by  far  the  larger  bulk  is  fuel,  though 
the  weight  of  the  iron  ore  is  almost 
twice  that  of  the  fuel.  The  square  col- 
umns in  our  illustration  will  serve  to 
give  one  some  idea  of  the  amount  of 
fuel  which  was  consumed  in  1902  by 
the  blast  furnaces  of  the  United 
States.  A  fair  estimate  would  be 
about  16,000,000  tons  of  coke,  1.600.- 
000  tons  of  coal,  and  300,000  tons  of 
charcoal.  Coke  is  so  light  that  if  the 
16,000,000  tons  were  built  up  in  a  col- 


form  a  column  200  feet  square  by 
],300  feet  high — a  midget  in  compari- 
son to  the  coke  column,  but  not  so 
small  after  all  when  compared  with 
the  Park  Row  Building. 

Charcoal,  which  is  the  smallest  item 
in  the  fuel  statistics  for  1902,  or  about 
one-fifth  of  the  number  of  tons  of  coal, 
yet  forms  a  column  nearly  two-thirds 
the  height  of  the  coal  column,  or  twice 
that  of  the  Park  Row  Building. 

FLUX. 

The  amount  of  limestone  used  for 
fluxing  purposes  last  year  amounted 
to  9.490,090  tons.  This  would  make  a 
column  5,500  feet  high,  with  a  cross- 
section  200  feet  square.  It  may  be  in- 
teresting to  note  here  that  oyster  shells 
are  used  in  one  of  the  furnaces  in 
Maryland  in  place  of  limestone. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


297 


IRON  ORE. 

The  next  column,  which  is  of  a 
height  equal  to  that  of  the  coke  col- 
umn, is  composed  of  34,636,121  tons 
of  iron  ore.  However,  this  represents 
in  bulk  only  one-quarter  that  of  the 
coke. 

PIG  IRON. 

All  the  above-mentioned  materials 
were  used  last  year  to  produce  17,- 
821,307  tons  of  pig  iron.  This  makes 
a  column  twice  the  height  of  the  Eiffel 
Tower,  the  tallest  monument  to  human 
skill  in  the  world. 

STEEL. 

The  larger  part  of  the  pig  iron  pro- 
duction of  this  country  is  converted 


into  steel ;  14,947,250  tons  represent 
the  total  outpat  for  last  year.  Of  this, 
9,138,363  tons  were  made  by  the  Bes- 
semer process,  5,687,729  by  the  open- 
hearth  process,  and  121,158  tons  were 
crucible  steel. 


FINISHED   PRODUCTS. 

Of  the  finished  products  for  the 
year,  2,947,933  tons  represent  the 
amount  of  iron  and  steel  formed  into 
rails.  If  all  this  metal  were  rolled  into 
a  single  rail  of  standard  proportions,  it 
would  measure  approximately  81  feet 
high,  and  would  be  about  a  mile  and 
one-fifth  long.  The  base  would,  of 
course,  equal  the  height,  and  the  tread 
would  have  a  width  of  43  feet.  In  our 


Copyright,  1903,  by  Munn  &  Co. 


Park  Row 
Building. 


Cut 
Nail. 


Washington 
Monument. 


Wire 
Nail. 


Eiffel 
Tower. 


PROPORTION     OF     FINISHED     PRODUCTS     FORMED     INTO     WIRE     NAILS 
AND     CUT     NAILS. 


298 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


illustration  we  have  shown  the  relative 
proportions  of  a  locomotive  of  average 
size  placed  on  this  rail. 

Next   in   quantity   to    the   iron   and 


Copyright,  1903,  by  Munn  &  Co. 
PROPORTION      OF      FINISHED      PRO- 
DUCTS     FORMED       INTO       PLATES 
AND     SHEETS. 


steel  rail  production  is  last  year's  out- 
put of  plates  and  sheets;  2,065,409 
tons  of  metal  were  thus  converted. 
This  amount,  if  rolled  into  a  single 
sheet  of  No.  30  standard  gage,  which  is 
the  thinnest  sheet  steel  commercially 
used,  would  cover  420  square  miles,  or 
nearly  twenty  times  the  area  of  the  isl- 
and of  Manhattan.  The  extent  of 
this  area  is  illustrated  in  the  accom- 
panying sketch  plan  of  New  York  city 
and  its  vicinity. 

The  production  of  nails  forms  no 
small  part  of  the  finished  products  for 
the  year.  Wire  nails  represent,  of 
course,  a  much  larger  part  of  the  out- 
put. The  totals  are  10,982,246  100- 
pound  kegs  of  wire  nails  and  1,633,762 
100-pound  kegs  of  cut  nails.  Follow- 
ing the  method  in  our  two  previous 
comparisons,  we  have  represented  each 
amount  by  a  single  nail  of  standard 
proportions.  The  cut  nail  would  tow- 
er far  above  the  Park  Row  Building, 
measuring  almost  exactly  the  height  of 
the  Washington  Monument,  while  the 
wire  nail  would  rise  to  nearly  double 
this  height,  overtopping  the  Eiffel 
Tower,  and  forming  a  solid  column  of 
metal  54  feet  in  diameter  and  1,000 
feet  high. 


CARRIAGES    AND    WAGONS. 


The  manufacture  of  carriages  and 
wagons  has  been  carried  on  in  the 
United  States  practically  since  the 
time  of  the  early  settlers.  In  the 
Census  year  1900  there  were  7,632  es- 
tablishments, having  a  capital  of  $118,- 
187,838.  The  industry  gave  employ- 
ment to  66,842  persons  (officials, 
clerks,  wage-earners)  and  the  salaries 
and  wages  were  $33,888,843.  The  cost 
of  materials  used  was  $56,676,073.  The 
value  of  products,  including  custom 
work  and  repairing,  was  $121,537,276. 
The  increase  in  product  of  the  Census 
year  1900  over  Census  vear  1890  was 
$18,856,835. 

The  trend  of  the  industry  is  toward 
the  Central  States,  where  land  is 
cheaper,  where  suitable  lumber  is 


abundant  and  prices  are  therefore  fa- 
vorable, and  where  also  the  developed 
railroad  systems  afford  abundant 
means  of  transportation.  The  same 
rapid  development  of  the  industry  is 
seen  in  certain  of  the  Southern  States, 
such  as  North  Carolina,  Tennessee  and 
Virginia,  where  lumber  is  cheap  and 
where  manufactures  are  fast  gaining 
industrial  predominance.  The  increase 
in  Massachusetts,  New  Jersey,  New 
York  and  Pennsylvania  is  due  partly 
to  the  growing  use  of  the  automobile, 
to  the  diminishing  use  of  the  bicycle, 
and  materially  to  the  more  perfect 
segregation  of  the  "factory  product" 
and  that  formerly  classed  as  "custom 
work  and  repairing." 


PHONOGRAPHS     AND     TALKING    MACHINES. 


In  1900  there  were  eleven  establish- 
ments engaged  in  the  manufacture  of 
phonographs  and  other  talking  ma- 
chines. The  capital  invested  was  $3,- 
348,282,  and  the  industry  gave  em- 
ployment to  1,267  wage-earners  and 


144  salaried  officials  and  clerks.  The 
value  of  the  product  was  $2.246,274. 
The  number  of  completed  machines 
was  151.403,  the  number  of  horns,  28,- 
423,  and  the  number  of  records  pro- 
duced was  2,763,277. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


299 


VALUE  OF  EXPORTS  OF  AGRICULTURAL  IMPLEMENTS,  1896  TO  1900,  INCLUSIVE. 


Countries  and  Classes. 

1896. 

1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

Aggregate  

$5,176,775 

$5,240,686 

$7,609,732 

$12,432,197 

$16,099,149 

Mowers,  reapers,  and  parts  of  same: 
Total  

3,212,423 

3,127,415 

5,500,665 

9,053,830 

11,243,763 

France  

360,577 

494,469 

1,146,551 

1,678,865 

2,652,795 

480,773 

538,430 

1,100,210 

1,503,968 

2,529,422 

Russia  
United  Kingdom  
Canada  

387,316 
333,791 
132,945 

265,442 
360,079 
248,359 

409,368 
874,296 
440,878 

863,476 
1,040,059 
934,962 

710,066 
982,188 
1,192,458 

Argentina  

570,332 
195,533 

228,391 
302,586 

182,283 
421,975 

1,074,749 
358,862 

1,194,961 
466,397 

All  other  countries  
Plows,  cultivators,  and  parts  of  same: 
Total.  .                   

751,156 
746,604 

689,659 
590,779 

925,104 
927,250 

1,598,889 
1,545,410 

1,515,476 
2,178,098 

France   .  .              .        

15,048 

7,992 

49,330 

59,105 

68,197 

6,402 

11,206 

15,450 

38,898 

227,378 

Russia  
United  Kingdom  
Canada  
Argentina  
British  Australasia  
All  other  countries  
All  other  implements,  and  parts  of 
same: 
Total  

23,777 
43,105 
40,533 
161,347 
32,450 
423,942 

1,217  748 

3,129 
36,142 
73,023 
104,072 
39,527 
315,688 

1,522,492 

29,566 
74,763 
182,809 
151,737 
108,116 
315,479 

1,181,817 

14,902 
69,737 
207,480 
440,996 
166,035 
548,257 

1,832,957 

45,993 
179,950 
247,306 
388,903 
162,109 
858,262 

2,677,288 

France  

91,359 

121,495 

56,286 

43,689 

189,583 

Germany.  .  . 

94,552 

161,182 

116,582 

103,845 

129,654 

Russia  
United  Kingdom 

65,236 
211,654 

253,495 
246,096 

19,653 
195,966 

59,848 
262,597 

271,671 
188,305 

Canada  

186,166 

143,455 

157,728 

378,612 

571,442 

Argentina  
British  Australasia  
All  other  countries  

122,488 
57,739 
388,554 

82,849 
148,872 
365,048 

43,034 
167,474 
425,094 

163,274 
243,775 
577,317 

221,880 
269,776 
834,977 

— United  States  Treasury  Department:    Report  on  Commerce  and  Navigation,  1900. 


VALUE  OF  IMPLEMENTS  ON  FARMS,  BY  STATES  AND  TERRITORIES,  1900. 


States  and  Territories. 

Value  of 
Implements 
on  Farms. 

States  and  Territories. 

Value  of 
Implements 
on  Farms. 

United  States 

$749,776,660 

Missouri.  .  .  . 

$28,602  680 

$8,675,900 

Montana  
Nebraska  

3,671,900 
24,940  450 

Alaska 

690 

Nevada 

888  560 

765,200 

New  Hampshire  . 

5,163,090 

8  750,060 

New  Jersey. 

9  330  030 

California. 

21,311,670 

New  Mexico  

1,151,610 

4  746,755 

New  York 

56,006  000 

Connecticut.  .  .    * 

4,948,300 

North  Carolina  

9,072,600 

2,150,560 

North  Dakota.  -  . 

14,055  560 

District  of  Columbia  

136,060 

Ohio  

36,354,150 

1,963,210 

Oklahoma.  . 

6,573,015 

9  804,010 

Oregon 

6  506  725 

Idaho  .  .  . 

3,295,045 

Pennsylvania.     . 

50,917,240 

44,977,310 

Rhode  Island.  . 

1,270  270 

Indiana  
Indian  Territory. 

27,330,370 
3,939,480 

South  Carolina  
South  Dakota.  ... 

6,629,770 
12,218,680 

57,960,660 

Tennessee 

15  232  670 

Kansas  
Kentucky.  .  .  . 

29,490,580 
15,301,860 

Texas  
Utah.  . 

30,125,705 
2,922  550 

Louisiana  

28,536,790 

Vermont.  .  ,  

7,538,490 

Maine  

8,802,720 

Virginia.  . 

9,911,040 

Maryland.  .  . 

8,611,220 

Washington 

6,271,630 

Massachusetts  .  . 

8  828  950 

5  040  420 

Michigan.  ,  

28,795,380 

Wisconsin.  .  .  . 

29,237,010 

Minnesota.  . 

30,099,230 

Wyoming 

1,366,000 

Mississippi.  .  , 

9,556,805 

300 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SUMMARY  OF   PROGRESS   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES 
Compiled  from  "Territorial  and  Commercial  Expansion  of  the  United  States," 


Area,  Population,  and   Industries. 

In 

1800. 

1850. 

AREA  AND  POPULATION: 
Area1  

Sq.  miles.  .  . 

827,844 

2,980,959 

Population  2.  .  .  . 

Number. 

5,308,483 

23,191,876 

Per  square  mile  2  
WEALTH: 
Total  3 

Number.  .  . 
Dollars 

6.41 

7.78 
7,135,780  000 

Per  capita  
PUBLIC-DEBT  STATEMENT: 
Public  debt,  less  cash  in  the  Treasury  5  
Per  capita,  less  cash  in  Treasury  
Interest-bearing  debt  6  
Annual  interest  charge.  . 

Dollars  

Dollars  .  . 
Dollars  
Dollars  
Dollars 

82,976,294.35 
15.63 
82,976,294 
3,402,601 

307.69 

63,452,773.55 
2.Y4 
63,452,774 
3,782,393 

Per  capita  

Dollars  .... 

0.64 

0.16 

COINAGE: 
Gold  coined 

Dollars 

317  760 

31  981  739 

Silver  coined  
Commercial  ratio  of  silver  to  gold. 

Dollars  .... 
Dollars 

224,296 
15  68 

1,866,100 
15.70 

MONEY  IN  CIRCULATION: 
Gold  in  circulation  7.  .  .  .                                            I 

Silver  in  circulation  7  f 
Gold  certificates  in  circulation  
Silver  certificates  in  circulation  
United  States  notes  (greenbacks)  in  circulation.  . 
National-bank  notes  in  circulation  (October  31) 

Dollars  .... 

Dollars  .  . 
Dollars  
Dollars  
Dollars 

8  16,000,000 

8  147,395,456 

Miscellaneous  currency  in  circulation  9  
Total  money  in  circulation 

Dollars  .... 
Dollars 

10,500,000 
26,500,000 

131,366,526 
278,761,982 

Per  capita  
NATIONAL  BANKS: 
Reporting  nearest  June  30.    
Capital.  .  .  . 

Dollars  

Number.  .  . 
Dollars 

5.00 

12.02 

Loans  and  discounts  

Dollars  .... 

BANK  CLEARINGS: 
New  York 

Dollars 

Total  United  States  
BANK  DEPOSITS: 
National  banks  (individual)  
Savings  banks  
State  banks  
Loan  and  trust  companies  
Private  banks  10   . 

Dollars  .... 

Dollars  .  . 
Dollars  
Dollars  .... 
Dollars  
Dollars 

'43,431,130 
109,586,595 

Total  bank  deposits  
Depositors  in  savings  banks  
GOVERNMENT  RECEIPTS: 
Net  ordinary  n  
Customs  
Internal  revenue  
GOVERNMENT  EXPENDITURES: 
Net  ordinary  12.  . 

Dollars  
Number.  .  . 

Dollars  
Dollars  .... 
Dollars  

Dollars  .  .  . 

10,848,749 
9,080,933 
809,397 

7,411,370 

'  '251,354 

43,592,889 
39,668,686 

37,165,990 

War  .  . 

Dollars 

2,560,879 

9,687,025 

Navy 

Dollars 

3,448  716 

7,904,725 

Pensions  

Dollars  

64,131 

1,866,886 

1  Exclusive  of  Alaska  and  islands  belonging  to  the  United  States. 

2  No  official  figures  in  other  than  census  years. 

3  True  valuation  of  real  and  personal  property. 

4  Estimated. 

5  1800  to  1840,  outstanding  principal  of  the  public  debt  January  1 ;    1850  to  1855,  out- 
standing principal  of  the  public  debt  July  1. 

6  Figures  for  the  years  1800  to  1855  include  the  total  public  debt. 

7  Gold  and  silver  cannot  be  stated  separately  prior  to  1876.     From  1862  to  1875,  inclu- 
sive, gold  and  silver  were  not  in  circulation  except  on  the  Pacific  coast,  where  it  is  esti- 
mated  that  the  average  snecie  circulation  was  about  $25,000,000,  and  this  estimate  is 
continued  for  the  three  following  years  under  the  head  of  gold.     After  that  period  gold 
was  available  for  circulation. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


301 


IN  ITS  AREA,  POPULATION,  AND  MATERIAL  INDUSTRIES. 

Issued  by  the  Bureau  of  Statistics,  Department  of  Commerce  and    Labor. 


1860. 

1870. 

1880. 

1890. 

1900. 

1903. 

3,025,600 
31,443,321 
10.39 

16,159,616,000 
513J93 

3,025,600 
38,558,371 
12.74 

30,068,518,000 
779.83 

3,025,600 
50,155,783 
16.57 

42,642,000,000 
850.20 

3,025,600 
62,622,250 
20.70 

65,037,091,000 
1,038.57 

3,025,600 
76,303,387 
25.22 

"  94,300,000,000 
1,235.86 

3,025,600 
80,372,000 
26.56 

59,964,402.01 
1.91 
64,640,838 
3,443,687 
0.11 

23,473,654 
2.259,390 
15.29 

8  228,304,775 

2,331,169,956.21 
60.46 
2,046,455,722 
118,784,960 
3.08 

23,198,788 
1,378,256 
15.57 

25,000,000 
'  '324,962,638 

1  ,919,326,747.75 
38.27 
1,723,993,100 
79,633,981 
1.59 

62,308,279 
27,411,694 
18.05 

j   225,695,779 
1    68,622,345 
7,963,900 
5,789,569 
327,895,457 

890,784,370.53 
14.22 
725,313,110 
29,417,603 
0.47 

20,467,183 
39,202,908 
19.75 

374,258,923 
110,311,336 
130,830,859 
297,556,238 
334,688,977 

1,107,711,257.89 
14.52 
1,023,478,860 
33,545,130 
0.44 

99,272,943 
36,345,321 
33.33 

610,806,472 
142,050,334 
200,733,019 
408,465,574 
313,971  545 

925,011,637.31 
11.51 
914,541,410 
25,541,573 
0.32 

43,683,971 
19,874,440 
38.10 

617,260,739 
165,117,934 
377,258,559 
454,733,013 
334  248  567 

'  '267,162,477 
435,407,252 
13.85 

288,648,081 
36,602,075 
675,212,794 
17.50 

1,612 
427  235,701 

337,415,178 

'973,382,228 
19.41 

2,076 
455  909  565 

181,604,937 

Y,42'9,25i,276 
22.82 

3,484 
642  073  676 

300,115,112 
79,008,942 
2,055,150,998 
26.94 

3,732 
621  536  461 

399,996,709 
19,076,648 
2,367,692,169 
29.42 

4,939 
743  506  048 

7,231,143,057 

719,341,186 
27,804,539,406 

994,712,646 
37,182,128,621 

1,933,509,333 

37,660,686,572 
58  845  279  505 

2,623,512,201 

51,964,588,564 
84  582  450  081 

3,415,045,751 

70,833,655,940 
114  068  837  569 

'  '149,277,564 
257,229,562 

542,261,563 
549,874,358 

833,701,034 
819,106,973 
208,751.611 
90  008  008 

1,521,745,665 
1,524,844,506 
553,054,584 
336  456  592 

2,458,092,758 
2,449,547,885 
1,266,735,282 
1  028  232  407 

3,200,993,509 
2,935,204,845 
1,814,570,163 
1  589  398  796 

182,667,235 
2,134,234,861 

99',52li667 
4,035,622,914 

96,206,049 
7,298,814,381 

133,217,990 
9,673,385,303 

693,870 

56,054,600 
53,187,512 

60,056.755 
16,472,203 
11,514,650 
1,100,802 

1,630,846 

395,959,834 
194,538,374 
184,899,756 

164,421,507 
57,655,675 
21,780,230 
28,340,202 

2,335,582 

333,526,501 
186,522,065 
124,009,374 

119,090,062 
38,116,916 
13,536,985 
56,777,174 

4,258,893 

403,080,983 
229,668,585 
142,606,706 

261,637,203 

44,582,838 
22,006,206 
106,936,855 

6,107,083 

567,240,852 
233,164,871 
295,327,927 

447,553,458 
134,774,768 
55,953,078 
140,877,316 

7,305,228 

560,396,674 
284,479,582 
230,810,124 

477,542,658 
118,619,520 
82,618,034 
138,425,646 

8  Total  specie  in  circulation;   gold  and  silver  were  not  separately  stated  prior  to  1876. 

9  Includes  notes  of  bank  of  United  States,  State  bank  notes,  demand  notes  of  1862  and 
1863;  fractional  currency  1863  to  1878;   Treasury  notes  of  1890,  1891  to  date,  and  currency 
certificates,  act  of  June  8,  1872,  1892  to  1900. 

10  Includes  all  private  banks  from  1875  to  1882;   from  1887  to  date  includes  only  those 
voluntarily  reporting,  estimated  at  one-fourth  of  total  private  banks. 

''Net  ordinary  receipts"  include  receipts  from  customs,  internal  revenue,  direct 
tax,  public  lands,  and  "miscellaneous,"  but  do  not  include  receipts  from  loans,  premiums, 
or  Treasury  notes,  or  revenues  of  Post-office  Denartment. 

"Net  ordinary  expenses"  include  expenditures  for  war,  Navy.  Indians,  pensions, 
and  miscellaneous,  but  do  not  include  payments  for  interest,  premiums,  or  principal 
of  public  debt,  or  expenditures  for  postal  service. 


302 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SUMMARY    OF    PROGRESS    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES   IN   ITS 


Area,  Population,  and  Industries. 

In 

1800. 

1850. 

Government  Expenditures  —  Continued. 
Interest  on  public  debt  
Pensioners  ... 

Dollars  
Number 

3,402,601 

3,782,393 

IMPORTS  OF  MERCHANDISE: 
Total 

Dollar^ 

91  252  768 

173  509  526 

Per  capita  1.  .     . 

Dollars 

17  19 

7  48 

EXPORTS  OP  MERCHANDISE: 
Total.  .  .  . 

Dollars 

70  971  780 

144  375  726 

Per  capita  2.  . 

Dollars 

13  37 

6  23 

IMPORTS  OF  GOLD  AND  SILVER: 
Gold 

Dollars 

1  776  706 

Silver.                ... 

Dollars 

2  852  086 

EXPORTS  OF  GOLD  AND  SILVER: 
Gold  3  

Dollars 

4  560  627 

Silver  3 

Dollars 

2  962  367 

IMPORTS  FOR  CONSUMPTION,  GROUPED  ACCORDING 
TO  DEGREE  OF  MANUFACTURE  AND  USES: 
Food  and  live  animals  

Dollars 

32,718,076 

Per  cent  of  total.  .    .           .      . 

18  86 

Crude  articles  for  domestic  industries  

Dollars    .  .  . 

18,105,147 

Per  cent  of  total  

' 

10  44 

Articles  manufactured  wholly  or  partially  for  use 
as  materials  in  the  mechanic  arts  

Dollars 

30,857,522 

Per  cent  of  total. 

17  78 

Articles  manufactured  ready  for  consumption... 

Dollars 

65,887,552 

Per  cent  of  total.  . 

37  97 

Articles  of  voluntary  use,  luxuries,  etc    

Dollars 

25,941,229 

Per  cent  of  total.  . 

14  95 

Total  imports  
DOMESTIC  MERCHANDISE  EXPORTED,  GROUPED  AC- 
CORDING TO  SOURCES  OF  PRODUCTION: 
Agricultural  products  

Dollars  
Dollars 

25,590,534 

173,509,528 
108,605,713 

Per  cent  of  total.  . 

80  37 

80  51 

Manufactures.  
Per  cent  of  total. 

Dollars  .... 

2,493,755 
7.83 

17,580,456 
13  03 

Mining  

Dollars 

167,090 

Per  cent  of  total.  .             

0  12 

Forest  

Dollars 

2,228,863 

4,590,747 

Per  cent  of  total  

7.00 

3.40 

Fisheries.  . 

Dollars 

1  098,511 

2  824  818 

Per  cent  of  total  

3.45 

2.10 

Miscellaneous.  .  . 

Dollars 

429,240 

1  131  409 

1  35 

084 

Total  domestic  exports.  .  .  . 

Dollars 

31  840  903 

134  900,233 

IMPORTS  BY  GRAND  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  WORLD  :4 
Europe.  . 

Dollars 

46,857,960 

124  954,302 

Per  cent  of  total 

51  35 

70  14 

North  America  

Dollars 

32,116,092 

24,136,879 

Per  cent  of  total. 

35  19 

13  55 

South  America  

Dollars 

16,647,637 

Per  cent  of  total. 

9  35 

Asia  
Per  cent  of  total.  . 

Dollars  .... 

11,560,810 
12.67 

10,315,486 
5.79 

Oceania  5  
Per  cent  of  total  

Dollars  

142,969 
0.16 

1,401,340 
0.79 

Africa.  . 

Dollars 

551,496 

682,151 

Per  cent  of  total  
EXPORTS  BY  GRAND  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  WORLD:  5.  . 
Europe 

Dollars 

0.60 
41  348  088 

0.38 
113,862  253 

Per  cent  of  total  

58.26 

74.96 

North  America.  .  .  .  - 

Dollars 

27,208,618 

24,722,610 

Per  cent  of  total  

38.34 

16.27 

1  Based  on  total  imports  to  1860;  after  that  on  imports  for  consumption  only. 

2  Based  on  total  exports  to  1860 ;   after  that  on  domestic  exports  only. 

3  Gold  and  silver  cannot  be  separately  stated  in  domestic  exports  before  1864,  but  it 
is  probable  that  the  greater  portion  of  the  exports  was  gold.     Gold  and  silver  contained 
in  ore  are  included  under  gold  and  silver  since  1894. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


303 


AREA,   POPULATION,   AND    MATERIAL    INDUSTRIES— Continued. 


1860. 

1870. 

1880. 

1890. 

1900. 

1903. 

3,144,121 

129,235,498 

95,757,575 

36,099,284 

40,160,333 

28,556,349 

8,636 

198,686 

250,802 

537,944 

993,529 

996,585 

353,616,119 

435,958,408 

667,954,746 

789,310,409 

849,941,184 

1,025,719,237 

11.25 

11.06 

12.51 

12.35 

10.88 

12.54 

333,576,057 

392,771,768 

835,638,658 

857,828,684 

1,394,483,082 

1,420,141,679 

10.61 

9.77 

16.43 

13.50 

17.96 

17.32 

2,508,786 

12,056,950 

80,758,396 

12,943,342 

44,573,184 

44,982,027 

6,041,349 

14,362,229 

12,275,914 

21,032,984 

35,256,302 

24,163,491 

58,446,039 

33,635,962 

3,639,025 

17,274,491 

48,266,759 

47,090,595 

8,100,200 

24,519,704 

13,503,894 

34,873,929 

56,712,275 

44,250,259 

78,338,514 

139,213,092 

199,165,963 

288,600,646 

216,107,303 

212,057,293 

22.15 

32.65 

31.72 

32.13 

26.02 

21.04 

61,570,477 

66,909,565 

160,055,876 

178,435,512 

299,351,033 

383,634,293 

17.41 

15.69 

25.52 

23.06 

36.04 

38.06 

31,939,551 

53,658,296 

73,186,963 

84,700,568 

80,575,042 

97,194,094 

9.03 

12.59 

11.66 

10.94 

9.70 

9.64 

123,741,654 

119,298,235 

130,004,643 

154,469,354 

130,577,155 

169,259,497 

35.00 

27.98 

20.72 

19.96 

15.72 

16.79 

58,025,923 

47,266,822 

65,141,826 

107,468,732 

103,908,719 

145,814,933 

16.41 

11.09 

10.38 

13.91 

12.51 

14.47 

353,616,119 

426,346,010 

627,555,271 

773,674,812 

830,519,252 

1,007,960,110 

256,560,972 

361,188,483 

685,961,091 

629,820,808 

835,858,123 

873,322,882 

81.13 

79.35 

83.25 

74.51 

60.98 

62.73 

40,345,892 

68,279,764 

102,856,015 

151,102,376 

433,851,756 

407,526,159 

12.76 

15.00 

12.48 

17.87 

31.65 

29.28 

999,465 

5,026,111 

5,863,232 

22,297,755 

37,843,742 

39,311,239 

0.31 

1.10 

0.71 

2.64 

2.76 

2.81 

10,299,959 

14,897,963 

17,321,268 

29,473,084 

52,218,112 

57,835,896 

3.26 

3.27 

2.11 

3.49 

3.81 

4.16 

4,156,480 

2,835,508 

5,255,402 

7,458,385 

6,326,620 

7,805,538 

1.31 

0.62 

0.64 

0.88 

0.46 

0.56 

3,879,655 

2,980,512 

6,689,345 

5,141,420 

4,665,218 

6,429,588 

1.23 

0.66 

0.81 

0.61 

0.34 

0.46 

316,242,423 

455,208,341 

823,946,353 

845,293,828 

1,370,763,571 

1,392,231,302 

216,831,353 

249,540,283 

370,821,78? 

449,987,266 

440,567,314 

547,226,887 

59.87 

53.98 

55.52 

57.14 

51.84 

53.35 

75,082,583 

126,544,611 

130,077,225 

148,368,706 

130,035,221 

189,736,475 

20.73 

27.42 

19.47 

18.84 

15.30 

18.49 

35,992,719 

43,596,045 

8^,120,922 

90,006,144 

93,666,774 

107,428,323 

9.94 

9.41 

12.30 

11.43 

11.02 

10.48 

26,201,603 

31,413,378 

67,008,793 

67,506,833 

139,842,330 

147,702,374 

7.24 

G.78 

10.02 

8.57 

16.45 

14.40 

3,495,226 

1,423,212 

6  14,130,604 

28,356,568 

34,611,108 

21,043,527 

0.96 

0.31 

2.13 

3.60 

4.07 

2.05 

3,798,518 

7  9,860,058 

3,789,420 

3,321,477 

11,218,437 

12,581,651 

1.05 

2.10 

0.56 

0.42 

1.32 

1.23 

310,272,818 

420,184,014 

719,433,788 

683,736,397 

1,040,167,763 

1,029,256,657 

77.54 

79.35 

86.10 

79.74 

74.60 

72.48 

53,325,937 

68,962,006 

69,437,783 

94,100,410 

187,594,625 

215,482,769 

13.33 

13.03 

8.31 

10.98 

13.45 

15.16 

4  In  1870  specie  is  included  in  totals,  but  excluded  in  following  years. 

5  Hawaiian  Islands  not  included  since  1900. 

6  Includes  "All  other  Spanish  possessions.  " 

7  Includes  "All  other  countries. " 


304 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SUMMARY  OF   PROGRESS    OF  THE   UNITED   STATES  IN   ITS 


Area,  Population,  and  Industries. 

In 

1800. 

1850. 

Exports  by  Grand  Divisions  of  the  World  —  Cont'd. 
South  America  
Per  cent  of  total  
Asia  
Per  cent  of  total  
Oceania  '  

Dollars.  .  .  . 
Dollars  '.'.['. 
'Dollars!  !  !  ! 

'1,177,846 
1.66 
14,112 

9,076,724 
5.98 
3,051,720 
2.01 
208,129 

Per  cent  of  total.  .           .  .        

0.02 

0.14 

Dollars 

1,110  374 

977  284 

Per  rent  of  total  

1.56 

0.64 

TRANSPORTATION  OF  FOREIGN  COMMERCE: 
Imports  — 
T*,r  coo  J  In  American  vessels  
I5y  sea-j  In  foreign  vessels 

Dollars  .  .  . 
Dollars 

139.657,043 

38  481  275 

Total     .                            

Dollars 

178,138  318 

Per  cent 

78  4 

By  land  vehicles        .                

Dollars 

Total  by  land  and  sea.  .  ,  
Exports  — 

Dollars  
Dollars 

178,138,318 
99  615  041 

By  sea  -|  jn  forejgn  vessels  ...          

Dollars 

52,283  679 

Total 

Dollars 

151  998  720 

Share  carried  in  American  vessels  

Per  cent.  . 

65  4 

Dollars 

Total  by  land  and  sea  
FOREIGN  COMMERCE  OF  PRINCIPAL  CUSTOMS  DIS- 
TRICTS : 
Boston  .  .  \  JpPor.ts-     •  • 

Dollars  
Dollars  

151,998,720 

New  York                                             \  Imports.     . 

Dollars  . 
Dollars  

1  Exports. 
p>,;iQ  jolr-i.;0                                         j  Imports.     .  . 

Dollars 
Dollars  .... 

Philadelphia  -j  Exportg 

Dollars    .    . 

TUitimr                                                     Imports.     .  . 

Dollars  

Baltimore  Exports.     .  . 

Dollars 

XT        r»  i                                                      Imports.     .  . 

Dollars  .... 

New  Orleans  Exports 

Dollars 

a       v         •  «,                                        J  Imports. 

Dollars  .... 

San  Francisco  -j  Ex£orts 

Dollars 

FARM  STATISTICS: 
Farms 

1,449,073 

Persons  engaged  in  agriculture  

Number. 

Value  of  farms  and  farm  property.  .  . 

Dollars 

3,967,343,580 

Value  of  farm  products 

Dollars 

FARM  ANIMALS: 
Total  value  
Cattle.  .  ,                        ... 

Dollars.... 

544,180,516 
17,778,907 

Horses.  .. 

Number.  .  . 

4,336,719 

Sheep  

Number 

21,773,220 

Mules 

559,331 

Swine  

Number. 

30,354,213 

PRODUCTION  OF  PRINCIPAL  COMMODITIES: 
Wool  

Pounds    , 

52,516,959 

Wheat..  . 

Bushels 

100,485,944 

Corn 

Bushels 

592  071,104 

Cotton  

Bales 

155,556 

2,333,718 

Cane-sugar 

Tons 

110,526 

PRODUCTION  OF  PRINCIPAL  MINERALS: 
Precious  metals  — 
Gold     . 

Dollars 

50  000  000 

Silver  

Dollars 

50,000 

Coal6  . 

Tons 

3  358,899 

Petroleum  

Gallons.  . 

Pig  iron.                   ...               

Tons 

563,755 

1  Hawaiian  Islands  not  included  since  1900. 

2  Includes  "All  other  Spanish  possessions." 

3  Includes  "All  other  countries." 

4  Gold  values. 

5  Does  not  include  value  of  products  fed  to  live  stock. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


305 


AREA,  POPULATION,   AND   MATERIAL   INDUSTRIES— Continued. 


1860. 

1870. 

1880. 

1890. 

1900. 

1903. 

16,742,100 

21,651,459 

23,190,220 

38,752,648 

38,945,763 

41,137,872 

4.18 

4.09 

2.77 

4.52 

2.79 

2.90 

11,067,921 

10,972,064 

11,645,703 

19,696,820 

64,913,807 

58,359,016 

2.77 

2.07 

1.39 

2.30 

4.66 

4.11 

5,373,497 

4,334,991 

2  6,846,698 

16,460,269 

43,391,275 

37,468,512 

1.34 

0.82 

0.82 

1.92 

3.11 

2.64 

3,227,760 

33,414,768 

2  5,084,466 

4,613,702 

19,469,849 

38,436,853 

0.84 

0.64 

0.61 

0.54 

1.79 

2.71 

228,164,855 

153,237,077 

149,317,368 

124,948,948 

104,304,940 

123,666,832 

134,001,399 

309,140,510 

503,494,913 

623,740,100 

701,223,735 

835,844,210 

362,166,254 

462,377,587 

652,812,281 

748,689,048 

805,528,675 

959,511,042 

63.0 

33.1 

22.9 

16.7 

12.9 

12.9 

15,142,465 

40,621,361 

44,412,509 

66,208,195 

362,166,254 

462,377,587 

667,954,746 

789,310,409 

849,941,184 

1,025,719,237 

279,082,902 

199,732,324 

109,029,209 

77,502,138 

90,779,252 

-  91,028,200 

121,039,394 

329,786,978 

720,770,521 

747,376,644 

1,193,220,689 

1,190,262,178 

400,122,296 

529,519,302 

829,799,730 

824,878,782 

1,283,999,941 

1,281,290,378 

70.0 

37.7 

13.1 

9.4 

7.1 

7.1 

5,838,928 

32,949,902 

110,483,141 

138,851,301 

400,122,296 

529,519,302 

835,638,658 

857,828,684 

1,394,483,082 

1,420,141,679 

39,333,684 

47,484,060 

68,503,136 

62,876,666 

72,195,939 

86,310,586 

12,747,945 

14,126,429 

59,238,241 

71,201,944 

112,195,555 

88,126,444 

231,310,086 

281,048,813 

459,937,153 

516,426,693 

537,237,282 

618,705,662 

80,047,978 

196,614,746 

392,560,090 

349,051,791 

518,834,471 

505,829,694 

14,611,934 

14,483,211 

35,944,500 

53,936,315 

51,866,002 

59,995,431 

5,526,967 

16,927,610 

49,649,693 

37,410,683 

78,406,031 

73,531,968 

9,781,205 

19,512,468 

19,945,989 

13,140,203 

19,045,279 

27,803,167 

8,940,100 

14,510,733 

76,253,566 

73,983,693 

115,530,378 

81,704,497 

20,636,316 

14,377,471 

10,611,353 

14,658,163 

17,490,811 

28,880,744 

108,164,812 

107,586,952 

90,442,019 

108,126,891 

115,858,764 

149,072,519 

7,367,016 

15,982,549 

35,221,751 

48,751,223 

47,869,628 

36,454,283 

4,868,090 

13,991,781 

32,358,929 

36,876,091 

40,368,288 

33,502,616 

2,044,077 

2,659,985 

4,008,907 

4,564,641 

5,739,657 

5,922,471 

7,713,875 

8,565,926 

10,438,219 

7,980,493,060 

4  8,944,857,749 

12,180,501,538 

16,082,267,689 

20,514,001,838 

4  1,958,030,927 

2,212,540,927 

2,460,107,454 

*  3,764,177,706 

1,089,329,915 

1,524,960,149 

1,576,917,556 

2,418,766,028 

2,228,123,134 

3,102,515,540 

25,616,019 

25,484,100 

33,258,000 

52,801,907 

43,902,414 

61,764,433 

6,249,174 

8,248,800 

11,201,800 

14,213,837 

13,537,524 

16,557,373 

22,471,275 

40,853,000 

40,765,900 

44,336,072 

41,883,065 

63,964,876 

1,151,148 

1,179,500 

1,729,500 

2,331,027 

2,086,027 

2,728,088 

33,512,867 

26,751,400 

34,034,100 

51,602,780 

37,079,356 

46,922,624 

60,264,913 

162,000,000 

232,500,000 

276,000,000 

288,636,621 

287,450,000 

173,104,924 

235,884,700 

498,549,868 

399,262,000 

522,229,505 

637,821,835 

838,792,740 

1,094,255,000 

1,717,434,543 

1,489,970,000 

2,105,102,516 

2,244,176,925 

4,861,292 

3,114,592 

5,761,252 

7,311,322 

9,433,416 

10,727,559 

119,040 

46,800 

92,802 

136,503 

149,191 

293,397 

46,000,000 

50,000,000 

36,000,000 

32,845,000 

79,171,000 

74,425,340 

150,000 

16,000,000 

39,200,000 

70,485,714 

74,533,495 

73,076,106 

18,513,123 

32,863,000 

63,822,830 

140,866,931 

240,789,309 

7  21,000,000 

220,951,290 

1,104,017,166 

1,924,552,224 

2,661,233,568 

821,223 

1,665,179 

3,835,191 

9,202,703 

13,789,242 

18,0091252 

6  Pennsylvania  anthracite  shipments  only  from  1820  to  1867;   entire  coal  product  from 
1868  to  1902. 

7  In  addition  to  this  it  is  estimated  that  10,000,000  barrels  ran  to  waste  in  and  prior 
to  1862  for  want  of  a  market. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SUMMARY   OF  PROGRESS   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES  IN  ITS 


Area,  Population,   and  Industries. 

In 

1800. 

1850. 

Production  of  Principal  Minerals  —  Continued. 
Steel   .  . 

Tons 

Copper  

Tons  

650 

Total  value  all  mineral  production  in  U.  S.  .  .  . 
MANUFACTURING  INDUSTRIES  OP  THE  U.  S.: 
Manufacturing  establishments  * 

Dollars  
Number. 

123,025 

Number. 

957,059 

Wa^es  and  salaries  paid  l 

Dollars  .... 

236,755,464 

Value  of  products  *  

Dollars  .... 

1,019,106,616 

MANUFACTURES  OF  IRON  AND  STEEL:  1 
Establishments 

Number. 

Dollars 

Value  of  products  
Imports  .        . 

Dollars.... 
Dollars  .... 

20,145,067 

Exports 

Dollars 

52,144 

1,953,702 

TIN  PLATES: 
Imports 

Pounds.  . 

Lbs  ,  net 

MANUFACTURES  OF  COTTON  :3 

Number 

1  094 

Wages  and  salaries  paid  *.  .  .  . 

Dollars 

Value  of  products  1  
Exports. 

Dollars.... 
Dollars    . 

61,869,184 
4,734,424 

Imports 

Dollars 

20,108,719 

COTTON  MOVEMENT: 
Domestic  cotton  taken  by  United  States  mills 

Bales 

595,000 

Exports  of  domestic  cotton  

Pounds.  .  .  . 

635,381,607 

Raw  cotton  imported 

4  239  987 

269  114 

MANUFACTURES  OF  WOOL:  3 
Establishments  l 

1  675 

Wages  and  salaries  paid  *.  .  .  . 

Dollars 

Value  of  products  '.  .  .  . 

Dollars 

48,608  779 

Imports  
Raw  wool  imported.  .  . 

Dollars  
Pounds.  . 

19,620,619 
18,695,294 

MANUFACTURES  OF  SILK: 
Establishments  1. 

Number. 

67 

Wages  and  salaries  paid  l  
Value  of  products  l  
Imports    1 

Dollars  
Dollars...  . 
Dollars 



'  'l',869,476 
17  639  624 

Raw  silk  imported  
Imports  of  nriidft  ri^b^r 

Pounds.  .  .  . 
Pounds    . 

SUGAR: 

Pounds.  .  .  . 

218,430,764 

Average  cost  per  pound  in  foreign  countries.  .    . 

Dollars  
Cents.  . 

7,555,603 
3.46 

Wholesale  prices  of  granulated,  at  New  York 

Cents. 

Tons 

239  409 

Consumption  per  capita  
COFFEE  : 

Imports  

Pounds.  .  .  . 
Pounds.  .  .  . 

23.1 

145,272,687 

Average  import  price  per  pound  at  New  York.  .  . 
Consumption  per  capita  6.  
TEA: 

Imports  \ 

Cents  
Pounds.  .  .  . 

Pounds.  .  .  . 
Dollars 



7.6 
5.60 

29,872,654 
4,719,232 

Average  import  price  per  pound  at  New  York. 

Cents 

14.1 

Consumption  per  capita  6  
RAILWAYS  : 
In  operation  

Pounds.  .  .  . 
Miles.  ..... 

1.22 
9,021 

Passengers  carried  
Freight  carried  one  mile  .  .  . 

Number.  .  . 
Tons 

1  No  official  figures  in  other  than  census  years. 

2  1891,  last  six  months. 

3  Does  not  include  hosiery  and  knit  goods. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


307 


AREA,  POPULATION,   AND  MATERIAL    INDUSTRIES— Continued. 


1860. 

1870. 

1880. 

1890. 

1900. 

1903. 

68,750 

1,247,335 

4,277,071 

10,188,329 

7,200 

12,600 
218,598,994 

27,000 
369,319,000 

115,966 
619,648,925 

270,588 
1,063,620,548 

140.433 
1  311,246 

252,148 
2,053,996 

253,852 
2,732,595 

355,415 
4,712,622 

512,734 
5,719,137 

378,878,966 
1,885,861,676 

775,584,343 
4,232,325,442 

808 

947,953,795 
5,369,579,191 

1,005 

2,283,216,529 
9,372,437,283 

719 

2,735,*430,848 
13,039,279,566 

725 

40  514,981 

55,476,785 

95,736,192 

134,739,004 

'26,158/235 
5,870,114 

207,208,696 
40,273,682 
13,483,163 

150,932,768 

296,557,685 
71,266,699 
14,716,524 

379,902,880 

478,687,519 
41,679,591 
25,542,208 

680,060,925 
2  2,236,743 

835,759,034 
20,478,728 
121,913,548 

147,963,804 
677,969,600 

5i,617i3i2 
.  96,642,467 

109,913,293 

1,091 

956 

756 

905 

1,055 

23,940,108 
115,681,774 

39,044,132 
177,489,739 

45,614,419 
192,090,110 

69,489,272 
267,981,724 

94,039,951 
339,200,320 



10,934,796 
33,215,541 

979,000 
1,767,686,338 
191,806,555 
2,005,529 

1,476 
11,699,630 

3,787,282 
23,380,053 

857,000 
958,558,523 
.  227,074,624 
1,698,133 

3,208 
35,928,150 

9,981,418 
29,929,366 

1,795,000 
1,822,061,114 
211,535,905 
3,547,792 

2,330 
40,687,612 

9,999,277 
29,918,055 

2,325,000 
2,471,799,853 
250,968,792 
8,606,049 

1,693 
58,397,470 

24,003,087 
41,296,239 

3,644,000 
3,100,583,188 
241,832,737 
67,398,521 

1,414 
64,389,312 

32,216,304 
52,462,755 

3,924,000 
3,543,043,022 
316,180,429 
74,874,426 

73,454,000 

199,257,262 

238,085,686 

270,527,511 

296,990,484 

43,141,988 
(4) 

139 
1,050,224 

34,490,668 
49,230,199 

86 
1,942,286 

33,911,093 
128,131,747 

382 
9,146,705 

56,582,432 
105,431,285 

472 
17,762,441 

16,164,446 
155,928,455 

483 
20,982,194 

19,546,385 
177,137,796 

6,607,771 

12,210  662 

41,033,045 

87,298,454 

107,256,258 

32,726,134 

23,904,048 
583,589 

32,188,690 
2,562,236 

38,686,374 
7,347,909 

30,894,373 
13,043,714 

35,963,552 
15  270  600 

^.  9,624  098 

16  826  099 

33  842  374 

49  377  138 

55  010  571 

694,838,197 
31,078,970 
4.38 

428/785 
30.5 

202,144,733 
21,883,797 
10.8 
5.79 

31,696,657 
8,915,327 
26.3 
0.84 

30,626 

1,196,773,569 
56,923,745 
4.95 
13.51 
607,834 
35.3 

235,256,574 
24,234,879 
10.3 
6.00 

47,408,481 
13,863,273 
29.4 
1.10 

52,922 

1,829,291,684 
80,087,720 
4.18 
9.80 
956,784 
42.9 

446,850,727 
60,360,769 
13.5 

8.78 

72,162,936 
19,782,631 
27.4 
1.39 

93,262 

2,934,011,560 
96,094,532 
3.28 
6.27 
1,476,377 
52.8 

499,159,120 
78,267,432 
16.0 
7.83 

83,886,829 
12,317,493 
15.0 
1.33 

166,703 

4,018,086,530 
100,250,974 
2.49 
5.32 
2,219,847 
65.2 

787,991,911 
52,467,943 
6.7 
9.81 

84,845,107 
10,558,110 
12.4 
1.09 

194,334 

54,216,108,106 
72,088,973 
1.71 
4.64 
2,549,643 
71.1 

915,086,380 
59,200,749 
6.5 
10.79 

108,574,905 
15,659,229 
14.5 
1.30 

520  439  082 

584,695  935 

79  192  985  125 

141  162  109  413 

4  Quantity  not  stated 

5  Does  not  include  sugar  from  Hawaii  and  Porto  Rico. 

6  Consumption  per  capita  based  on  net  imports. 


308 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SUMMARY   OF  PROGRESS  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES   IN   ITS 


Area,  Population,  and  Industries. 

In 

1800. 

. 
1850. 

Railways—  Continued. 
Freight  rates  per  ton  per  mile.  -  .  , 

Cents.  . 

Passenger  cars   -  .  . 

Number 

Freight  cars    *.  

Number. 

AMERICAN  VESSELS: 
Built.  ,  
Engaged  in  foreign  trade.  . 

Tons  
Tons 

100,261 
669  921 

279,255 
1  585  711 

Engaged  in  domestic  trade  
Engaged  in  commerce  of  Great  Lakes. 

Tons  
Tons 

301,919 

1,949,743 
108,266 

Vessels  passing  through  the  Sault  Ste.  Marie  Canal  . 
FREIGHT  RATES  ON  WHEAT,  CHICAGO  TO  NEW  YORK  : 
Lake  and  canal  l  
Lake  and  rail.    .                                                  ... 

Tonnage.  .. 

Cts.  per  bu. 
Cts.  per  bu. 

All  rail 

Cts   per  bu 

CONSUMPTION  OF  WINES  AND  LIQUORS: 
Wines- 
Consumption  
Consumption  per  capita.  • 

Gallons.  .  .  . 
Gallons.  . 

6,315,871 
0.27 

Malt  liquors  — 
Consumption. 

Gallons    . 

36,563,009 

Consumption  per  capita  
Distilled  spirits  — 
Consumption 

Gallons.  .  .  . 
Gallons 



1.58 
51,833  473 

Consumption  per  capita  
Total  consumption  of  wines  and  liquors.    .  . 
Total  consumption  per  capita  
PRICES  OF  STAPLE  COMMODITIES:3 
Pig  iron,  No.  1,  foundry,  per  ton  
Steel  rails,  standard  sections,  per  ton  
Middling  cotton,  per  pound  4.  .    
Standard  sheetings,  per  yard.  .     
Standard  prints,  per  yard. 

Gallons.  ..  . 
Proof  galls. 
Proof  galls  . 

Dollars  
Dollars.  .  .  . 
Cents  
Cents.      .  .  . 
Cents 

2.23 
94,712,353 
4.08 

20.88 

'  'l2.34 

7.87 
10.62 

Washed  Ohio  fleece  wool,  July  1— 
Fine  .. 

Cents. 

45 

Medium                         \ 

37 

Coarse.  .      
COMMERCIAL  FAILURES: 
Reported.  
Amount  of  liabilities. 

Cents.      .  . 

Number.  .  . 
Dollars 

30 

POST-OFFICE  STATISTICS: 
Post-offices.  .  . 

Number. 

903 

18,417 

Receipts  of  Post-office  Department 

Dollars 

280,804 

5,499,985 

Telegraph  messages  sent  6  
Newspapers  and  periodicals  published      .  . 

Number.  ,  . 
Number 

'2,526 

PUBLIC  SCHOOLS: 
Pupils  enrolled.  . 

Number. 

Average  daily  attendance 

Number 

Dollars 

Total  expenditures  

Dollars  

STUDENTS     IN     COLLEGES,     UNIVERSITIES,     AND 
SCHOOLS  OF  TECHNOLOGY: 
Men 

Number 

Women.  .  .  . 

Number.  . 

Total  .  . 

Number. 

Patents  issued  
Immigrants  arrived  

Number.  .  . 
Number.  .  . 

993 
310,004 

1  Including  canal  tolls  under  1882,  but  not  Buffalo  transfer  charges. 

2  For  domestic  consumption;  local  rate  for  exports  only  9.08  cents  in  1900. 

3  At  Philadelphia. 

4  Net  prices. 

s  Western  Union  to  1885;   includes  Postal  Telegraph  1885  to  date. 
0  Figures  from  1870  to  date;  from  Rowell's  Newspaper  Directory. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


309 


AREA,    POPULATION,   AND  MATERIAL   INDUSTRIES— Continued. 


1860. 

1870. 

1880. 

1890. 

1900. 

1903. 

93 

75 

12,788 

21,664 

26,786 

544,185 

1,099,205 

1,350,258 

214,797 
2,546,237 
2,807,631 
467,774 
403,657 

24.83 

276,953 
1,516,800 
2,729,707 
684,704 
690,826 

17.11 
22.0 

157,409 
1,352,810 
2,715,224 
605,102 
1,734,890 

12.27 
15.7 

294,122 
946,695 
3,477,802 
1,063,063 
8,454,435 

5.85 
8.5 

393,790 
826,694 
4,338,145 
1,565,587 
22,315,834 

4.42 
5.05 

436,152 
888.776 
5,198,569 
1,902,698 
27,736,444 

5.44 

6  17 

11,059,141 
0.35 

101,346,669 
3.22 

89,968,651 
2.86 
202,374,461 
6.44 

22.75 

33.3 

12,225,067 
0.32 

204,756,156 
5.31 

79,895,708 
2.07 
296,876,931 
7.70 

33.25 
106.75 

19.9 

28,329,541 
0.56 

414,220,165 
8.26 

63,526,694 
1.27 
506,076,400 
10.09 

28.50 
67.50 

14.31 

28,956,981 
0.46 

855,792,335 
13.67 

87,829,562 
1.40 
972,578,878 
15.53 

18.40 
31.75 

2  9.98 

30,427,491 
0.40 

1,221,500,160 
16.01 

97,248,382 
1.27 
1,349,176,033 
17.68 

19.98 
32.29 

11.33 

39,413,201 
0.49 

1,449,879,952 
18.04 

117,252,148 
1.46 
1,606,545,301 
19.99 

19.92 
28  00 

11.00 
8.73 
9.50 

55 
50 
40 

3,676 
79,807,000 

28,498 
8,518,067 

'4,05i 

23.98 
14.58 
12.41 

46 
45 
43 

3,546 
88,242,000 

28,492 
19,772,221 
9,157,646 
6  5,871 

6,871,522 

11.51 
8.51 
7.41 

46 
48 
42' 

4,735 
65,752,000 

42,989 
33,315,479 
29,215,509 
9,723 

6,867,505 

11.07 
7.00 
6.00 

33 

37 
29 

10,907 
189,856,964 

62,401 
60,882,097 
63,258,762 
16,948 

12,722,581 

9.25 
6.05 
5.00 

3H 

27* 

10,774 
138,495,673 

76,688 
102,354,579 
79,696,227 
20,806 

15,503,110 

11.18 
6.25 
5.00 

31* 

$ 

12,069 
155,444,185 

74,169 
134,224,443 
91,391,443 
20,485 



4,077,347 
37,832,566 

6,144,143 
55,942,972 

8,153,635 
91,836,484 

10,632,772 
137,687,746 

63,396,666 

78,094,687 

140  506  715 

214,964,618 

44  926 

72,159 

10  761 

26  764 

7  38,227 

55,687 

98,923 

4,778 
s  150,237 

13,333 
9  387,203 

13,947 
457,257 

26,292 
455,302 

26,499 
448,572 

31,699 
857,046 

'  Figures  for  the  year  1880  are  for  the  calendar  year  preceding  the  fiscal  year,  and 
include  non-resident  graduates;  figures  of  later  years  are  exclusive  of  non-resident  grad- 
uate students. 

8  Calendar  year. 

9  Years  ending  June  30  to  date. 


310 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


COMPARISON  OF  THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE  WITH  EASTERN  UNITED  STATES 

— Booklover's  Magazine. 


CHAPTER    XI. 


THE  DEPARTMENTS   OF  THE  FEDERAL   GOVERNMENT, 


The  following  is  a  brief  resume  of  the  work  carried  on  by  the  Depart- 
ments of  the  Government  service,  and  in  many  cases  the  individual  bureaus 
and  divisions  are  noted.  Information  germane  to  the  work  of  the  bureaus, 
etc.,  is  cheerfully  given. 

THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  JUSTICE. 


The  Attorney-General  is  the  head  of 
the  Department  of  Justice  and  the 
chief  law  officer  of  the  Government. 
He  represents  the  United  States  in 
matters  involving  legal  questions ;  he 
gives  his  advice  and  opinion,  when 
they  are  required  by  the  President  or 
by  the  heads  of  the  other  Executive 
Departments,  on  questions  of  law  aris- 


ing in  the  administration  of  their  re- 
spective Departments ;  he  exercises  a 
general  superintendence  and  direction 
over  United  States  attorneys  and  mar- 
shals in  all  judicial  districts  in  the 
States  and  Territories ;  and  he  pro- 
vides special  counsel  for  the  United 
States  whenever  required  by  any  De- 
partment of  the  Government. 


THE  DEPARTMENT    OF    STATE. 


The  Secretary  of  State  is  charged, 
under  the  direction  of  the  Presi- 
dent, with  the  duties  appertain- 
ing to  correspondence  with  the 
public  ministers  and  the  consuls 
of  the  United  States,  and  with 
the  representatives  of  foreign  powers 
accredited  to  the  United  States ;  and 
to  negotiations  of  whatever  character 
relating  to  the  foreign  affairs  of  the 
United  States.  He  is  also  the  medium 
of  correspondence  between  the  Presi- 
dent and  the  chief  executives  of  the 
several  States  of  the  United  States; 
he  has  the  custody  of  the  Great  Seal 
of  the  United  States,  and  countersigns 
and  affixes  such  seal  to  all  executive 
proclamations,  to  various  commissions, 
and  to  warrants  for  the  extradition  of 


fugitives  from  justice.  He  is  regard- 
ed as  the  first  in  rank  among  the  mem- 
^ers  of  the  Cabinet. 

The  Secretary  of  State  is  also  the 
custodian  of  the  treaties  made  with 
foreign  States,  and  of  the  laws  of  the 
United  States.  He  grants  and  issues 
passports,  and  exequaturs  to  foreign 
consuls  in  the  United  States  are  is- 
sued through  his  office.  He  publishes 
the  laws  and  resolutions  of  Congress, 
amendments  to  the  Constitution,  and 
proclamations  declaring  the  admission 
of  new  States  into  the  Union.  He  is 
also  charged  with  certain  annual  re- 
ports to  Congress  relating  to  commer- 
cial information  received  from  diplo- 
matic and  consular  officers  of  the 
United  States. 


THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  TREASURY. 


The  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  is 
charged  by  law  with  the  management 
of  the  national  finances.  He  prepares 
plans  for  the  improvement  of  the  rev- 
enue and  for  the  support  of  the  public 
credit ;  superintends  the  collection  of 
the  revenue,  and  directs  the  forms  of 
keeping  and  rendering  public  accounts 
and  of  making  returns ;  grants  war- 
rants for  all  moneys  drawls,  from  the 
Treasury  in  pursuance  of  appropria- 
tions made  by  law,  and  for  the  pay- 
ment of  moneys  into  the  Treasury ; 


and  annually  submits  to  Congress  es- 
timates of  the  probable  revenues  and 
disbursements  of  the  Government.  He 
also  controls  the  construction  of  pub- 
lic buildings ;  the  coinage  and  printing 
of  money ;  the  administration  of  the 
Life-Saving,  Revenue-Cutter,  and  the 
Public  Health  and  Marine-Hospital 
branches  of  the  public  service,  and  fur- 
nishes generally  such  information  as 
may  be  required  by  either  branch  of 
Congress  on  all  matters  pertaining  to 
the  foregoing. 


311 


312 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


THE     DEPARTMENT     OF     WAR. 


The  Secretary  of  War  is  head  of  the 
War  Department,  and  performs  such 
duties  as  are  required  of  him  by  law 
or  may  be  enjoined  upon  him  by  the 
President  concerning  the  military  ser- 
vice. He  is  charged  by  law  with  the 
supervision  of  all  estimates  of  appro- 
priations for  the  expenses  of  the  De- 
partment, including  the  military  es- 
tablishment ;  of  all  purchases  of  army 
supplies :  of  all  expenditures  for  the 
support,  transportation,  and  mainte- 
nance of  the  Army,  and  of  such  expen- 
ditures of  a  civil  nature  as  may  be 
placed  by  Congress  under  his  direction. 
He  also  has  supervision  of  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  at  West 
Point  and  of  military  education  in  the 
Army,  of  the  Board  of  Ordnance  and 
Fortification,  of  the  various  battle- 
field commissions,  and  of  the  publica- 
tion of  the  official  Records  of  the  War 
of  the  Rebellion.  He  has  charge  of  all 
matters  relating  to  national  defense 
and  seacoast  fortifications,  army  ord- 
nance, river  and  harbor  improvements, 
the  prevention  of  obstruction  to  navi- 
gation, and  the  establishment  of  har- 
bor lines,  and  all  plans  and  locations  of 
bridges  authorized  by  Congress  to  be 
constructed  over  the  navigable  waters 
of  the  United  States  require  his  ap- 
proval. He  also  has  charge  of  the  es- 
tablishment or  abandonment  of  mili- 
tary posts,  and  of  all  matters  relating 
to  leases,  revocable  licenses,  and  all 
other  privileges  upon  lands  under  the 
control  of  the  War  Department. 

THE    GENERAL     STAFF. 

The  General  Staff  Corps  was  organ- 
ized under  the  provisions  of  an  act  of 
Congress  approved  February  14,  1903. 
Its  principal  duties  are  to  prepare 
plans  for  the  national  defense  and  for 
the  mobilization  of  the  military  forces 
in  time  of  war ;  to  investigate  and  re- 
port upon  all  questions  affecting  the 
efficiency  of  the  Army  and  its  state 
of  preparation  for  military  operations  ; 
to  render  professional  aid  and  assist- 
ance to  the  Secretary  of  War  and  to 
general  officers  and  other  superior 
commanders  and  to  act  as  their  agents 
in  informing  and  co-ordinating  the  ac- 
tion of  all  the  different  officers  who  are 
subject  to  the  supervision  of  the  Chief 
of  Staff,  and  to  perform  such  other 
military  duties  not  otherwise  assigned 
by  law  as  may  be  from  time  to  time 
prescribed  by  the  President.  The 
Chief  of  Staff,  under  direction  of  the 


President,  or  of  the  Secretary  of  War 
under  the  direction  of  the  President, 
has  supervision  of  all  troops  of 
the  ^  line  and  of  the  Adjutant-Gen- 
eral's, Inspector-General's,  Judge-Ad- 
vocate-General's,  Quartermaster's,  Sub- 
sistence, Medical,  Pay,  and  Ord- 
nance Departments,  the  Corps  of  En- 
gineers and  the  Signal  Corps,  and  per- 
forms such  other  military  duties  not 
otherwise  assigned  by  law  as  may  be 
assigned  to  him  by  the  President.  Du- 
ties formerly  prescribed  by  statute  for 
the  Commanding  General  of  the  Army 
as  a  member  of  the  Board  of  Ord- 
nance and  Fortification  and  of  the 
Board  of  Commissioners  of  the  Sol- 
diers' Home  are  performed  by  the 
Chief  of  Staff  or  some  other  officer  des- 
ignated by  the  President. 


SOME  OF  THE  MILITARY   BUREAUS. 

The  chiefs  of  the  military  bureaus 
of  the  War  Department  are  officers  of 
the  Regular  Army  of  the  United  States 
and  part  of  the  military  establishment, 
viz. : 

The  Adjutant-General's  Depart- 
ment is  the  bureau  of  orders  and  rec- 
ords of  the  Army.  Orders  and  instruc- 
tions emanating  from  the  War  De- 
partment and  all  regulations  are  issued 
by  the  Secretary  of  War  through  the 
Chief  of  Staff,  and  are  communicated 
to  troops  and  individuals  in  the  mili- 
tary service  through  the  Adjutant- 
General.  His  office  is  the  repository 
for  the  records  of  the  War  Depart- 
ment which  relate  to  the  personnel  of 
the  permanent  military  establishment 
and  militia  in  the  service  of  the  United 
States,  to  the  military  history  of  every 
commissioned  officer  and  soldier  there- 
of, and  to  the  movements  and  oper- 
ation of  troops.  The  records  of  all  ap- 
pointments, promotions,  resignations, 
deaths,  and  other  casualties  in  the 
Army,  the  preparation  and  distribu- 
tion of  commissions,  and  the  compila- 
tion and  issue  of  the  Army  Register 
and  of  information  concerning  exami- 
nations for  appointment  and  promo- 
tions pertain  to  the  Adjutant-General's 
Office.  The  Adjutant-General  is 
charged,  under  the  direction  of  the 
Secretary  of  War,  with  the  manage- 
ment of  the  recruiting  service,  the 
communication  of  instructions  to  offi- 
cers detailed  to  visit  encampments  of 
militia,  and  the  digesting,  arranging, 
and  preserving  of  their  reports ;  also 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


313 


the  preparation  of  the  annual  returns 
of  the  militia  required  by  law  to  be 
submitted  to  Congress. 

The  Quartermaster-General,  aided 
by  his  assistants,  provides  transporta- 
tion for  the  Army  ;  also  clothing  and 
equipage,  horses,  mules,  and  wagons, 
vessels,  forage,  stationery,  and  other 
miscellaneous  quartermaster  stores 
and  property  for  the  Army,  and  of 
clothing  and  equipage  for  the  mi- 
litia ;  constructs  necessary  buildings, 
wharves,  roads,  and  bridges  at 
military  posts,  and  repairs  the  same ; 
furnishes  water,  heating  and  light- 
ing apparatus ;  pays  guides,  spies,  and 
interpreters,  and  is  in  charge  of  na- 
tional cemeteries. 

The  Chief  of  Engineers  commands 
the  Corps  of  Engineers,  which  is 
charged  with  all  duties  relating  to 
construction  and  repair  of  fortifica- 
tions, whether  permanent  or  tempo- 
rary; with  all  works  of  defense;  with 
all  military  roads  and  bridges,  and 
with  such  surveys  as  may  be  required 
for  these  objects,  or  the  movement  of 
armies  in  the  field.  It  is  also  charged 
with  the  river  and  harbor  improve- 
ments, with  military  and  geographical 
explorations  and  surveys,  with  the 
survey  of  the  lakes,  and  with  any  other 
engineering  work  specially  assigned 
to  the  corps  by  acts  of  Congress  or 
orders  of  the  Secretary  of  War. 


The  Chief  of  Ordnance  commands 
the  Ordnance  Department,  the  duties 
of  which  consist  in  providing,  preserv- 
ing, distributing,  and  accounting  for 
every  description  of  artillery,  small 
arms,  and  all  the  munitions  of  war 
which  may  be  required  for  the  for- 
tresses of  the  country,  the  armies  in 
the  field,  and  for  the  whole  body  of  the 
militia  of  the  Union.  In  these  duties 
are  comprised  those  of  determining  the 
general  principles  of  construction  and 
of  prescribing  in  detail  the  models  and 
forms  of  all  military  weapons  employ- 
ed in  war.  They  comprise  also  the 
duty  of  prescribing  the  regulations  for 
the  proof  and  inspection  of  all  these 
weapons,  for  maintaining  uniformity 
and  economy  in  their  fabrication,  for 
insuring  their  good  quality,  and  for 
their  preservation  and  distribution. 

The  Chief  Signal  Officer  is  charged 
with  the  supervision  of  all  military 
signal  duties,  and  of  books,  papers,  and 
devices  connected  therewith,  including 
telegraph  and  telephone  apparatus  and 
the  necessary  meteorological  instru- 
ments for  use  on  target  ranges  and 
other  military  uses ;  the  construction, 
repair,  and  operation  of  military  tele- 
graph lines,  and  the  duty  of  collecting 
and  transmitting  information  for  the 
Army  by  telegraph  or  otherwise,  and 
all  other  duties  usually  pertaining  to 
military  signaling. 


THE  DEPARTMENT     OF     AGRICULTURE. 


The  Secretary  of  Agriculture  is 
charged  with  the  supervision  of  all 
public  business  relating  to  the  agricul- 
tural industry.  He  appoints  all  the 
officers  and  employees  of  the  Depart- 
ment, with  the  exception  of  the  Assist- 
ant Secretary  and  the  Chief  of  the 
Weather  Bureau,  who  are  appointed 
by  the  President,  and  directs  the  man- 
agement of  all  the  bureaus,  divisions, 
and  offices  embraced  in  the  Depart- 
ment. He  exercises  advisory  super- 
vision over  agricultural  experiment 
stations  deriving  support  from  the  Na- 
tional Treasury.  He  controls  the  im- 
port and  export  of  cattle,  including 
cattle-carrying  vessels,  and  directs  in- 
terstate quarantine  when  rendered  nec- 
essary by  contagious  cattle  diseases. 
His  duties  and  powers  include  the 
preservation,  distribution,  and  intro- 
duction of  birds  and  animals,  game 
birds  and  other  wild  birds  and  ani- 
mals in  the  United  States,  and  the 
protection  of  wild  game  animals  and 
wild  birds  in  the  district  of  Alaska. 


He  is  charged  generally  with  carrying 
out  the  chief  purpose  of  the  Depart- 
ment, which  is  "to  acquire  and  diffuse 
among  the  people  of  the  United  States 
useful  information  on  subjects  con- 
nected with  agriculture,  in  the  most 
comprehensive  sense  of  that  word,  and 
to  procure,  propagate,  and  distribute 
among  the  people  new  and  valuable 
seeds  and  plants." 

THE  WEATHER  BUREAU. 

The  Chief  of  the  Weather  Bureau, 
under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture,  has  charge  of  the  fore- 
casting of  weather ;  the  issue  of  storm 
warnings ;  the  display  of  weather  and 
flood  signals  for  the  benefit  of  agricul- 
ture, commerce,  and  navigation ;  the 
gauging  and  reporting  of  rivers ;  the 
maintenance  and  operation  of  seacoast 
telegraph  lines,  and  the  collection  and 
transmission  of  marine  intelligence 
for  the  benefit  of  commerce  and  navi- 
gation ;  the  reporting  of  temperature 


314 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


and  rain-fall  conditions  for  the  cotton 
interests ;  the  display  of  frost  and  cold- 
wave  signals ;  the  distribution  of  me- 
teorological information  in  the  inter- 
ests of  agriculture  and  commerce,  and 
the  taking  of  such  meteorological 
observations  as  may  be  necessary 
to  establish  and  record  the  climatic 
conditions  of  the  United  States  or 
as  are  essential  for  the  proper  execu- 
tion of  the  foregoing  duties. 

THE     BUREAU     OF     ANIMAL     INDUSTRY. 

The  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry 
makes  investigations  as  to  the  exist- 
ence of  dangerous  communicable  dis- 
eases of  live  stock ;  superintends  the 
measures  for  their  extirpation,  and 
makes  original  investigations  as  to  the 
nature  and  prevention  of  such  dis- 
eases. It  inspects  live  stock  and  their 
products  slaughtered  for  food  consump- 
tion ;  has  charge  of  the  inspection  of 
import  and  export  animals,  of  the  in- 
spection of  vessels  for  the  transporta- 
tion of  export  animals,  and  of  the 
quarantine  stations  for  imported  neat 
cattle,  other  ruminants,  and  swine ; 
generally  supervises  the  interstate 
movement  of  animals  and  reports  on 
the  condition  and  means  of  improving 
the  animal  industries  of  the  country. 
It  makes  special  investigations  in  re- 
gard to  dairy  subjects,  inspects  and 
certifies  dairy  products  for  export,  and 
supervises  the  manufacture  and  inter- 
state commerce  of  renovated  butter. 

BUREAU  OF  CHEMISTRY. 

The  Bureau  of  Chemistry  makes  in- 
vestigations of  fertilizers,  and  agricul- 
tural products,  and  such  analyses  as 
pertain  in  general  to  the  interests  of 
agriculture.  It  investigates  the  com- 
position and  adulteration  of  foods  and 
the  composition  of  field  products  in  re- 
lation to  their  nutritive  value  and  to 
the  constituents  which  they  derive 
from  the  soil,  fertilizers,  and  the  air. 
It  inspects  imported  food  products  and 
excludes  from  entry  those  injurious  to 
health.  It  inspects  food  products  ex- 
ported to  foreign  countries  where  phy- 
sical and  chemical  tests  are  required 
for  such  products.  It  co-operates 
with  the  chemists  of  the  agricultural 
experiment  stations  in  all  matters  per- 
taining to  the  relations  of  chemistry 
to  agricultural  interests.  It  also  co- 
operates with  the  other  scientific  di- 
visions of  the  Department  in  all  mat- 
ters relating  to  chemistry,  and  con- 
ducts investigations  of  a  chemical  na- 


ture for  other  Departments  of  the  Gov- 
ernment at  the  request  of  their  respect- 
ive Secretaries. 

BUREAU  OF  STATISTICS. 

The  statistician  collects  information 
as  to  crop  production  and  the  numbers 
and  status  of  farm  animals,  through 
a  corps  of  county  and  township  corre- 
spondents, traveling  agents,  and  other 
agencies,  and  obtains  similar  informa- 
tion from  foreign  countries  through 
special  agents,  assisted  by  consular, 
agricultural,  and  commercial  authori- 
ties. He  records,  tabulates,  and  co- 
ordinates statistics  of  agricultural  pro- 
duction, distribution,  and  consumption, 
the  authorized  data  of  governments, 
institutes,  societies,  boards  of  trade, 
and  individual  experts;  and  issues  a 
monthly  crop  report  for  the  informa- 
tion of  producers  and  consumers. 

DIVISION  OF  FOREIGN   MARKETS. 

The  division  of  foreign  markets  has 
for  its  object  the  extension  of  the  ag- 
ricultural export  trade  of  the  United 
States.  It  investigates  the  require- 
ments of  foreign  markets,  studies  the 
conditions  of  demand  and  supply  as 
disclosed  by  the  records  of  production, 
importation,  and  exportation,  inquires 
into  the  obstacles  confronting  trade  ex- 
tension, and  disseminates  through 
printed  reports  and  otherwise  the  in- 
formation collected. 


OFFICE  OF  EXPERIMENT   STATIONS. 

The  Office  of  Experiment  Stations 
represents  the  Department  in  its  re- 
lations to  the  agricultural  colleges  and 
experiment  stations,  which  are  now  in 
operation  in  all  the  States  and  Terri- 
tories, and  directly  manages  the  ex- 
periment stations  in  Alaska,  Hawaii, 
and  Porto  Rico.  It  seeks  to  promote 
the  interests  of  agricultural  education 
and  investigation  throughout  the  Uni- 
ted States.  It  collects  and  dissemi- 
nates general  information  regarding 
the  colleges  and  stations,  and  publishes 
accounts  of  agricultural  investigations 
at  home  and  abroad.  It  also  indicates 
lines  of  inquiry,  aids  in  the  conduct  of 
co-operative  experiments,  reports  upon 
the  expenditures  and  work  of  the  sta- 
tions, and  in  general  furnishes  them 
with  such  advice  and  assistance  as  will 
best  promote  the  purposes  for  which 
they  were  established.  It  is  also 
charged  with  investigations  on  the  nu- 
tritive value  and  economy  of  human 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


315 


foods  and  on  irrigation  and  agricul- 
tural engineering,  which  are  largely 
conducted  in  co-operation  with  the  col- 
leges and  stations. 

DIVISION   OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 

The  entomologist  obtains  and  dis- 
seminates information  regarding  inju- 
rious insects ;  investigates  insects  sent 
him  in  order  to  give  appropriate  reme- 
dies ;  conducts  investigations  of  this 
character  in  different  parts  of  the 
country,  and  mounts  and  arranges 
specimens  for  illustrative  and  museum 
purposes. 

DIVISION   OF  BIOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

The  division  of  biological  survey 
studies  the  geographic  distribution  of 
animals  and  plants,  and  maps  the  na- 
tural life  zones  of  the  country ;  it  also 
investigates  the  economic  relations  of 
birds  and  mammals,  recommends  meas- 
ures for  the  preservation  of  beneficial 
and  the  destruction  of  injurious  spe- 
cies, and  has  been  charged  with  carry- 
ing into  effect  the  provisions  of  the 
Federal  law  for  the  importation  and 
protection  of  birds,  contained  in  the 
act  of  Congress  of  May  25,  1900. 

BUREAU  OF  FORESTRY. 

The  Bureau  of  Forestry  gives  prac- 
tical assistance  to  farmers,  lumber- 
men, and  others  in  the  conservative 
handling  of  forest  lands ;  investigates 
methods  and  trees  for  planting  in  the 
treeless  West,  and  gives  practical  as- 
sistance to  tree  planters ;  studies  com- 
mercially valuable  trees  to  determine 
their  special  uses  in  forestry ;  tests  the 
strength  and  durability  of  construction 
timbers  and  railroad  ties ;  investigates 
forest  fires,  grazing,  and  other  forest 
problems ;  and  makes  plans  for  practi- 
cal forestry  in  the  national  forest  re- 
serves at  the  request  of  the  Secretary 
of  the  Interior. 

BUREAU  OF  PLANT  INDUSTRY. 

The  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  stud- 
ies plant  life  in  all  its  relations  to  ag- 
riculture. It  includes  vegetable  patho- 
logical and  physiological  investigations, 
botanical  investigations  and  experi- 
ments, pomological  investigations, 
grass  and  forage  plant  investigations, 
experimental  gardens  and  grounds,  the 
Arlington  experimental  farm,  Con- 
gressional seed  distribution,  seed  and 
plant  introduction,  and  tea-culture  ex- 
periments. 


VEGETABLE  PATHOLOGICAL  AND  PHYSIO- 
LOGICAL    INVESTIGATIONS. 

These  investigations  have  for  their 
objects  the  study  of  diseases  of  agri- 
cultural crops  and  economic  plants, 
nutrition  of  plants,  rotation  of  crops, 
and  the  general  application  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  pathology  and  physiology  to 
agriculture,  the  problems  of  crop  im- 
provement, and  the  production  of  bet- 
ter varieties  of  agricultural  plants  and 
of  crops  resistant  to  disease  by  means 
of  breeding  and  selection. 

BOTANICAL     INVESTIGATIONS     AND     EX- 
PERIMENTS. 

This  office  investigates  botanical 
problems,  including  the  purity  and 
value  of  seeds ;  methods  of  controlling 
the  spread  of  weeds  and  preventing 
their  introduction  into  this  country ; 
the  injurious  effects  and  antidotes  in 
the  case  of  poisonous  plants ;  the  na- 
tive plant  resources  of  the  country, 
and  other  phases  of  economic  botany. 

GRASS    AND   FORAGE    PLANT    INVESTIGA- 
TIONS. 

This  office  studies  the  natural  his- 
tory, geographical  distribution,  and 
uses  of  grasses  and  forage  plants,  as 
well  as  their  adaptation  to  special 
soils  and  climates ;  introduces  prom- 
ising foreign  varieties,  and  investigates 
the  methods  of  cultivation  of  native 
and  foreign  sorts. 

POMOLOGICAL   INVESTIGATIONS. 

This  branch  of  the  Bureau  collects 
and  distributes  information  in  regard 
to  the  fruit  interests  of  the  United 
States ;  investigates  the  habits  and  pe- 
culiar qualities  of  fruits;  their  adapt- 
ability to  various  soils  and  climates, 
and  conditions  of  culture.  It  studies 
the  methods  of  harvesting,  handling, 
and  storing  fruits,  with  a  view  to  im- 
proving our  own  markets  and  extend- 
ing them  into  foreign  countries. 

EXPERIMENTAL  GARDENS  AND  GROUNDS. 

This  branch  is  charged  with  the 
care  and  ornamentation  of  the  parks 
surrounding  the  Department  build- 
ings; with  the  duties  connected  with 
the  conservatories  and  gardens,  and 
with  the  testing  and  propagating  of 
economic  plants.  It  carries  on  inves- 
tigations for  the  purpose  of  determin- 
ing the  best  methods  of  improving  the 


316 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


culture  of  plants  under  glass,  and 
other  lines  of  invastigation  connected 
with  intensive  horticulture. 

CONCESSIONAL      SEED      DISTRIBUTION. 

This  office  is  charged  with  the  pur- 
chase and  distribution  of  valuable 
seed.  The  seeds  are  distributed  in  al- 
lotments to  Senators,  Representatives, 
Delegates  in  Congress,  and  the  agri- 
cultural experiment  stations,  and  also 
by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  as 
provided  for  by  the  law. 

SEED     AND    PLANT     INTRODUCTION. 

This  work  has  for  its  object  the  se- 
curing from  all  parts  of  the  world  of 
seeds  and  plants  of  new  and  valuable 
agricultural  crops  adapted  to  different 
parts  of  the  United  States. 

ARLINGTON  EXPERIMENTAL  FARM. 

The  experiment  farm  is  designed  ul- 
timately to  become  an  adjunct  to  all 
branches  of  the  Department.  It  will 
carry  on  investigations  in  the  testing 
of  agricultural  crops,  fruits,  and  vege- 
tables. 

TEA   CULTURE    EXPERIMENTS. 

This  branch  of  the  Bureau  has  for 
its  object  the  study  of  tea  with  a  view 
to  producing  it  in  this  country.  Ex- 
periments are  conducted  in  tea  cul- 
ture, and  methods  of  growing,  curing, 
and  handling  the  tea  are  being  worked 
out.  The  work  is  carried  on  at  Sum- 
merville,  S.  C.,  and  at  Pierce,  Texas. 


BUREAU   OF    SOILS. 

The  Bureau  of  Soils  has  for  its  ob- 
ject the  investigation  of  soils  in  their 
relation  to  crops,  the  mapping  of  soils, 
the  investigation,  mapping,  and  re- 
clamation of  alkali  lands,  and  investi- 
gations of  the  growth,  curing,  and  fer- 
mentation of  tobacco. 

OFFICE  OF  PUBLIC-ROAD  INQUIRIES. 

The  Office  of  Public-Road  Inquiries 
collects  information  concerning  the 
systems  of  road  management  through- 
out the  United  States,  conducts  and 
promotes  investigations  and  experi- 
ments regarding  the  best  methods  of 
road  making  and  road-making  ma- 
terials, and  prepares  publications  on 
this  subject. 

DIVISION  OF  PUBLICATIONS. 

The  division  of  publications  edits  all 
publications  of  the  Department,  in- 
cluding Farmers'  Bulletins  and  other 
agricultural  reports  ordered  printed  by 
the  Congress,  with  the  exception  of 
those  issued  by  the  Weather  Bureau. 
It  supervises  all  printing,  binding,  and 
illustration  work  of  the  Department. 
It  directs  the  distribution  of  publica- 
tions with  the  exception  of  those  turn- 
ed over  by  law  to  the  Superintendent 
of  Documents  for  sale  at  the  price 
fixed  -by- him;  issues,  in  the  form  of 
press  notices,  official  information  of  in- 
terest to  agriculturists,  and  distributes 
to  agricultural  and  other  periodicals 
and  writers  synopses  of  Department 
publications. 


THE    POST-OFFICE    DEPARTMENT. 


The  Postmaster-General  has  the  di- 
rection and  management  of  the  Post- 
office  Department.  He  appoints  all 
officers  and  employees  of  the  Depart- 
ment, except  the  four  Assistant  Post- 
masters-General, who  are  appointed 
by  the  President,  by  and  with  the  ad- 
vice and  consent  of  the  Senate ;  ap- 


points all  postmasters  whose  compen- 
sation does  not  exceed  $1,000 ;  makes 
postal  treaties  with  foreign  Govern- 
ments, by  and  with  the  advice  and  con- 
sent of  the  President,  awards  and  ex- 
ecutes contracts,  and  directs  the  man- 
agement of  the  domestic  and  foreign 
mail  service. 


THE     DEPARTMENT     OF     THE      NAVY. 


The  Secretary  of  the  Navy  performs 
such  duties  as  the  President  of  the 
United  States,  who  is  Commander  in 
Chief,  may  assign  him,  and  has  the 
general  superintendence  of  construc- 
tion, manning,  armament,  equipment, 
and  employment  of  vessels  of  war. 

BUREAU    OF   NAVIGATION. 

The  duties  of  the  Bureau  of  Navi- 
gation comprise  all  that  relates  to  the 


promulgation,-  record,  and  enforcement 
of  the  Secretary's  orders  to  the  fleets 
and  to  the  officers  of  the  Navy,  except 
such  orders  as  pertain  to  the  Office  of 
the  Secretary  ;  the  education  of  officers 
and  men,  including  the  Naval  A^ade- 
my  and  technical  schools  for  officers 
(Vx-ept  the  War  College  and  Torpedo 
School),  the  apprentice  establishment, 
and  schools  for  the  technical  education 
of  enlisted  men,  and  to  the  supervision 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


317 


and  control  of  the  Naval  Home,  Phila- 
delphia ;  the  enlistment  and  discharge  ' 
of  all  enlisted  persons,  including  ap- 
pointed petty  officers  for  general  and 
special  service.  It  controls  all  rendez- 
vous and  receiving  ships,  and  provides 
transportation  for  all  enlisted  persons 
and  appointed  petty  officers ;  estab- 
lishes the  complement  of  the  crews  of 
all  vessels  in  commission  ;  keeps  the 
records  of  service  of  all  squadrons, 
ships,  officers,  and  men,  and  prepares 
the  annual  Naval  Register  for  publica- 
tion ;  has  under  its  direction  the  prep- 
aration, revision,  and  enforcement  of 
all  tactics,  drill  books,  signal  codes,  ci- 
pher codes,  and  the  uniform  regula- 
tions. 

BUREAU    OF    YARDS    AND    DOCKS. 

The  duties  of  the  Bureau  of  Yards  i 
and  Docks  comprise  all  that  relates  to  ] 
the  planning,  construction,  and  main- 
tenance of  all  docks  (including  dry 
docks),  wharves,  slips,  piers,  quay 
walls,  and  buildings  of  all  kinds,  for 
whatever  purpose  needed,  within  the  | 
limits  of  the  navy-yards,  but  not  of 
hospitals  and  magazines  outside  of 
those  limits,  nor  of  buildings  for  which  ' 
it  does  not  estimate.  It  repairs  and 
furnishes  all  buildings,  stores  and  of- 
fices in  the  several  navy-yards,  and  is 
charged  with  the  purchase,  sale,  and 
transfer  of  -ill  land  and  buildings  con- 
nected with  the  navy -yards;  has  un- 
der its  sole  control  the  general  admin- 
istration of  the  navy-yards  ;  provides 
and  has  sole  control  of  all  landings, 
derricks,  shears,  cranes,  sewers,  dredg- 
ing, railway  tracks,  cars,  and  wheels, 
trucks,  grading,  paving,  walks,  shade 
trees,  inclosure  walls  and  fences,  ditch- 
ing, reservoirs,  cisterns,  fire  engines, 
and  apparatus,  all  watchmen,  and  all 
things  necessary,  including  labor,  for 
the  cleaning  of  the  yards  and  the  pro- 
tection of  the  public  property. 

BUREAU    OF    EQUIPMENT. 

The  duties  of  the  Bureau  of  Equip- 
ment comprise  all  that  relates  to  the 
equipment  of  all  vessels  with  rigging, 
sails,  anchors,  yeomen's  stores,  furni- 
ture not  provided  by  other  bureaus, 
navigation  stores  and  supplies  of  all 
kinds,  including  nautical  and  navigat- 
ing instruments  and  books,  stationery, 
and  blank  books  for  commanding  and 
navigating  officers  ashore  and  afloat, 
binnacles,  flags,  signal  lights,  running 
lights,  and  standing  lights  on  board 
vessels,  ^including  all  electrical  ap- 
paratus for  lighting  purposes  and 
searchlights,  logs,  leads,  lines,  and 


glasses,  log  books,  ships'  libraries,  il- 
luminating oil  for  all  purposes,  except 
that  used  in  the  engineer  department 
of  steamers,  and  fuel  for  steamers,  the 
ropewalks,  and  the  shops  for  making 
anchors  and  cables,  rigging,  sails,  gal- 
leys, and  cooking  utensils,  the  Naval 
Observatory,  Nautical  Almanac,  com- 
pass offices,  and  pilotage.  It  has  un- 
der its  control  the  Hydrographic 
Office,  the  collection  of  foreign  sur- 
veys, publication  and  supply  charts, 
sailing  directions,  and  nautical  works, 
and  the  dissemination  of  nautical  and 
hydrographic  information  to  the  Navy 
and  mercantile  marine. 

BUREAU   OF   ORDNANCE. 

The  duties  of  the  Bureau  of  Ord- 
nance comprise  all  that  relates  to  the 
torpedo  station,  naval  proving  grounds, 
and  magazines  on  shore ;  to  the  manu- 
facture of  offensive  and  defensive  arms 
and  apparatus  (including  torpedoes), 
all  ammunition  and  war  explosives ; 
procures  all  machinery,  apparatus, 
equipment,  material,  and  supplies  re- 
quired by  or  for  use  with  the  above ; 
recommends  the  armament  to  be  car- 
ried by  vessels  of  the  Navy  :  the  ma- 
terial, kind,  and  quality  of  the  armor ; 
the  interior  dimensions  of  revolving 
turrets  and  their  requirements  as  re- 
gards rotation.  It  fixes,  within  the 
carrying  power  of  vessels  as  deter- 
mined by  the  Bureau  of  Construction 
and  Repair,  the  location  and  command 
of  the  armament,  and  distributes  the 
thickness  of  the  armor;  inspects  the 
installation  of  the  permanent  fixtures 
of  the  armament  and  its  accessories  on 
board  ship,  and  the  methods  of  stor- 
ing, handling,  and  transporting  am- 
munition and  torpedoes ;  designs  and 
constructs  turret  ammunition  hoists ; 
determines  the  requirements  of  all  am- 
munition hoists,  and  the  method  of 
construction  of  armories  and  ammuni- 
tion rooms  on  board  ship,  and  in  con- 
junction with  the  Bureau  of  Construc- 
tion and  Repair,  determines  upon  their 
location  and  that  of  ammunition 
hoists.  It  installs  the  armament  and 
its  accessories  which  are  not  perma- 
nently attached  to  any  portion  of  the 
structure  of  the  hull,  excepting  tur- 
ret guns,  turret  mounts,  and  ammu- 
nition hoists,  etc. ;  has  cognizance  of 
all  electrically  operated  ammunition 
hoists,  rammers,  and  gun-elevating 
gear  which  are  in  turrets,  of  electric 
range  finders,  of  electric  training  and 
elevating  gear  for  gun  mounts  not  in 
turrets,  of  electrically  operated  air 


318 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


compressors  for  charging  torpedoes, 
and  of  all  battle-order  and  range  trans- 
mitters and  indicators ;  designs  inter- 
nal arrangements  of  buildings  at  navy- 
yards  where  ordnance  work  is  per- 
formed ;  designs,  erects,  and  maintains 
all  shops  and  buildings  constructed 
for  its  own  purpose  outside  the  lim- 
its of  navy-yards.  It  is  charged 
with  the  purchase,  sale,  and  transfer 
of  all  land  and  buildings  in  connec- 
tion therewith,  except  at  navy-yards, 
and  with  the  preservation  of  public 
property  under  its  control.  It  deter- 
mines upon  and  procures  all  the  tools, 
stores,  stationery,  blank  books,  forms, 
material,  means,  and  appliances  of 
every  kind  required  in  its  shops,  in- 
cluding fuel  and  transportation.  It 
superintends  all  work  done  under  it, 
and  estimates  for  and  defrays  from  its 
own  funds  the  cost  necessary  to  carry 
out.  its  duties  as  above  defined. 

BUREAU     OF     CONSTRUCTION     AND     RE- 
PAIR. 

The  duties  of  the  Bureau  of  Con- 
struction and  Repair  comprise  the  re- 
sponsibility for  the  structural  strength 
and  stability  of  all  ships  built  for  the 
Navy;  all  that  relates  to  designing, 
building,  fitting,  and  repairing  the 
hulls  of  ships,  turrets,  spars,  capstans, 
windlasses,  steering  gear,  and  venti- 
lating apparatus,  and,  after  consul- 
tation with  the  Bureau  of  Ordnance, 
and  according  to  the  requirements 
thereof  as  determined  by  that  Bureau, 
the  designing,  construction,  and  in- 
stallation of  independent  ammunition 
hoists,  and  the  installation  of  the 
permanent  fixtures  of  all  other  am- 
munition hoists  and  their  appurte- 
nances ;  placing  and  securing  armor 
after  the  material,  quality,  and 
distribution  of  thickness  have  been  de- 
termined by  the  Bureau  of  Ordnance : 
placing  and  securing  on  board  ship,  to 
the  satisfaction  of  the  Bureau  of  Ord- 
nance, the  permanent  fixtures  of  the 
armament  and  its  accessories  as  manu- 
factured and  supplied  by  that  Bureau  ; 
installing  the  turret  guns,  turret 
mounts,  and  ammunition  hoists, 
and  such  other  mounts  as  require 
simultaneous  structural  work  in 
connection  with  installation  or  re- 
moval :  care  and  preservation  of 
ships  in  ordinary,  and  requisitioning 
for  or  manufacturing  all  the  equipage 
and  supplies  for  ships  prescribed  by 
the  authorized  allowance  lists.  The 
Bureau  of  Construction  and  Repair 
also,  after  conference  with  the  Bureau 


of  Ordnance,  designs  the  arrangements 
for  centering  the  turrets,  the  character 
of  the  roller  paths  and  their  supports, 
and  furnishes  the  Bureau  every  oppor- 
tunity to  inspect  the  installation  on 
board  of  all  permanent  fixtures  of  the 
armament  and  accessories  supplied  by 
said  Bureau.  It  has  cognizance  of  all 
electric  turret-turning  machinery  and 
of  all  electrically  operated  ammunition 
hoists  (except  turret  hoists),  the  same 
to  conform  10  the  requirements  of  the 
Bureau  of  Ordnance  as  to  power, 
speed,  and  control.  It  also  has  cog- 
nizance of  stationary  electrically  oper- 
ated fans  or  blowers  for  hull  ventila- 
tion, boat  cranes,  deck  winches,  cap- 
stans, steering  engines  and  telemotors 
therefor,  and  hand  pumps  not  in  the 
engine  or  fire  rooms,  and  of  electric 
launches  and  other  boats  supplied  with 
electric  motive  power.  It  has  charge 
of  the  docking  of  ships,  and  also  de- 
signs the  slips  and  the  various  build- 
ings and  shops,  so  far  as  their  internal 
arrangements  are  concerned,  where  its 
work  is  executed,  and  is  charged  with 
the  operating  and  cleaning  of  dry 
docks, 

BUREAU    OF    STEAM    ENGINEERING. 

The  duties  of  the  Bureau  of  Steam 
Engineering  comprise  all  that  relates 
to  the  designing,  building,  fitting  out, 
repairing,  and  engineering  of  the  steam 
machinery  used  for  the  propulsion  of 
naval  vessels,  and  will  also  include 
steam  pumps,  steam  heaters  and  con- 
nections, and  the  steam  machinery 
necessary  for  actuating  the  apparatus 
by  which  turrets  are  turned. 

MARINE    CORPS. 

The  Commandant  of  the  Marine 
Corps  is  responsible  to  the  Secretary 
of  the  Navy  for  the  general  efficiency 
and  discipline  of  the  corps ;  makes 
such  distribution  of  officers  and  men 
for  duty  at  the  several  shore  stations 
as  shall  appear  to  him  to  be  most  ad- 
vantageous for  the  interests  of  the  ser- 
vice :  .furnishes  guards  for  vessels  of 
the  Navy,  according  to  the  authorized 
scale  of  allowance ;  under  the  direction 
of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  issues 
orders  for  the  movement  of  officers  and 
troops,  and  such  other  orders  and  in- 
structions for  their  guidance  as  may 
be  necessary  ;  and  has  charge  and  ex- 
ercises general  supervision  and  con- 
trol of  the  recruiting  service  of  the 
corps,  and  of  the  necessary  ^expenses 
thereof,  including  the  establishment  of 
recruiting  offices. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


319 


THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  INTERIOR. 


The  Secretary  of  the  Interior  is 
charged  with  the  supervision  of  pub- 
lic business  relating  to  Patents  for  In- 
ventions ;  Pensions  and  Bounty  Lands  : 
the  Public  Lands  and  Surveys ;  the  In- 
dians;  Education;  railroads;  the  Geo- 
logical Survey  ;  the  Hot.  Springs  Res- 
ervation, Arkansas ;  Yellowstone  Na- 
tional Park,  Wyoming,  and  the  Yose- 
mite,  Sequoia,  and  General  Grant 
parks,  California  ;  forest  reservations  ; 
distribution  of  appropriations  for  agri- 
cultural and  mechanical  colleges  in  the 
States  and  Territories;  the  custody 
and  distribution  of  certain  public  docu- 
ments ;  and  supervision  of  certain  hos- 
pitals and  eleemosynary  institutions  iu 
the  District  of  Columbia.  He  also  ex- 
ercises certain  powers  and  duties  in  re- 
lation to  the  Territories  of  the  United 
States. 

COMMISSIONER   OF   PATENTS. 

The  Commissioner  of  Patents  is 
charged  with  the  administration  of  the 
patent  la\ys,  and  supervises  all  mat- 
ters relating  to  the  issue  of  letters 
patent  for  new  and  useful  inventions, 
discoveries,  and  improvements  thereon, 
and  also  the  registration  of  trade- 
marks, prints,  and  labels.  He  is  by 
statute  made  the  tribunal  of  last  re- 
sort in  the  Patent  Office,  and  has  ap- 
pellate jurisdiction  in  the  trial  of  in- 
terference cases,  of  the  patentability 
of  inventions,  and  of  registration  of 
trade-marks.  He  is  aided  by  an 
assistant  Commissioner,  chief  clerk, 
three  examiners  in  chief,  an  examiner 
of  interferences,  and  thirty-nine  prin- 
cipal examiners. 

COMMISSIONER    OF    PENSIONS. 

The  Commissioner  of  Pensions  su- 
pervises the  examination  and  adjudica- 
tion of  all  claims  arising  under  laws 
passed  by  Congress  granting  bounty 
land  or  pension  on  account  of  service 
in  the  Army  or  Navy  during  the  Revo- 
lutionary War  and  all  subsequent  wars 
in  which  the  United  States  has  been 
engaged.  He  is  aided  by  two  Deputy 
Commissioners  and  the  chief  clerk  of 
the  Bureau,  each  of  whom  has  super- 


vision over  business  arising  in  divi- 
sions of  the  Bureau  assigned,  under  or- 
der of  the  Commissioner,  to  his  imme- 
diate charge. 

COMMISSIONER  OF  THE   GENERAL   LAND 
OFFICE. 

The  Commissioner  of  the  General 
Land  Office  is  charged  with  the  survey, 
management,  and  sale  of  the  public  do- 
main, and  the  issuing  of  titles  there- 
for, whether  derived  from  confirma- 
tions of  grants  made  by  former  govern- 
ments, by  sales,  donations,  or  grants 
for  schools,  railroads,  military  boun- 
ties, or  public  improvements.  He  is 
aided  by  an  Assistant  Commissioner 
and  chief  clerk. 

COMMISSIONER     OF     EDUCATION. 

The  duties  of  the  Commissioner  of 
Education  are  to  collect  such  statis- 
tics and  facts  as  shall  show  the  condi- 
tion and  progress  of  education  in  the 
several  States  and  Territories,  and  to 
diffuse  such  information  respecting  the 
organization  and  management  of 
schools  and  school  systems  and  meth- 
ods of  teaching  as  shall  aid  the  people 
of  the  United  States  in  the  establish- 
ment and  maintenance  of  efficient 
school  systems,  and  otherwise  promote 
the  cause  of  education  throughout  the 
country. 

DIRECTOR   OF   THE   GEOLOGICAL    SURVEY. 

The  Director  of  the  Geological  Sur- 
vey has  charge  of  the  classification  of 
public  lauds  and  examination  of  the 
geological  structure,  mineral  resources, 
find  products  of  the  national  domain, 
and  tha  survey  of  forest  reserves,  in- 
cluding the  preparation  of  topographic 
and  geologic  maps ;  also  the  measure- 
ment of  streams  and  determination  of 
the  water  supply  of  the  United  States, 
including  the  investigation  of  under- 
ground waters  and  artesian  wells ; 
and  also  the  reclamation  of  arid  lands, 
including  the  engineering  operations 
to  be  carried  on  by  the  use  of  the  recla- 
mation fund  created  by  act  of  June  17, 
1902.  from  proceeds  of  sales  of  public 
lands. 


THE    BOARD    ON    GEOGRAPHIC    NAMES. 


That  uniform  usage  in  regard  to  geo- 
graphic nomenclature  and  orthography 
shall  obtain  throughout  the  Executive 
Departments  of  the  Government,  and 
particularly  upon  maps  and  charts  is- 
sued by  the  various  Departments  and 
Bureaus,  this  Board  is  constituted. 


To  it  shall  be  referred  all  unsettled 
questions  concerning  geographic  names 
which  arise  in  the  Departments,  and 
the  decisions  of  the  Board  are  to  be 
accepted  by  the  Departments  as  the 
standard  authority  in  such  matters. — 
Organized  September  4,  1890. 


320 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


THE    NATIONAL    ACADEMY    OF    SCIENCES. 

(Incorporated    by    Act    of    Congress    March  3,  18G3.) 


Section  3  of  the  act  of  incorporation 
provides  :  "That  the  National  Academy 
of  Sciences  shall  hold  an  annual  meet- 
ing at  such  place  in  the  United  States 
as  may  be  designated,  and  the  academy 
shall,  whenever  called  upon  by  any  de- 
partment of  the  Government,  investi- 
gate, examine,  experiment,  and  report 
upon  any  subject  of  science  or  art, 
the  actual  expense  of  such  investiga- 
tions, examinations,  experiments,  and 
reports  to  be  paid  from  appropriations 
which  may  be  made  for  the  purpose ; 
but  the  academy  shall  receive  no  com- 
pensation whatever  for  any  services 


to    the     Government    of     the    United 
States." 

In  accordance  with  this  provision, 
the  academy — which  includes  about 
one  hundred  members — has  made  many 
investigations  and  reports,  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  legislative  and  executive 
branches  of  the  Government.  The  an- 
nual reports  are  published  by  Congress 
as  House  and  Senate  documents.  Two 
meetings  are  held  each  year.  The  an- 
nual meeting  is  held  "  in  April,  at 
Washington ;  the  other  in  November, 
at  such  place  as  may  be  determined 
by  the  council. 


THE    CIVIL    SERVICE    COMMISSION. 


The  purpose  of  the  civil-service  act 
(approved  January  16,  1883),  as  de- 
clared in  its  title,  is  "to  regulate  and 
improve  the  civil  service  of  the  United 
States."  It  provides  for  the  appoint- 
ment of  three  Commissioners,  not  more 
than  two  of  whom  shall  be  adherents 
of  the  same  political  party,  and  makes 
it  the  duty  of  the  Commission  to  aid 
the  President,  as  he  may  request,  in 
preparing  suitable  rules  for  carrying 
the  act  into  effect.  The  act  requires 
that  the  rules  shall  provide,  among 
other  things,  for  open  competitive  ex- 
aminations for  testing  the  fitness  of 
applicants  for  the  public  service,  the 
filling  of  classified  positions  by  selec- 
tions from  among  those  passing  with 
highest  grades,  an  apportionment  of 
appointments  in  the  Departments  at 
Washington  among  the  States  and 
Territories,  a  period  of  probation  be- 
fore absolute  appointment,  and  the 
prohibition  of  the  use  of  official  au- 
thority +o  coerce  the  political  action  of 
any  person  or  body.  The  act  also 
provides  for  investigations  touching 
the  enforcement  of  the  rules  promul- 
gated, and  forbids,  under  penalty  of 
fine  or  imprisonment,  or  both,  the  so- 
licitation by  any  person  in  the  service 
of  the  United  States  of  contributions 
to  be  used  for  political  purposes  from 
persons  in  such  service,  or  the  collec- 
tion of  such  contributions  by  any  per- 
son in  a  Government  building. 

THE  CLASSIFIED  SERVICE. 

It  is  estimated  that  in  1902  there 
were  235,854  positions  in  the  executive 
civil  service,  of  which  20,931  were  in 
the  executive  offices  at  Washington 
and  214,923  were  outside.  About  120,- 


000  positions  are  classified  subject  to 
competitive  examination  under  the  civ- 
il service  rules.  Persons  merely  em- 
ployed as  laborers  or  workmen  and 
persons  nominated  for  confirmation  by 
the  Senate  are  exempted  from  the  re- 
quirements of  classification.  Within 
these  limits  certain  classes  of  positions 
are  excepted  from  examination,  among 
them  being  employees  at  postoffices  not 
having  free  delivery,  Indians,  attor- 
neys, pension  examining  surgeons, 
deputy  collectors  of  internal  revenue, 
office  deputy  marshals,  and  a  few  em- 
ployees whose  duties  are  of  an  impor- 
tant confidential  or  fiduciary  nature. 

EXAMINATIONS. 

Examinations  are  held  in  every 
State  and  Territory  twice  a  year.  Full 
information  respecting  these  examina- 
tions is  to  be  found  in  a  manual  issued 
by  the  Commission  in  January  and 
July  of  each  year,  for  free  distribu- 
tion. The  examinations  range  in 
scope  from  technical,  professional,  or 
scientific  subjects  to  those  based  wholly 
upon  the  age,  physical  condition,  ex- 
perience, and  character  as  a  workman 
of  the  applicant,  and  in  some  cases  do 
not  require  ability  to  read  or  write. 
To  insure  practical  tests  of  fitness  654 
different  kinds  of  examinations  were 
held  during  the  year  ended  June  30, 
1902,  each  of  which  involved  different 
tests  and  more  than  half  of  which 
contained  no  educational  tests,  but 
consisted  of  certificates  of  employers  or 
fellow  workmen.  During  the  fiscal 
year  ended  June  30,  1903.  86,787  per- 
sons were  examined,  64,439  passed, 
and  26,343  were  appointed. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


321 


THE    FILLING    OF    VACANCIES. 

A  vacancy  is  filled  from  among  the 
three  persons  of  the  sex  called  for 
standing  highest  on  the  appropriate 
register,  the  order  being  determined  by 
the  relative  rating,  except  that  the 
names  of  persons  preferred  under  sec- 
tion 1754,  Revised  Statutes,  come  be- 
fore all  others.  Until  the  rating  of 
all  papers  of  an  examination  is  com- 
pleted the  identity  of  no  applicant  is 
known.  A  vacancy  may  also  be  filled 
by  promotion,  reduction,  transfer,  or 
reinstatement. 

MILITARY  PREFERENCE. 

Persons  discharged  from  the  mili- 
tary or  naval  service  by  reason  of  dis- 
ability resulting  from  wounds  or  sick- 
ness incurred  in  the  line  of  duty  and 
who  receive  a  rating  of  at  least  65  are 
certified  first  for  appointment.  All 
others  are  required  to  obtain  a  rating 
of  70  or  more  to  become  eligible.  The 
rule  barring  reinstatement  after  a  sep- 
aration of  one  year  does  not  apply  to 
any  person  honorably  discharged  after 
service  in  the  civil  war  or  the  war  with 
Spain,  or  his  widow,  or  an  army  nurse 
of  either  war, 

THE   PHILIPPINE    CIVIL   SERVICE. 

Appointments  to  the  insular  civil 
service  of  the  Philippines  are  made  un- 
der an  act  passed  by  the  Philippine 
Commission  and  rules  promulgated  by 
the  Governor  of  the  islands.  The  mu- 
nicipal service  of  Manila  is  also  classi- 
fied and  subject  to  the  provisions  of 
the  act  and  rules,  which  are  similar  to 
the  United  States  act  and  rules.  The 


United  States  Commission,  under  an 
Executive  order,  assists  the  Philippine 
Board  by  conducting  examinations  in 
the  United  States  for  the  Philippine 
service  and  in  all  other  practicable 
ways.  These  examinations  are  held 
only  for  positions  for  which  compe- 
tent natives  cannot  be  found,  the  na- 
tives being  preferred  for  appointment. 
The  United  States  rules  permit  the 
transfer  of  »jlassified  employees  who 
have  served  for  three  yea^s  from  the 
Philippine  service  to  the  Federal  ser- 
vice. 

THE   CIVIL   SERVICE  IN  PORTO  RICO  AND 
HAWAII. 

The  Federal  positions  in  Porto  Rico 
and  Hawaii  by  act  of  Congress  fall 
within  the  scope  of  the  civil  service  act 
and  are  filled  in  the  same  ways  as  com- 
petitive positions  in  the  United  States. 

ic  competitive  system  .  does  not  ex- 
tend to  the  insular  and  municipal  po- 
sitions of  the  islands. 


'n 


UNCLASSIFIED   LABORERS. 

Appointments  of  unclassified  labor- 
ers in  the  Departments  at  Washing- 
ton under  Executive  order  are  required 
to  be  made  in  accordance  with  regu- 
lations to  be  approved  by  the  heads  of 
the  several  Departments  and  the  Civil 
Service  Commission.  Such  regula- 
tions have  been  adopted  by  several  of 
the  Departments,  and  the  positions  of 
laborers  are  being  filled  by  the  ap- 
pointment of  those  applicants  who  are 
rated  highest  in  age,  physical  condi- 
tion, and  industry  and  adaptability. 
The  system  is  outside  the  civil  service 
act  and  rules. 


THE    INTERSTATE    COMMERCE    COMMISSION. 


This  Commission,  appointed  under 
"An  act  to  regulate  commerce,"  ap- 
proved February  4,  1887,  has  authori- 
ty to  inquire  into  the  management  of 
the  business  of  all  common  carriers 
who  are  subject  to  the  provisions  of 
the  act.  These  are  all  which  are  "en- 
gaged in  the  transportation  of  pas- 
sengers or  property  wholly  by  railroad, 
or  partly  by  railroad  and  partly  by  wa- 
ter when  both  are  used,  under  a  com- 
mon control,  management,  or  arrange- 
ment, for  a  continuous  carriage  or 
shipment,  from  one  State  or  Territory 
of  the  United  States  or  the  District  of 
Columbia  to  any  other  State  or  Ter- 
ritory of  the  United  States  or  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia,  or  from  any  place 
in  the  United  States  to  an  adjacent 


foreign  country,  or  from  any  place  in 
the  United  States  through  a  foreign 
country  to  any  other  place  in  the  Uni- 
ted States,  and  also  in  the  transporta- 
tion in  like  manner  of  property  shipped 
from  any  place  in  the  United  States 
to  a  foreign  country  and  carried  from 
such  place  to  a  port  of  transshipment, 
or  shipped  from  a  foreign  country  to 
any  place  in  the  United  States  and 
carried  to  such  place  from  a  port  of 
entry  either  in  the  United  States  or 
an  adjacent  foreign  country."  It  has 
jurisdiction  to  inquire  into  and  report 
upon  the  reasonableness  of  rates  on  in- 
terstate traffic,  to  decide  questions  of 
unjust  discrimination  and  of  undue 
preference,  to  prescribe  the  publicity 
to  be  given  to  joint  tariffs,  and  to  in- 


822 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


stitute  and  carry  on  proceedings  for 
the  enforcement  of  the  provisions  of 
the  law.  It  has  power  to  call  for  re- 
ports, to  require  the  attendance  of 
witnesses  and  the  production  of  books 
and  papers,  to  hear  complaints  of  a 
violation  of  the  act  made  against  any 
such  carrier,  and  to  determine  what 
reparation  shall  be  made  to  a  party 
wronged ;  to  institute  inquiries  on  its 
own  motion  or  at  the  request  of  State 
railroad  commissions,  and  to  report 
thereon ;  and  it  is  required  to  make 
an  annual  report,  which  shall  be  trans- 
mitted to  Congress. 

The  act  of  March  2,  1893,  known  as 
the  "Safety  Appliance  Act,"  provides 
that  within  specified  periods  railroad 
cars  used  in  interstate  commerce  must 
be  equipped  with  automatic  couplers 
and  standard  height  of  drawbars  for 
freight  cars,  and  have  grab  irons  or 
handholds  on  the  ends  and  sides  of 
each  car. 

A  further  provision  of  this  act  is 
that  locomotive  engines  used  in  moving 
interstate  traffic  shall  be  fitted  with  a 
power  driving  wheel  brake  and  appli- 
ances for  operating  the  train  brake 
system,  and  a  sufficient  number  of  cars 
in  the  train  shall  be  equipped  with 
power  or  train  brakes.  The  act  di- 
rects the  Commission  to  lodge  with  the 


proper  district  attorneys  information 
of  such  violations  as  may  come  to  its 
kno\yledge.  The  Commission  is  au- 
thorized, from  time  to  time,  upon  full 
hearing  and  for  good  cause,  to  extend 
the  period  within  which  any  common 
carrier  shall  comply  with  the  provi- 
sions of  the  statute.  The  act  of  March 
2,  1903,  amended  this  act  so  as  to 
make  its  provisions  apply  to  Terri- 
tories and  the  District  of  Columbia,  to 
all  cases  when  couplers  of  whatever  de- 
sign are  brought  together,  and  to  all 
locomotives,  cars,  and  other  equipment 
of  any  railroad  engaged  in  interstate 
traffic,  except  logging  cars  and  cars 
used  upon  street  railways,  and  also  to 
power  or  train  brakes  used  in  railway 
operation. 

The  act  of  March  3,  1901,  "requiring 
common  carriers  engaged  in  interstate 
commerce  to  make  reports  of  all  acci- 
dents to  the  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission,"  makes  it  the  duty  of 
such  carrier  monthly  to  report,  under 
path,  all  collisions  and  derailments  of 
its  trains  and  accidents  to  its  passen- 
gers, and  to  its  employees  while  on 
duty  in  its  service,  and  to  state  the 
nature  and  causes  thereof.  The  act 
prescribes  that  a  fine  shall  be  imposed 
against  any  such  earner  failing  to 
make  the  report  so  required. 


THE     DEPARTMENT     OF     COMMERCE  AND  LABOR. 


The  Secretary  of  Commerce  and  La- 
bor is  charged  with  the  work  of  pro- 
moting the  commerce  of  the  United 
States,  and  its  mining,  manufacturing, 
shipping,  fishery,  transportation,  and 
labor  interests.  His  duties  also  com- 
prise the  investigation  of  the  organiza- 
tion and  management  of  corporations 
(excepting  railroads)  engaged  in  inter- 
state commerce ;  the  gathering  and 
publication  of  information  regarding 
labor  interests  and  labor  controversies 
in  this  and  other  countries ;  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  Light  House  Ser- 
vice, and  the  aid  and  protection  to 
shipping  thereby ;  the  taking  of  the 
census,  and  the  collection  and  publi- 
cation of  statistical  information  con- 
nected therewith  ;  the  making  of  coast 
and  geodetic  surveys ;  the  collecting  of 
statistics  relating  to  foreign  and  do- 
mestic commerce :  the  inspection  of 
steamboats,  and  the  enforcement  of 
laws  relating  thereto  for  the  protec- 
tion of  life  and  property  ;  the  super- 
vision of  the  fisheries  as  administered 
by  the  Federal  Government ;  the 
supervision  and  control  of  the  Alaskan 
fur  seal,  salmon,  and  other  fisheries; 


the  jurisdiction  over  merchant  vessels, 
their  registry,  licensing,  measurement, 
entry,  clearance,  transfers,  movement 
of  their  cargoes  and  passengers,  and 
laws  relating  thereto,  and  to  seamen  of 
the  United  States ;  the  supervision  of 
the  immigration  of  aliens,  and  the  en- 
forcement of  the  laws  relating  thereto, 
and  to  the  exclusion  of  Chinese;  the 
custody,  construction,  maintenance, 
and  application  of  standards  of 
weights  and  measurements ;  and  the 
gathering  and  supplying  of  informa- 
tion regarding  industries  and  markets 
for  the  fostering  of  manufacturing. 
He  has  power  to  call  upon  other  De- 
partments for  statistical  data  obtained 
by  them. 

It  is  his  further  duty  to  make  such 
special  investigations  and  furnish  such 
information  10  the  President  or  Con- 
gress as  may  be  required  by  them  on 
the  foregoing  subject-matters  and  to 
make  annual  reports  to  Congress  upon 
the  work  of  said  Department. 

injREA.TJ  OF  LABOR. 

The  Bureau  of  Labor  is  charged 
with  the  duty  of  acquiring  and  diffus- 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


323 


ing  among  the  people  of  the  United 
States  useful  information  on  subjects 
connected  with  labor  in  the  most  gen- 
eral and  comprehensive  sense  of  that 
word,  and  especially  upon  its  relations 
to  capital,  the  hours  of  labor,  the 
earnings  of  laboring  men  and  women, 
and  the  means  of  promoting  their  ma- 
terial, social,  intellectual,  and  moral 
prosperity. 

It  is  especially  charged  to  investi- 
gate the  causes  of  and  facts  relating 
to  all  controversies  and  disputes  be- 
tween employers  and  employees  as  they 
may  occur,  and  which  may  happen  to 
interfere  with  the  welfare  of  the  people 
of  the  several  States. 

LIGHT-HOUSE   BOARD. 

The  Light-House  Board  has  charge, 
under  the  superintendence  of  the  Sec- 
retary of  Commerce  and  Labor,  of  all 
administrative  duties  relating  to  the 
construction  and  maintenance  of  light- 
houses, light  vessels,  light-house  de- 
pots, beacons,  fog  signals,  buoys,  and 
their  appendages,  and  has  charge  of 
all  records  and  property  appertaining 
to  the  Light-House  Establishment. 

BUREAU   OF   THE   CENSUS. 

The  Bureau  of  the  Census  is  charged 
with  the  duty  of  taking  the  periodical 
censuses  of  the  United  States  and  of 
collecting  such  special  statistics  as  are 
required  by  Congress,  including  the 
collection  in  1905  of  the  statistics  of 
manufacturing  establishments  conduct- 
ed under  the  factory  system,  and  the 
collection  annually  of  statistics  of 
births  and  deaths  in  registration  areas, 
statistics  of  the  cotton  production  of 
the  country  as  returned  by  the  ginners, 
and  (by  transfer  from  the  Bureau  of 
Labor)  statistics  of  cities  of  30,000  or 
more  inhabitants.  Under  the  procla- 
mation of  the  President  dated  Septem- 
ber 30,  1902,  the  Bureau  is  charged 
with  the  compilation  and  tabulation  of 
the  returns  of  the  Philippine  census, 
taken  as  of  March  2,  1903,  under  the 
direction  of  the  Philippine  Commis- 


COAST    AND    GEODETIC     SURVEY. 

The  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  is 
charged  with  the  survey  of  the  coasts 
of  the  United  States  and  coasts  un- 
der the  jurisdiction  thereof  and  the 
publication  of  charts  covering  said 
coasts.  This  includes  base  measure, 
triangulation,  topography,  and  hydro- 


graphy along  said  coasts;  the  survey 
of  rivers  to  the  head  of  tide-water  or 
ship  navigation ;  deep  sea  soundings, 
temperature,  and  current  observations 
along  said  coasts  and  throughout  the 
Gulf  and  Japan  streams ;  magnetic  ob- 
servations and  researches,  and  the  pub- 
lication of  maps  showing  the  va- 
riations of  terrestrial  magnetism ; 
gravity  research ;  determination  of 
heights;  the  determination  of  geo- 
graphic positions  by  astronomic  obser- 
vations for  latitude,  longitude,  and 
azimuth,  and  by  triangulation,  to  fur- 
nish reference  points  for  State  sur- 
veys. The  results  obtained  are  pub- 
lished in  annual  reports,  with  profes- 
sional papers  and  discussions  of  results 
as  appendices ;  charts  upon  various 
scales,  including  sailing  charts,  general 
charts  of  the  coast,  and  harbor  charts ; 
tide  tables  issued  annually,  in  advance  ; 
Coast  Pilots,  with  sailing  directions 
covering  the  navigable  waters ;  No- 
tices to  Mariners,  issued  monthly  and 
containing  current  information  neces- 
sary for  safe  navigation  ;  catalogues  of 
charts  and  publications,  and  such 
other  special  publications  as  may  be 
required  to  carry  out  the  organic  law 
governing  the  Survey. 


BUREAU  OF  STATISTICS. 

The  Bureau  of  Statistics  collects 
and  publishes  the  statistics  of  our  for- 
eign commerce,  embracing  tables  show- 
ing the  imports  and  exports,  respect- 
ively, by  countries  and  customs  dis- 
tricts ;  the  transit  trade  inward  and 
outward  by  countries  and  by  customs 
districts ;  imported  commodities  ware- 
housed, withdrawn  from,  and  remain- 
ing in  warehouse  ;  the  imports  of  mer- 
chandise entered  for  consumption, 
showing  quantity,  value,  rates  of  duty, 
and  amounts  of  duty  collected  on  each 
article  or  class  of  articles ;  thp  inward 
and  outward  movement  of  tonnage  in 
our  foreign  trade  and  the  countries 
whence  entered  and  for  which  cleared, 
distinguishing  the  nationalities  of  the 
foreign  vessels.  The  Bureau  also  col- 
lects and  publishes  information  in  re- 
gard to  the  leading  commercial  move- 
ments in  our  internal  commerce, 
among  which  are  the  commerce  of  the 
Great  Lakes ;  the  commercial  move- 
ments in  our  internal  commerce, 
among  which  are  the  commerce  of  the 
Great  Lakes:  the  commercial  move- 
ments at  interior  centers,  at  Atlantic, 
Gulf,  and  Pacific  seaports ;  shipments 
of  coal  and  coke ;  ocean  freight  rates, 


324 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


etc.  The  Bureau  also  publishes  daily 
and  monthly  the  reports  received  from 
United  States  consuls  and  special  re- 
ports on  various  subjects  supplied  by 
consuls  on  special  request ;  also,  an- 
nually, the  declared  exports  from  for- 
eign countries  to  the  United  States 
furnished  by  consuls,  and  the  annual 
report  laid  before  Congress  entitled 
"Commercial  Relations  of  the  United 
States." 

STEAMBOAT-INSPECTION  SERVICE. 

The  Steamboat-Inspection  Seryice  is 
charged  with  the  duty  of  inspecting 
steam  vessels,  the  licensing  of  the  offi- 
cers of  vessels,  and  the  administration 
of  the  laws  relating  to  such  vessels 
and  their  officers  for  the  protection  of 
life  and  property. 

The  Supervising  Inspector-General 
and  the  supervising  inspectors  consti- 
tute a  board  that  meets  annually  at 
Washington,  and  establishes  regula- 
tions for  carrying  out  the  provisions 
of  the  steamboat-inspection  laws. 

BUREAU    OF   FISHERIES. 

The  work  of  the  Bureau  of  Fisheries 
comprises  (1)  the  propagation  of  use- 
ful food  fishes,  including  lobsters,  oys- 
ters, and  other  shellfish,  and  their  dis- 
tribution to  suitable  waters;  (2)  the 
inquiry  into  the  causes  of  decrease  of 
food  fishes  in  the  lakes,  rivers,  and 
coast  waters  of  the  United  States,  the 
study  of  the  waters  of  the  coast  and 
interior  in  the  interest  of  fish-culture, 
and  the  investigation  of  the  fishing 
grounds  of  the  Atlantic,  Gulf,  and  Pa- 
cific coasts,  with  the  view  of  determin- 
ing their  food  resources  and  the  devel- 
opment of  the  commercial  fisheries ; 
(3)  the  collection  and  compilation  of 
the  statistics  of  the  fisheries  and  the 
study  of  their  methods  and  relations. 

BUREAU    OF    NAVIGATION. 

The  Bureau  of  Navigation  is 
charged  with  general  superintendence 
of  the  commercial  marine  and  mer- 
chant seamen  of  the  United  States,  ex- 
cept so  far  as  supervision  is  lodged 
with  other  officers  of  the  Government. 
It  is  specially  charged  with  the  de- 
cision of  all  questions  relating  to  the 
issue  of  registers,  enrollments,  and  li- 
censes of  vessels  and  the  filing  of  those 
documents,  with  the  supervision  of 
laws  relating  to  the  admeasurement, 
letters,  and  numbers  of  vessels,  and 


with  the  final  decision  of  questions 
concerning  the  collection  and  refund  of 
tonnage  taxes.  It  is  empowered  to 
change  the  names  'of  vessels,  prepares 
jmnually  a  list  of  vessels  of  the  United 
States,  and  reports  annually  to  the 
Secretary  of  Commerce  and  Labor  the 
operations  of  the  laws  relative  to  navi- 
gation. 

BUREAU    OF   IMMIGRATION. 

The  Bureau  of  Immigration  is 
charged  with  the  administration  of  the 
laws  relating  to  immigration  and  of 
the  Chinese  exclusion  laws.  It  super- 
vises all  expenditures  under  the  appro- 
priations for  "Expenses  of  regulating 
immigration"  and  the  "Enforcement  of 
the  Chinese  exclusion  act."  It  causes 
alleged  violations  of  the  immigration, 
Chinese  exclusion,  and  alien  contract- 
labor  laws  to  be  investigated,  and 
when^  prosecution  is  deemed  advisable 
submits  evidence  for  that  purpose  to 
the  proper  United  States  district  at- 
torney. 

BUREAU    OF   STANDARDS. 

The  functions  of  the  Bureau  of 
Standards  are  as  follows :  The  custody 
of  the  standards;  the  comparison  of 
the  standards  used  in  scientific  investi- 
gations, engineering,  manufacturing, 
commerce,,  and  educational  institu- 
tions with  the  standards  adopted  or 
recognized  by  the  Government ;  the 
construction,  when  necessary,  of  stand- 
ards, their  multiples  and  subdivisions ; 
the  testing  and  calibration  of  standard 
measuring  apparatus ;  the  solution  of 
problems  which  arise  in  connection 
with  standards ;  the  'determination  of 
physical  constants  and  properties  of 
materials,  when  such  data  are  of  great 
importance  to  scientific  or  manufac- 
turing interests  and  are  not  to  be  ob- 
tained of  sufficient  accuracy  elsewhere. 
The  Bureau  is  authorized  to  exercise 
its  functions  for  the  Government  of 
the  United  States,  for  any  State  or 
municipal  government  within  the  Uni- 
ted States,  or  for  any  scientific  society, 
educational  institution,  firm,  corpora- 
tion, or  individual  within  the  United 
States  engaged  in  manufacturing  or 
other  pursuits  requiring  the  use  of 
standards  or  standard  measuring  in- 
struments. For  all  comparisons,  cali- 
brations, tests,  or  investigations,  ex- 
cept those  performed  for  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  or  State 
governments,  a  reasonable  fee  will  be 
charged. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


325 


THE  INTERNATIONAL  BUREAU  OF  THE  AMERICAN  REPUBLICS. 


The  International  Bureau  of  the 
American  Republics  was  established 
under  the  recommendation  of  the  In- 
ternational American  Conference  in 
1890  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining 
closer  relations  between  the  several  Re- 
publics of  the  Western  Hemisphere. 
It  was  reorganized  by  the  Interna- 
tional American  Conference  of  1901 
and  its  scope  widened  by  imposing 
many  new  and  important  duties.  A 
prominent  feature  of  the  new  arrange- 
ment was  the  foundation  of  the  Co- 
lumbus Memorial  Library.  The  Inter- 
national Bureau  corresponds,  through 
the  diplomatic  representatives  of  the 
several  Governments  in  Washington, 
with  the  executive  departments  of 
these  governments,  and  is  required  to 
furnish  such  information  as  it  pos- 


sesses or  can  obtain  to  any  of  the  Re- 
publics making  requests.  It  is  the 
custodian  of  the  archives  of  the  Inter- 
national American  Conferences,  and  is 
especially  charged  with  the  perform- 
ance of  duties  imposed  upon  it  by 
these  conferences.  The  International 
Bureau  is  sustained  by  contributions 
from  the  American  Republics  in  pro- 
portion to  their  population.  It  pub- 
lishes a  monthly  bulletin  containing 
the  latest  official  information  respect- 
ing the  resources,  commerce,  and  gen- 
eral features  of  the  American  Repub- 
lics, as  well  as  maps  and  geographical 
sketches  of  these  countries,  which  pub- 
lications are  considered  public  docu- 
ments and  as  such  are  carried  free  in 
the  mails  of  all  the  Republics. — Con- 
gressional Directory. 


THE    AMERICAN    ASSOCIATION     FOR  THE   ADVANCEMENT 
OF     SCIENCE. 


Any  person  may  become  a  member 
of  the  association  upon  recommenda- 
tion in  writing  by  two  members  or  fel- 
lows, and  election  by  the  council,  or  by 
the  special  committee  of  the  council 
resident  in  Washington  and  empow- 
ered to  pass  upon  applications  when- 
ever received. 

The  admission  fee  for  members  is 
five  dollars,  payable  in  advance.  The 
annual  dues  for  members  and  fellows 
are  three  dollars,  payable  in  advance. 
The  fiscal  year  of  the  association  be- 
gins January  1st,  and  members  and 
fellows  .are  entitled  to  all  publica- 
tions issued,  and  to  the  privileges  of 
all  meetings  held  during  the  year  for 
which  they  have  paid  dues. 

Fellows  are  elected  by  the  council 
from  such  of  the  members  as  are  pro- 
fessionally engaged  in  science.  The 
election  of  fellows  is  by  ballot  and  a 
majority  vote  of  the  members  of  the 
council  at  a  designated  meeting  of  the 


council.  On  the  election  of  any  mem- 
ber as  a  fellow,  an  additional  fee  of 
two  dollars  shall  be  paid. 

Any  member  or  fellow  who  shall 
pay  the  sum  of  fifty  dollars  to  the 
association,  at  any  one  time,  shall  be- 
come a  life  member,  and  as  such  shall 
be  exempt  from  all  further  assess- 
ments, and  shall  be  entitled  to  the 
proceedings  of  the  association.  All 
money  thus  received  shall  be  invested 
as  a  permanent  fund,  the  income  of 
which,  during  the  life  of  the  mem- 
ber, shall  form  a  part  of  the  general 
fund  of  the  association ;  but,  after  his 
death,  shall  be  used  only  to  assist  in 
original  research,  unless  otherwise  di- 
rected by  unanimous  vote  of  the 
council. 

Any  person  paying  to  the  associa- 
tion the  sum  of  one  thousand  dollars 
shall  be  classed  as  a  patron,  and  shall 
be  entitled  to  all  the  privileges  of  a 
member  and  to  all  its  publications. 


326 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SWITZERLAND 

OENMAf 

SERVIA 
SWEDEN& 
GREECE 
MEXICO 


Copyright,  1904,  by  Munn  &  Co. 

NATIONAL  DEBTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


CHAPTER    XII. 


POST    OFFICE. 


POSTAL  INFORMATION. 

Revised  by  the  New  York  Post  Office. 


There  are  four  classes  of  mail  mat- 
ter: 

First-Class  Matter — All  written 
matter,  such  as  letters,  postal  cards, 
"  post  cards  "  and  all  matter  in  writ- 
ing, whether  pen-written  or  typewrit- 
ten, and  all  matter  sealed  from  inspec- 
tion, constitutes  "  First-class  Matter," 
and  is  mailable  at  two  cents  an  ounce, 
or  fraction  thereof.  Letters,  etc.,  may 
be  sent  to  Canada,  Cuba,  the  "  Canal 
Zone "  at  Panama,  Guam,  Tutuila 
(Samoa),  Shanghai  (China),  Mexico, 
Porto  Rico,  Hawaii,  and  the  Philip- 
pines. Postal  cards  are  one  cent  each. 
Local  or  "  drop  "  letters  are  two  cents 
an  ounce  or  fraction  thereof,  when 
mailed  at  letter  carrier  offices,  or  at 
offices  where  Rural  Delivery  Service 
has  been  established,  addressed  to 
patrons  thereof  who  may  be  served  by 
rural  carriers,  and  one  cent  for  each 
ounce  or  fraction  thereof  at  offices 
where  free  delivery  by  carrier  is  not 
established  or  at  rural-delivery  offices 
when  addressed  to  patrons  who  cannot 
be  served  by  the  carriers. 

Note — There  is  no  "drop"  rate  on 
third  or  fourth-class  matter :  the  post- 
age on  which  is  uniform  whether  ad- 
dressed for  local  delivery  or  transmis- 
sion in  the  mails. 

The  following  articles  are  included 
in  first-class  matter :  Assessment  no- 
tices, autograph  albums,  blank  books, 
with  written  entries,  bank  checks, 
blank  forms  filled  out  in  writing,  re- 
ceipts, visiting  cards  bearing  written 
name,  communications  entirely  in 
print  with  the  exception  of  name  of 
sender,  diplomas,  drawings  or  plans 
containing  written  words,  letters  or 
figures,  envelopes  bearing  written  ad- 
dresses, imitations  or  reproductions  of 
hand  or  typewritten  matter  not  mailed 
at  the  postoffice  in  a  minimum  num- 
ber of  twenty  perfectly  identical  cop- 
ies to  separate  addresses,  legal  and 


other  blanks,  old  letters  sent  singly  or 
in  bulk,  all  sealed  matter,  stenographic 
or  shorthand  notes,  and  unsealed 
written  communications. 

Second  -Class  Matter — This  division 
includes  newspapers  and  other  periodi- 
cals, which  are  issued  as  often  as  four 
times  a  year.  The  rate  of  postage  on 
second-class  matter  when  sent  by  the 
publisher  thereof  and  from  the  office 
of  publication  to  subscribers  or  as 
sample  copies,  or  when  sent  from  a 
news  agency  to  actual  subscribers  or 
to  other  news  agents  for  sale,  is  one 
cent  a  pound  or  fraction  thereof,  ex- 
cept when  deposited  in  a  letter  carrier 
office  for  delivery  by  letter  carriers,  or 
mailed  free  within  the  county  of  publi- 
cation. Publishers  to  obtain  this  rate 
must  have  their  periodicals  entered  at 
their  local  post-office. 

Third-Class  latter — Embraces  all 
printed  matter  generally.  The  rate  of 
postage  is  one  cent  for  each  two  ounces 
or  fractional  part  thereof  sent  to  a 
single  address,  to  be  fully  prepaid  by 
ordinary  postage  stamps  affixed  there- 
to. The  following  named  articles  are 
among  those  subject  to  third-class  rate 
of  postage :  Almanacs,  printed  archi- 
tectural designs,  blueprints,  books 
(printed),  bulbs,  calendars  printed  on 
paper,  cards  printed  on  paper,  Christ- 
mas cards,  catalogues,  check  and  re- 
ceipt books  (blank),  circulars,  press 
clippings,  school  copy  books,  printed 
engravings,  samples  of  grain,  imita- 
tion of  hand  or  typewritten  matter 
when  mailed  at  the  postoffice  window 
in  a  minimum  number  of  twenty  iden- 
tical copies  separately  addressed, 
printed  labels,  legal  blanks,  lithographs, 
maps,  music  books,  photographs, 
plants,  printed  tags,  roots,  seeds,  sheet 
music. 

Fourth  -  Class  Matter  —  Embraces 
merchandise,  samples,  and  in  general 
all  articles  not  included  in  the  first, 


327 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


second  or  third  class.  The  rate  of 
postage  is  one  cent  an  ounce  or  frac- 
tion thereof  sent  to  a  single  address, 
to  be  prepaid  by  ordinary  stamps 
affixed.  The  following  are  among 
articles  included  in  fourth-class  mat- 
ter :  Albums,  photograph  and  auto- 
graph (blank),  artificial  flowers,  bill- 
heads, blank  books,  blotters,  botanical 
specimens,  celluloid  calendars,  blank 
cards,  celluloid,  dried  fruit,  dried 
plants,  electrotypes,  geological  speci- 
mens, maps  printed  on  cloth,  merchan- 
dise samples,  merchandise  sealed, 
metals,  napkins,  oil  paintings,  samples 
of  cloth,  samples  of  flour,  soap  wrap- 
pers, stationery. 

Prohibited  Articles. — Many  articles 
are  excluded  from  the  foreign  mails, 
the  regulations  being  different  in  the 
case  of  each  country.  Inquiries 
should  be  made  of  the  postmaster. 
Many  articles  are  also  excluded  from 
domestic  mails  when  they  are  liable  to 


destroy,  efface,  or  injure  the  contents 
of  the  mail  bags  or  the  persons  of  those 
engaged  in  the  postal  service.  When 
in  doubt  consult  your  postmaster. 

Withdrawal  of  Letters  from  the 
Mail. — It  is  not  generally  known  that 
a  letter  can  be  withdrawn  from  the 
mail.  For  good  and  sufficient  reasons 
and  satisfactory  identification  a  post- 
master may  telegraph  to  a  postmaster 
in  another  city,  asking  him  to  with- 
draw the  letter,  a  description  of  which 
is  telegraphed.  Special  care  is  then 
given  in  assorting  letters,  and  when 
the  letter  is  found  it  is  returned  to  the 
postmaster  of  the  city  where  it  was 
mailed,  who  delivers  it  to  the  person 
mailing  it  on  presentation  of  proper 
proof  of  ownership.  All  expenses 
must  be  borne  by  the  person  withdraw- 
ing a  letter  from  the  mail.  A  deposit 
of  $5  must  be  left  with  the  post- 
master when  the  application  is  made. 
It  is  also  possible  to  withdraw  a  for- 


POSTAL   SERVICE 


Domestic. 

Number  of  letters. 

Number  of 
post  cards. 

3 

Printed 
matter. 

4 

Commer- 
cial papers. 

5 

Postage 
prepaid. 
1 

Not 
prepaid. 
2 

Argentine  Republic  . 
Australasia  
Austria               .    . 

159,385,020 
211,254,801 
440,675,600 
101,644,321 
787,467 
222,394,627 
3,739,812 
24,768,283 
1,820,831 
6,489,631 
74,223,431 
781,080 
12,060,000 
820,708,041 
1,557,679,710 
2,579,500,000 
118,121,668 
198,064,428 
205,076,343 
37,963,823 
80,455,526 
30,695,300 
22,561,727 
11,751,558 
300,822,581 
122,590,854 
76,920,350 
92,583,216 

3,732,031,938 
3,350,544 

See  Col.  1 
See  Col.  1 
4,180  400 
427,856 
4,226 
28,462,364 
186,854 
448609 

18,296 
99,418 
65,883 
300,000 
3,016,145 
30,259,540 
See  Col.  1 
1,446,906 
4,670,035 
See  Col.  1 
743,508 
540,113 
202,600 
83,762 
1,121,401 
5,476,878 

'296,513 
330,260 

139,151,837 
31,189 

3,588,504 
2,705,126 
264,989,700 
59,804,004 
24,170 
227,062,615 
6,042,720 
462,694 
69,726 
1,916,326 
4,764,940 
14,475 
590,000 
64,442,350 
1,062,679,460 
488,900,000 
85,193,768 
77,454,468 
483,021,736 
1,087,300 
54,492,724 
4,199,700 
9,543,240 
14,057,882 
97,701,412 
13,681,624 
37,739,367 
48,631,989 

740,087,805 
167,407 

152,515,894 
43,064,753 
55221,700 
257,568,220 
340.629 
59,367,511 
8,955,534 
948,864 
1,328,214 
902,500 
4,354,662 
459,867 
9,400,000 
1,130,475,202 
957,361,710 
175,400,000 
36,897,440 
385,375,075 
156,514,420 
70,766,739 
164,793,766 
4,321,200 
24,145,500 
24,908,318 
80,444,160 
194,884,182 
11,363,997 
41,226,016 

3,306,582,333 
14,442,140 

See  Col.  4 
38,227.430 

'i,  797,1  98 
10,900 
See  Col.  4 
90,304 
4,964 
366,104 
1,050,300 

80,666 
43,811,675 
8,460,270 
809,800,000 

9,341,668 
3,286,535 
See  Col.  4 

Belgium  
Bolivia  
British  India  
Bulgaria  
Chili 

Costa  Rica  
Cuba  
Denmark  
Dominican  Republic 
Egypt  
France  .  :  
Germany.  
Great  Britain  
Hungary  
Italy  
Japan  
Mexico  
Netherlands  
Norway  
Portugal  
Roumania  
Russia  
Spain.  
Sweden  
Switzerland  
United  States  of 
America  
Uruguay  .  . 

57,300 
477,787 
207,451 
4,190,274 
99,985 
194,078 

362,642 

*  Figures  cover  both 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


329 


eign  letter  from  the  mail,  and  in  that 
case  the  deposit  is  $25.  Any  unex- 
pended balance  is,  of  course,  returned. 

FEES   FOR    MONEY    ORDERS. 

Payable  in  the  United  States  (which 
includes  Guam,  Hawaii,  Porto  Rico 
and  Tutuila,  Samoa)  ;  also  for  Orders 
payable  in  Canada,  Cuba,  Newfound- 
land, the  United  States  Postal  Agency 
at  Shanghai  (China),  the  Philippine 
Islands,  Barbados,  Grenada,  Saint 
Lucia,  and  St.  Vincent. 

For  Orders  for  sums  not  exceeding 
$2.50,  3  cents. 

Over  $2.50  and  not  exceeding  $5.00, 
5  cents. 

Over  $5.00  and  not  exceeding  $10.00, 
8  cents. 

Over  $10.00  and  not  exceeding 
$20.00.  10  cents. 

Over  $20.00  and  not  exceeding 
$30.00,  12  cents. 


Over  $30.00  and  not  exceeding 
$40.00,  15  cents. 

Over  $40.00  and  not  exceeding 
$50.00,  18  cents. 

Over  $50.00  and  not  exceeding 
$00.00,  20  cents. 

Over  $60.00  and  not  exceeding 
$75.00,  25  cents. 

Over  $75.00  and  not  exceeding 
$100.00,  30  cents. 

NOTE. — The  maximum  amount  for 
which  a  single  Money  Order  may  be 
issued  is  $100.  When  a  larger  sum  is 
to  be  sent  additional  Orders  must  be 
obtained.  Any  number  of  Orders  may 
be  drawn  on  any  Money  Order  office ; 
but,  if  Orders  are  drawn  in  excess  of 
$200  on  any  one  day  upon  an  office 
of  the  4th  class,  notice  of  the  fact  by 
letter  (or  Form  6037)  is  to  be  prompt- 
ly sent  the  Department  by  the  issuing 
Postmaster  so  that  provision  may  be 
made  for  payment. 


OF  THE  WORLD. 

Samples 
of  merchan- 
dise. 

Total  of  pre- 
ceding columns, 
adding  free 
matter,  etc. 

Ordinary 
Packages. 

Money  orders. 

Number 
of 
Letter 
Boxes. 

Number 
of 
Employ- 
ees. 

Number. 

Value  in 
Dollars. 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

See  Col.  4 

319,119,054 

2,130,321 

2,519 

6,163 

See  Col.  5 

333,558,972           1,099,384 

'  '2,165,616 

16,761,631 

7,878 

15,492 

14,449,000 

836,380,800 

25,751,600 

25,833,578 

237,803,784 

30,996 

58,888* 

4,782,544 

453,433,761 

3,412,268 

1,525,197 

36,898,771 

8,500 

7,371 

1,623 

1,231,264 

18,373 

457 

921 

See  Col.  4 

554,156,454 

1,621,646 

13,640,140 

86,551,999 

51,347 

60,174* 

50,830 

22,226,790 

110,371 

225,243 

4,207,871 

2,412 

1,781* 

58,404 

58,805,378 

584,986 

329,282 

3,598,348 

1,130 

2,175 

6,736 

3,844,132 

63,482 

162 

215 

121,360 

11,893,177 

10,624 

64,710 

2,076,036 

1,111 

767 

293,720 

83,761,851 

2,685,320 

2,616,660 

17,938,179 

10,531 

7,011 

8,139 

1  329  444 

112 

132 

110,000 

25,150,000 

200,500 

503,500 

12,584,000 

1,317 

1,590 

51,024,069 

2,113,656,692 

44,638,979 

43,473,736 

304,135,418 

68,156 

81,659* 

46,997,370 

3,781,632,920 

183,994,828 

159,117,020 

2,390,185,643 

126,481 

241,967* 

See  Col.  5 

4,053,600,000 

87,014,292 

104,201,954 

357,210,065 

58,873 

183,595* 

2,170,864 

290,196,722 

9,316,406 

15,857,701 

157,812,182 

11,237 

22,582* 

10,021,951 

747,040,295 

9,243,969 

15,295,051 

200,800,478 

23,760 

30,925* 

2,781,546 

882,765,664 

9,519,910 

9,203,258 

47,752,424 

51,058 

57,965* 

664,662!           120,887,017 

251,556 

920,824 

41,811,849 

1,142 

10,477 

1,802,204            311,406,621 

4,537,142 

4,159,398 

24,616,865 

4,583 

8,364 

164,400              43,830.800 

334,500 

289,722 

6,050,873 

4,070 

3,673 

697,515 

60,208,773 

253,806 

296,410 

4,082,509 

6,097 

6,525* 

369,845 

43,643,104 

133,514 

860,694 

5,951,183 

4,903 

6,886* 

3,510,005 

591,932,272 

2,495,802 

16,916,041 

377,446,238 

21,065 

57,962* 

915,180 

350,692,763 

8,979 

5,293 

623,510 

132,704,875 

983,668 

"3,078,112 

24,764,948 

5,648 

8,246 

385,545 

198,682,821 

18,045,172 

6,472,827 

133,719,746 

10,349 

12,324 

84,798,683 

8,002,652,596 

40,474,327 

325,925,666 

129,335 

239,652 

32,116 

18,801,025 

9,800 

38,174 

4,204,775 

1,016 

1,582 

post  office  and  telegraph  officials. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


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'01  IBfldJU  3NI1N39W 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


333 


SUGGESTION   TO   THE   PUBLIC   ON   POSTAL   SUBJECTS. 


How  TO  DIRECT  AND  MAIL  LETTERS. — Mail 
matter  should  be  addressed  legibly  and  com- 
pletely, giving  the  name  of  the  postoffice, 
county  and  State,  and  the  postoffice  box  of 
the  person  addressed,  if  he  has  one;  if  to  a 
city  having  a  free  delivery,  the  street  and 
number  should  be  added.  To  secure  return 
to  the  sender  in  case  of  misdirection  or  insuffi- 
cient payment  of  postage,  his  name  should  be 
written  or  printed  upon  the  upper  left-hand 
corner  of  all  mail  matter;  it  will  then  be  re- 
turned to  the  sender,  if  not  called  for  at  its 
destination,  without  going  to  the  Dead  Letter 
Office,  and,  if  a  letter,  it  will  be  returned 
free. 

Dispatch  is  hastened  by  mailing  early, 
especially  when  large  numbers  of  letters,  news- 
papers or  circulars  are  mailed  at  once. 

When  a  number  of  letters  or  circulars  are 
mailed  together,  addressed  to  the  same  desti- 
nation, it  is  well  to  tie  them  in  bundles  with 
the  addresses  facing  the  same  side.  On  letters 
for  places  in  foreign  countries,  especially 
Canada  and  England,  in  which  many  post- 
offices  have  the  same  name  as  offices  in  the 
United  States,  the  name  of  the  country  as 
well  as  postoffice  should  be  given  in  full. 
Letters  addressed,  for  instance,  merely  to 
"London/1  without  adding  "England,"  are 
frequently  sent  to  London,  Canada,  and  vice 
versa,  thereby  causing  delay,  and  often  serious 
loss.  Letters  addressed  to  Burlington,  N.  S. 
(Nova  Scotia),  often  go  to  Burlington,  New 
York,  on  account  of  the  resemblance  between 
S  and  Y  when  carelessly  written. 

AVOID  THIN*  ENVELOPES. — Thin  envelopes, 
or  those  made  of  weak  or  poor,  unsubtantial 
paper,  should  not  be  used,  especially  for  large 
packages.  Being  often  handled,  and  sub- 
jected to  pressure  and  friction  in  the  mail 
bags,  such  envelopes  are  frequently  torn 
open  or  burst,  without  fault  of  those  who 
handle  them.  It  is  best  to  use  Stamped 
Envelopes  wherever  it  is  convenient  and 
practicable  to  do  so. 


REGISTERED  VALUABLE  MATTER. — All  val- 
uable matter  should  be  registered.  Registry 
fee  is  eight  cents,  which,  with  full  postage, 
must  be  prepaid,  and  name  and  address  of 
sender  must  be  given  on  the  outside  of  envel- 
ope or  wrapper.  Money  should  ba  sent  by  a 
money  order  or  registered  letter;  otherwise 
it  is  liable  to  be  lost. 

THE  CONVENIENCE  OF  LETTER  BOXES. — 
Patrons  in  cities  where  letter  carriers  are 
employed  are  advised  to  provide  letter  boxes 
at  places  or  private  residences,  thereby  saving 
much  delay  in  the  delivery  of  mail  matter. 

AFFIX  STAMPS  FIRMLY. — Postage  stamps 
should  be  placed  upon  the  upper  right-hand 
corner  of  the  address  side  of  all  the  mail 
matter,  care  being  taken  that  they  are 
securely  affixed. 

GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS. — A  subscriber  to  a 
newspaper  or  periodical  who  changes  his 
residence  and  postoffice  should  at  once  notify 
the  publisher,  and  have  the  publication  sent 
to  his  new  address. 

Publishers  and  news  agents  mailing 
second-class  matter  in  quantities,  will  facili- 
tate its  distribution,  and  often  hasten  its 
dispatch,  by  separating  such  matter  by  States 
and  Territories  and  the  larger  cities. 

HOTEL  MATTER. — That  is,  matter  addressed 
for  delivery  at  hotels,  should  be  returned  to 
the  postoffice  as  soon  as  it  is  evident  that  it 
will  not  be  claimed.  Proprietors  of  hotels, 
officers  of  clubs  and  boards  of  trade,  or  ex- 
changes, should  not  hold  unclaimed  letters 
longer  than  ten  days,  except  at  the  request  of 
the  person  addressed,  and  should  re-direct 
them  for  forwarding,  if  the  present  address  is 
known;  otherwise  they  should  be  returned  to 
the  postoffice. 

Letters  addressed  to  persons  temporarily 
sojourning  in  a  city  where  the  Free  Delivery 
System  is  in  operation  should  be  marked 
"Transient"  or  "General  Delivery,"  if  not 
addressed  to  a  street  and  number  or  some 
other  designated  place  of  delivery. — Post 
Office  Guide. 


THE  UNITED    STATES   POST   OFFICE. 
POSTAL   REVENUE    IN   DETAIL    FOR   YEAR    ENDING    JUNE  30,   1903. 


The  postal  revenue  from  all  sources  was  as 

follows: 

Sales  of  stamps,  stamped  en- 
velopes, newspaper  wrap- 
pers, and  postal  cards $123,511,549.70 

Second-class  postage  (pound 

rates)  paid  in  money 5,095,379 . 62 

Box  rents 3,065,675.06 

Revenue  from  money-order 

business 2,239,908. 24 


Letter  postage  paid  in  money, 
principally  balances  due 
from  foreign  postal  admin- 
istrations   

Miscellaneous  receipts 

Fines  and  penalties 

Receipts  from  unclaimed 
dead  letters 

Total  receipts.  .-.  . 


$186,426.83 
58,105.94 
46,476.04 

20,921.81 
$134,224,443.24 


334 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


EXPENDITURES  IN   DETAIL. 


The  expenditures  of  the  postal  service  for 

the  year  are  shown,  by  items,  in  the  following 

statement: 

Transportation  of  mails  on 

railroads $36,195,116. 18 

Compensation  to  postmasters       21,631 ,724 . 04 

Free-delivery  service 19,337,986.00 

Compensation  of  clerks  in 

post-offices 17,140,651 .11 

Railway  mail  service 11,228,845.75 

Rural  free  delivery 8,011,635.48 

Transportation  of  the  mails 

on  star  routes 6,561,819.35 

Railway  post-office  car  ser- 
vice   5,033,464 . 22 

Transportation  of  foreign 

mails 2,427,160.36 

Rent,  light,  and  fuel  for  first, 
second,  and  third-class 
post-offices 2,360,968 . 91 

Compensation  to  assistant 
postmasters  at  first  and 
second-class  post-offices  .  .  1,622,730. 12 

Mail-messenger  service 1,091,259.98 

Transportation  of  mails — 
regulation,  screen,  or  other 
wagon  service 828,707 . 93 

Manufacture  of  stamped  en- 
velopes    724,787 . 37 

Transportation  of  mails  on 

steamboats 634,957 . 08 

Mail  depredations  and  post- 
office  inspectors .  543,976.55 

Transportation  of  the  mails, 

electric  and  cable  cars.  .  ..  440,420.41 

Manufacture  of  postage 

stamps 336,437 . 10 

Mail  bags  and  catchers 274,219 . 71 

Miscellaneous  items  at  first 

and  second  class  offices  . .  .  256,620 . 98 

Canceling  machines 195,803 . 46 


Manufacture  of  postal  cards .  $188,865 . 98 

Balance  due  foreign  coun- 
tries   153,539.82 

Registered  package,  tag, 
official,  and  dead-letter  en- 
velopes    150,754 . 82 

Pneumatic-tube  service  .  ...  142,867.04 

Payment    of    money    orders 

more  than  one  year  old.  ..  141,390.68 

Wrapping  twine 132,635.47 

Transportation  of  the  mails, 

special  facilities 122,347. 18 

Blanks,    blank    books,    etc., 

for  money-order  service  .  .  112,179.20 

Stationery  for  postal  service.  68,760 . 66 

Postal  laws  and  regulations  .  51,826 . 48 

Printing    facing    slips,  slide 

labels,  etc 46,862 . 47 

Postmarking  and  rating 

stamps 42,572 . 95 

Mail  locks  and  keys 42,534 . 33 

Wrapping  paper 39,835.04 


Expenditures  under  24 
smaller  items  of  appropri- 
ation   


138,316,264.21 


175,202.06 


Total   expenditures   for 

the  year 138,491,466.27 

Add  expenditures  during  the 
year  on  account  of  previous 
years 293,021 . 70 


Total  expenditures  dur- 
ing the  year 138,784,487 . 97 

Excess  of  expenditures  over 

receipts 4,560,044.73 

Receipts $134,224,443.24 


MONEY  ORDER   BUSINESS. 


Number  of  money-order  of- 
fices in  operation,  1902  .  .  . 

Number  of   money-order  of- 
fices in  operation,  1903  .  .  . 

Number  of  domestic  money 
orders  issued,  1903 


31,680 

34,547 

45,941,681 


Amount  of  domestic  orders 

issued,  1903 $353,627,648.03 

Amount  of  orders  paid  and 

repaid,  1903 353,173,320 . 52 

Excess  of  receipts  over  ex- 
penses, paid  from  the  pro- 
ceeds, 1903 1,904,887.63 


NUMBER    OF     POST    OFFICES,     EXTENT    OF     POST-ROUTES,    AND     REVENUE 

AND  EXPENDITURES  OF  THE   POST  OFFICE    DEPARTMENT,  INCLUDING 

AMOUNTS    PAID    FOR    TRANSPORTATION    OF     THE     MAIL, 

1877,  1887,  1897,  AND   1903. 


Year  ending 
June  30  — 

Post- 
offices. 

Extent 

of  post- 
routes. 

Revenue  of 
the  Depart- 
ment. 

Expended  for  transporta- 
tion of  — 

Total  expendi- 
ture of  the 
Department. 

Domestic  mail. 

Foreign  mail. 

1877  .  . 
1887  
1897 

Number. 

37,345 
55,157 
71,022 
74,169 

Miles. 

292,820 
373,142 
470,032 
£06,268 

Dollars. 

27,531,585 
48,837,610 
82,665,463 
134,224,443 

Dollars. 

18,774,235 
27,892,646 
48,028,094 
62,606,015 

Dollars. 

448,896 
402,523 
1.890,099 
2,580,700 

Dollars. 

33,486,322 
53.006,194 
94,077,242 
138,784,488 

1903  

— From  the  Annual  Reports  of  the  Postmaster-General. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


335 


RAILROAD    MILEAGE  UPON  WHICH  MAIL  WAS  CARRIED,  ANNUAL  COST  AND 

AVERAGE    COST    PER    MILE     OF    RAILROAD    MAIL    TRANSPORTATION, 

AND  EXPENDITURE  FOR  RAILWAY  MAIL  SERVICE  EMPLOYEES. 


Year 

ending 
June  30. 

Total  rail- 
roads in 
operation 
in  United 
.  States 
Dec.  31. 

Railroads 
upon 
which 
mail  was 
carried. 

Annual  trans- 
ntation 
lail  by 
railroads. 

Railroad  mail  trans- 
portation. 

•  Railway  Mail  Service. 

Annual 
cost  of. 

Average 
annual  cost 
per  mile. 

Number 
of  em- 
ployees. 

Annual 
expendi- 
ture. 

1877... 
1887.  .  . 
1897  .  .  . 
1903... 

Miles. 
79,082 
149,214 
184,591 

Miles. 
74,546 
130,949 
173,475 
192,852 

Miles. 
85,358,710 
169,689,866 
273,190,356 
333,491,684 

Dollars. 
8,053,936 
18,056,272 
33,876,521 
41,886,848 

Dollars. 
.1060 
.1064 
.1240 
.1256 

2,500 
4,851 
7,602 
10,418 

Dollars. 
2,484,846 
4,694,562 
7,782,547 
11,250,042 

— Prepared  in  the  Office  of  the  Postmaster-General. 


Copyright.  1901.  by  Munn  &  Co. 

GRAPHICAL  REPRESENTATION  OF  SOME  INTERESTING  STATISTICS  OF 
THE  U.  S.  POSTAL  SERVICE,  BASED  ON  FIGURES  FOR  1901. 


336 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


CHAPTER    XIII. 


INTERNATIONAL    INSTITUTIONS    AND    BUREAUS, 


THE  NOBEL  PRIZES. 


The  Nobel  Foundation  is  based  upon 
the  last  will  and  testament  of  Dr.  Al- 
fred Bornhard  Nobel,  engineer  and  in- 
ventor of  dynamite,  dated  November 
27,  1895,  the  stipulations  of  which, 
respecting  this  fund,  are  as  follows : 

"The  rest  of  my  fortune,  that  is,  the 
capital  realized  by  my  executors,  is  to 
constitute  a  fund,  the  interest  of  which 
is  to  be  distributed  annually  as  a  prize 
to  those  who  have  in  the  course  of  the 
previous  year  rendered  the  greatest  ser- 
vices to  humanity.  The  amount  is  to 
be  divided  into  five  equal  parts,  one  of 
which  is  to  be  awarded  to  the  person 
who  has  made  the  most  important  dis- 
covery in  the  domain  of  physical  sci- 
ence ;  another  part  to  the  one  who  has 
made  the  most  valuable  discovery  in 
chemistry  or  brought  about  the  great- 
est improvement ;  the  third  to  the  au- 
thor of  the  most  important  discovery 
in  the  field  of  physiology  or  medicine ; 
the  fourth  to  the  one  who  has  pro- 
duced the  most  remarkable  literary 
work  of  an  idealist  tendency,  and 
finally  the  fifth  to  the  person  who 
has  done  the  best  or  the  most  in  the 
cause  of  the  fraternity  of  nations,  for 
the  suppression  or  the  reduction  of 
standing  armies  as  well  as  for  the  for- 
mation and  propagation  of  peace  con- 
gresses. The  prizes  will  be  awarded 
for  physics  and  chemistry  by  the 
Swedish  Academy  of  Sciences ;  for 
works  in  physiology  or  medicine  by  the 
Caroline  Institute  of  Stockholm ;  for 
literature  by  the  Stockholm  Academy, 
and  finally  for  the  service  in  the  cause 
of  peace  by  a  Committee  of  five  mem- 
bers of  the  Norwegian  Storthing.  It 
is  my  express  desire  that  the  benefits 
of  the  foundation  are  to  be  open  to  all 
nationalities  and  sexes  and  that  the 
prize  be  awarded  to  the  one  most  wor- 
thy, whether  Scandinavian  or  not." 

Each  prize  will  amount  to  about 
$40,000,  and  the  corporation  will  desig- 
nate a  "Comite  Nobel"  composed  of 
three  or  five  members  for  each  sec- 
tion, with  headquarters  at  Christiania, 
Norway. 

The  Swedish  Academy  of  Sciences, 


Stockholm,  awards  the  Physics  and 
Chemistry  Prizes ;  the  Caroline  Medi- 
cal Institute,  Stockholm,  awards  the 
Prize  for  Physiology  or  Medicine  ;  the 
Swedish  Academy  in  Stockholm 
awards  the  Literature  Prize;  and  the 
Peace  Prize  is  awarded  by  a  Commit- 
tee of  five  persons  elected  by  the  Nor- 
wegian Storthing.  No  consideration 
is  paid  to  the  nationality  of  the  candi- 
dates, but  it  is  essential  that  every 
candidate  shall  be  proposed  in  writing 
by  some  qualified  representative  of  sci- 
ence, literature,  etc.,  in  the  chief  coun- 
tries of  the  civilized  world,  such  pro- 
posals to  reach  the  Committee  before 
the  first  of  February  in  each  year,  the 
awards  being  made  on  the  following 
10th  of  December.  Nobel  Institutes 
are  to  be  established  in  each  of  the  five 
departments,  to  carry  out  scientific  in- 
vestigations as  to  the  value  of  the  dis- 
coveries and  improvements,  and  to  pro- 
mote the  other  objects  of  the  Founda- 
tion. 

The  first  distribution  of  prizes  took 
place  in  1901,  the  awards  being  :  Peace, 
MM.  Dunant  and  Passy ;  Medicine, 
Dr.  Behring,  of  Marburg ;  Chemistry. 
Prof.  J.  H.  van  't  Hoff,  Berlin ;  Phy- 
sics, Prof.  Rontgen ;  and  Literature, 
M.  Sully  Prudhomme. 

The  1902  Prizes  were  awarded  as 
follows :  Literature,  Prof.  Theodor 
Mommsen,  of  Berlin  ;  Peace,  MM.  Du- 
commun  and  Gobat  (Switzerland)  ; 
Medicine,  Major  Ronald  Ross,  of  the 
School  of  Tropical  Medicine,  Liver- 
pool:  Chemistry,  Prof.  Emil  Fischer,  of 
Berlin;  Physics, divided  between  Profs. 
Lorentz  and  Zeemann,  of  Holland. 

The  1903  Prizes  were  awarded  thus  : 
Peace,  Mr.  W.  R.  Cromer,  M.  P. ;  Lit- 
erature, M.  Bjornson  ;  Medicine,  Prof. 
Finsen.  of  Copenhagen  ;  Physics,  Prof. 
Becquerel,  of  Paris,  and  Mme.  Curie, 
of  Paris ;  Chemistry,  Prof.  Arrhenius, 
of  Stockholm. 

All  information  can  be  obtained 
from  Nobelstiftelsen,  Stockholm,  or 
as  to  the  Peace  Prize,  from  the  Comite" 
Nobel  Norvegien,  Victoria  Terrasse,  7, 
III.,  Christiania. 


337 


338 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


THE  ANTHONY  POLLOK  PRIZE. 


No  doubt  many  inventors  are  won- 
dering what  disposition  has  been  made 
of  the  Anthony  Pollok  Prize.  Com- 
mun. cations  which  have  been  received 
by  the  editor  from  Paris  state  that, 
owing  to  the  unsatisfactory  results  of 
the  former  competition,  the  founders 
of  the  prize  were  undecided  as  to 
what  should  be  done.  Before  taking 
any  steps  it  was  thought  advisable  to 
make  an  investigation.  The  Inter- 
maritime  Association  in  Paris  sent  out 
letters  to  the  leading  maritime  asso- 
ciations, chambers  of  commerce  and 
boards  of  trade  of  the  principal  mari- 


time cities  of  the  world,  asking  for 
advice  as  to  the  best  methods  to  be 
pursued  in  order  to  obta.n  more  satis- 
factory results  in  a  possible  future 
competition.  Many  replies  were  re- 
ceived and  a  large  number  of  sugges- 
tions made. 

A  report  containing  the  various  rec- 
ommendations and  suggested  changes 
was  submitted  by  the  Intel-maritime 
Association  but  a  short  time  ago. 
The  founders  of  the  Anthony  Pollok 
Prize  intend  shortly  to  pass  upon  the 
report  and  adopt  resolutions  for  the 
final  disposition  of  the  prize. 


INTERNATIONAL  INSTITUTIONS  AND  BUREAUS. 


Feeling  that  a  large  majority  of  our 
readers  may  not  have  access  to  the 
sources  of  information  from  which  the 
following  data  are  drawn,  we  take  the 
liberty  of  presenting  them  with  the 
most  interesting  facts  concerning  the 
origin  and  composition  of  some  of  the 
International  Institutions  and  Bu- 
reaus in  which  the  United  States  as 
a  power,  and  we  as  a  people,  are  in- 
terested. 

I.  THE  PERMANENT  COURT  OF  ARBITRA- 
TION. 

This  court,  more  popularly  known 
as  The  Hague  Tribunal,  was  consti- 
tuted by  virtue  of  the  convention  for 
the  pacific  regulation  of  international 
questions,  concluded  at  The  Hague, 
July  29,  1899.  (Office,  Prinsegracht 
71,  The  Hague.) 

Administrative  Council. — President : 
The  Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs  for 
Holland.  Members:  The  diplomatic 
representatives  of  all  the  signatory 
powers  accredited  to  The  Hague. 

Members  of  the  Permanent  Court  of 
Arbitration. — Since  the  individuals 
themselves  are  constantly  changing  by 
ill  health  or  death,  we  shall  content 
ourselves  by  giving  the  signatory  pow- 
ers alone,  letting  it  suffice  to  say  that 
these  powers  appoint  their  most  dis- 
tinguished men,  preferably  lawyers,  to 
the  position.  They  are:  Austria-Hun- 
gary, Belgium,  Bulgaria,  Denmark, 
France,  Germany,  Great  Britain, 
Greece,  Holland,  Italy,  Japan,  Lux- 
emburg, Mexico,  Portugal,  Roumania, 
Russia,  Seryia,  Spain,  Sweden  and 
Norway,  Switzerland,  and  the  United 
States. 


II.      THE      UNIVERSAL      INTERNATIONAL 
POSTAL    UNION. 

The  Universal  Postal  Union,  found- 
ed by  the  Congress  at  Bern  in  1874, 
constitutes  a  single  territory  for  the 
reciprocal  exchange  of  correspondence 
between  the  Postal  Departments  of 
the  nations  present  at  the  Congress. 
Its  scope  has  been  further  enlarged 
and  developed  by  succeeding  conven- 
tions and  conferences  at  Bern  (1876), 
Paris  (1880).  Lisbon  (1885),  Vienna 
(1891),  and  AVashington  (1897)  ;  to- 
day it  comprises  all  the  states  and 
all  the  colonies  having  organized  pos- 
tal systems,  including  nearly  the 
whole  world. 

To  the  chief  convention  of  the 
Union,  regulating  the  exchange  of 
letters,  postal  cards,  printed  matter, 
official  papers  and  samples  have  from 
time  to  time  been  added,  special  ar- 
rangements concluded  between  the 
most  of  the  members  having  for  their 
object  the  international  interchange 
of  letters  and  packages  possessing  a 
declared  value,  postal  money  orders, 
postal  packages  and  collections,  to- 
gether with  a  passport  service  and  a 
department  for  the  subscription  to 
journals  and  other  publications. 

A  central  office,  created  by  the  Con- 
gress at  Bern,  has  its  seat  in  that  city 
and  is  known  under  the  name  of  The 
International  Bureau  of  the  Universal 
Postal  Union.  It  performs  its  labors 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Swiss 
Postoffice  Department.  The  ordinary 
annual  expenses  of  this  office  were  first 
fixed  at  75,000  francs,  later  advanced 
to  100.000  and  finally  increased  to 
125,000  francs,  by  the  Congress  of  Vi- 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


339 


enna.  The  funds  are  provisionally  ad- 
vanced by  the  Swiss  Government, 
which  is  reimbursed  by  all  the  con- 
tracting parties  in  proportion  to  their 
importance. 

This  bureau  is  charged  with  col- 
lecting, co-ordinating,  publishing  and 
distributing  information  of  whatever 
nature  appertaining  to  internation- 
al postal  affairs.  Its  duties  are  al- 
so to  issue,  upon  the  demand  of  any 
one  of  the  members  of  the  Union,  a 
note  upon  questions  in  litigation,  to 
examine  into  the  demands  for  the 
modification  of  the  acts  of  the  Con- 
gress, to  give  notice  of  any  adopted 
changes,  and  in  general,  to  proceed 
with  the  studies  and  labors  with  which 
it  is  seized  in  the  interest  of  the  pos- 
tal union.  It  prepares  a  table  of  gen- 
eral statistics  for  each  year;  it  edits 
a  special  journal  "L'Union  postale"  in 
the  German,  French,  and  English  lan- 
guages ;  it  prepares  the  work  of  the 
Congresses  or  Conferences,  publishes 
and  keeps  up  to  date  a  dictionary  of 
all  the  postoffices  in  the  world,  and  at- 
tends to  the  balancing  and  liquidation 
of  the  accounts  between  the  various 
postal  administrations  which  have  de- 
clared their  willingness  to  make  use  of 
it  as  an  intermediary.  The  total 
amount  of  the  liquidations  in  1902 
reached  the  considerable  sum  of  49,- 
113,785.57  francs  ($9,822,757.11). 
Throughout  the  territory  controlled  by 
the  Union,  24.061,000,000  pieces  were 
exchanged  in  1901  ;  of  these  51  000,000 
were  letters  and  packages  having  a  de- 
clared value  of  45,283,000,000  francs 
($9,056,600,000)  ;  460,000,000  postal 
orders  were  sent,  amounting  to  24,- 
147,000,000  francs  ($4,829,800,000)  ; 
moreover,  2,275,000000  journals  were 
delivered  through  the  postal  bureau  for 
subscriptions  to  such  publications. 

III.    INTERNATIONAL   BUREAU    OF   TELE- 
GRAPHS. 

This  bureau  is  a  central  organ  in- 
stituted in  1868  by  the  International 
Telegraphic  Conference  at  Vienna  and 
placed  by  it  under  the  high  direction 
of  the  superior  authorities  of  the  Swiss 
Confederation.  Its  object  is  to  form 
a  permanent  bond  between  the  tele- 
graphic services  of  the  different  states 
which  compose  the  Union,  to  facilitate 
the  uniform  application  of  the  ar- 
rangements they  have  resolved  upon,  to 
collect  and  redistribute  documents  and 
information  of  mutual  utility,  to  car- 
ry on  such  work  and  publications  as 


are  of  interest  to  the  service,  notably 
to  prepare  work  for  the  Conferences 
and  publish  their  acts.  This  bureau 
has  its  seat  in  Bern,  and  its  expenses 
are  temporarily  advanced  by  the  Swiss 
Confederation,  which  is  later  reim- 
bursed by  the  members  of  the  Union, 
of  whom  there  at  present  47,  covering 
a  superficial  area  of  62,100,000  square 
kilometers,  (23,970,000  square  miles), 
and  comprising  within  its  circuits  a 
population  of  866,000,000  souls. 
*  The  recent  Conference  at  London 
in  1903  simplified  the  matters  of  tar- 
iff and  accounting  very  greatly.  The 
participants  in  the  benefits  of  this 
treaty  are  now :  The  whole  of  Europe, 
British  India,  the  Dutch  Indies,  Cey- 
lon, the  Portuguese  colonies  in  Asia, 
Siam,  French  Cochin-China,  Pers  a, 
Japan,  Asiatic  Russia,  and  Asiatic 
Turkey,  Egypt,  Tunis,  Cape  Colony, 
Natal,  East  African  colonies,  and  the 
British  protectorate  of  Uganda,  Portu- 
guese East  and  West  Africa,  Madagas- 
car, Algiers  and  Senegal,  the  Repub- 
lics of  Argentine,  Brazil  and  Uruguay, 
the  Australian  Confederation,  com- 
prising South  and  West  Australia, 
New  South  Wales,  Queensland,  Tas- 
mania, Victoria,  New  Zealand  and 
New  Caledonia.  Besides  the  countries 
above  mentioned,  the  following  are  in- 
timately connected  with  the  general 
system  which  encircles  the  globe : 
China,  the  Philippines,  British  Ameri- 
ca, the  United  States,  almost  all  the 
Greater  and  Lesser  Antilles, .  Central 
and  South  America,  Morocco  at  Tan- 
gier, the  Azores,  Island  of  Madeira, 
the  Canaries  and  Cape  Verde  Islands, 
as  well  as  those  of  Ascension  and  St. 
Helena,  the  Eastern  and  Western 
coasts  of  Africa,  together  with  the  isl- 
ands of  Seychelles,  Maurice,  Rodri- 
guez. Cocos,  and  so  forth. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  number  of 
dispatches  forwarded  in  1901  by  the 
countries  above  named  amounted  to 
more  than  400,000,000. 

IV.      INTERNATIONAL     BUREAU      OF 
WEIGHTS    AND    MEASURES. 

By  virtue  of  the  Metric  Convention 
signed  at  Paris,  May  20,  1875,  the 
States  of  Germany,  Argentine  Repub- 
lic, Austria-Hungary,  Belgium,  Den- 
mark, Spain,  United  States,  France, 
Italy,  Peru.  Portugal,  Russia.  Swe- 
den and  Norway,  Switzerland,  and 
Venezuela,  engaged  to  found  and  sus- 
tain, at  common  expense,  an  Interna- 
1  tional  Bureau  of  Weights  and  Meaa- 


340 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


ures,  of  which  the  seat  should  be  at 
Sevres,  near  Paris.  It  is  furthermore 
stipulated  in  that  Convention,  that  the 
Bureau  should  perform  its  labors  un- 
der the  surveillance  of  an  international 
committee,  itself  subject  to  a  general 
Conference  of  weights  and  measures 
composed  of  all  the  delegates  from  the 
contracting  States.  This  convention 
became  operative  from  the  first  of  Jan- 
uary, 1876. 

V.  INTERNATIONAL  UNIONS  FOB  THE 
PROTECTION  OF  INDUSTRIAL,  LITER- 
ARY AND  ARTISTIC  PROPERTIES. 

The  Union  for  the  Protection  of  In- 
dustrial Property  was  founded  at 
Paris,  March  20,  1883,  by  a  conven- 
tion to  which  19  States  were  parties. 
They  were  Belgium,  Brazil,  Denmark, 
France,  Germany,  Great  Britain,  Hol- 
land, Italy,  Jai-an,  Mexico,  Norway 
and  Sweden,  Portugal,  Servia,  Spain, 
Santo  Domingo,  Switzerland,  Tunis, 
and  the  United  States.  The  object 
of  the  union  is  to  assure  the  procec- 
tion  of  inventions,  designs  and  models 
of  an  industrial  character,  trademarks, 
firm  names  and  indications  of  origin. 
This  convention  was  completed  and 
modified  by  an  additional  act  signed 
at  Brussels,  December  14,  1900. 

Moreover,  on  April  14,  1891.  agree- 
ments were  signed  at  Madrid  con- 
stituting restrictive  unions,  viz. :  1. 
International  registration  of  manu- 
facturing and  trademarks  and  the  pro- 
tection of  these  marks  in  all  the  con- 
tracting countries  by  the  single  regis- 
tration at  an  International  Bureau. 
The  parties  to  this  agreement  were  Bel- 
gium, Brazil,  France,  Holland,  Italy, 
Portugal,  Spain,  Switzerland,  and 
Tunis.  2.  The  suppression  of  false 
indications  of  origin  :  Brazil.  France, 
Great  Britain,  Portugal,  Spain,  Swit- 
zerland, and  Tunis.  The  arrange- 
ment of  1891,  concerning  the  interna- 
tional registration  of  Marks,  was 
completed  and  modified  by  an  addi- 
tional act  signed  at  Brussels,  Decem- 
ber 14,  1900. 

The  Union  for  the  Protection  of 
Literary  and  Artistic  Propertv,  found- 
ed at  Bern.  September  9,  1886,  com- 
prised fourteen  states :  Belgium,  Den- 
mark, France,  Great  Britain.  Ger- 
many, Haiti,  Italy.  Japan,  Luxemburg, 
Monaco.  Norway,  Spain,  Switzerland, 
and  Tijnis. 

The  object  of  this  un;on  is  to  assure 
effective  protection  to  authors  for 
their  literary  works,  and  to  enable 


artists  to  enjoy  the  same  security  in 
their  artistic  productions  throughout 
the  whole  territory  covered  by  the 
union.  This  convention  was  completed 
and  modified  by  an  additional  act 
and  an  interpretative  declaration  signed 
at  Paris,  May  4,  1896.  Both  of  these 
unions  are  represented  by  a  separate 
International  Bureau  established  at 
Bern,  and  placed  under  the  same  direc- 
torate. 

VI.  BUREAU    FOR    THE    REPRESSION    OF 
THE    SLAVE    TRADE   ON    THE   AFRICAN 
COAST. 

This  bureau  was  instituted  in  the 
execution  of  the  General  Act  of  the 
Conference  of  Brussels  of  the  2d  of 
July,  1890,  and  attached  to  the  De- 
partment for  Foreign  Affairs  of  Bel- 
gium. 

Article  81. — The  Powers  will  com- 
municate to  the  greatest  extent  possi- 
ble and  with  the  least  possible  delay  : 

1.  The    text    of    the    existing    laws 
and     administrative      regulations     or 
edicts     for     the     application     of     the 
clauses  of  the  present  General  Act. 

2.  Statistical    information    concern- 
ing the  slave  trade;  slaves  taken  and 
freed ;    the    traffic    in    arms    and    am- 
munition, and  also  in  spirits. 

Article  82. — The  exchange  of  these 
documents  and  circulars  v/ill  be  cen- 
tralized in  a  special  bureau  attached 
to  the  Department  of  Foreign  Affairs 
at  Brussels. 

Article  84. — The  documents  and 
circulars  shall  be  collected  and  peri- 
odically published,  and  forwarded  to 
all  the  signatory  powers. 

Article  85. — The  expenses  of  run- 
ning the  bureau,  of  correspondence,  of 
translation  and  printing,  shall  be  met 
by  all  the  signatory  powers,  and  re- 
covered by  the  L.-partment  of  Foreign 
Affairs  at  Brussels. 

VII.  INTERNATIONAL     FNTON    FOR    THE 
PUBLICATION   OF  CUSTOMS   TARIFFS. 

The  International  Union  for  the 
Publication  of  Customs  Tariffs  was 
founded  by  an  international  convention, 
July  5,  1890,  and  concluded  between 
fifty-two  states  and  semi-independent 
colonies.  The  object  of  the  union  is  to 
publish  as  promptly  and  as  correctly 
as  possible  all  the  tariffs  of  the  world 
in  five  languages,  viz.,  English  French, 
German.  Italian,  and  Spanish.  The 
bureau  has  its  seat  at  Brussels,  and  is 
under  the  direct  control  of  the  Gov- 
ernment of  Belgium.  The  members 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


341 


of  the  bureau  are  delegates  from  the 
principal  countries  whose  language  is 
used  in  the  publications. 

VIII.  INTERNATIONAL  BUREAU  OF  RAIL- 

ROAD TRANSPORTATION. 

On  October  14,  1890,  an  interna- 
tional convention  upon  the  transpor- 
tation of  merchandise  by  railroad  was 
concluded  at  Bern,  between  Germany, 
Belgium,  France,  Italy,  Luxemburg, 
Holland,  Austria-Hungary,  Russia, 
and  Switzerland.  Denmark  and  Rou- 
mania  came  in  later. 

The  object  of  this  convention  was 
to  regulate  the  law  governing  interna- 
tional transportation  between  the  di- 
rectorates of  the  railways  and  the 
shippers.  To  facilitate  the  execution 
of  this  convention  an  international 
railway  transportation  bureau  was  in- 
stituted at  Bern. 

IX.  CENTRAL  BUREAU  OF  INTERNATION- 
AL GEODESY  ESTABLISHED  UPON   THE 
TELEGRAPHBERG,    NEAR  POTSDAM. 

This  central  oureau  has  existed  since 
1866.  After  the  creation  of  the  Prus- 
sian Geodetic  Institute  it  was  united 
with  the  latter  in  1869.  The  object 
of  the  Geodetic  Institute  is  to  culti- 
vate geodesy  by  scientific  researches, 
to  execute  the  astronomical  and  physi- 
cal determination's  which,  joined  with 
the  geodetic  determinations,  may  serve 
in  the  exploration  of  the  surface  of 


the  earth,  more  particularly  within 
Prussian  territory. 

The  labors  of  the  institute  for  the 
present  bear  more  particularly  upon 
the  astronomical  determinations  of  the 
vertical  in  longitude  and  latitude,  as 
well  as  upon  astronomical  data  upon 
as  many  points  of  the  geodetic  system 
as  possible ;  moreover,  upon  the  de- 
termination of  zenithal  distances  for 
convenient  points,  also  upon  the  deter- 
mination of  the  density  and  force  of 
gravitation ;  it  devotes  its  attention, 
furthermore,  to  researches  upon  the 
mean  level  and  variations  in  the  sea- 
level  ;  to  the  examining  into  the  re- 
fraction of  luminous  rays  by  the  at- 
mosphere ;  finally,  it  is  occupied  with 
all  theoretical  and  experimental  re- 
searches which  contribute  to  the  ex- 
amination of  the  surface  and  the 
geodesy  of  the  country. 

The  Geodetic  Institute  is  placed 
under  the  immediate  supervision  of 
the  Minister  of  Ecclesiastical  Affairs, 
Public  Instruction,  and  Medical  Af- 
fairs of  Prussia. 

The  Academy  of  Sciences  is  the 
consulting  organ  of  the  Minister  in 
all  the  important  affairs  of  the  Insti- 
tute. Conformably  to  the  conventions 
agreed  upon  between  the  contracting 
parties,  the  Institute  performs  the 
functions  of  a  Central  Bureau  for  in- 
ternational geodesy.  The  director  of 
the  bureau  is  at  the  same  time  director 
of  the  Institute. — Almanach  de  Gotha. 


Mr.  Andrew  Carnegie  gave  $5,000,- 
000  for  a  fund  to  be  known  as  the 
"Carnegie  Hero  Fund  Commission," 
the  interest  being  devoted  to  the  re- 
ward of  those  who  perform  heroic  acts. 


CARNEGIE  HERO  COMMISSION. 

The  fund  became  operative  April  15, 
1904,  and  no  applications  on  account 
of  heroic  acts  performed  prior  to  that 
date  will  be  considered.  The  head- 
quarters of  the  fund  are  in  Pittsburg. 


RHODES   SCHOLARSHIPS. 


By  his  will,  Mr.  Cecil  Rhodes,  in  his 
desire  to  encourage  and  foster  an  ap- 
preciation of  the  advantages  which 
will  result  from  the  union  of  the  Eng- 
lish-speaking people  throughout  the 
world,  and  to  encourage  in  students 
from  the  United  States  of  America  an 
attachment  to  the  country  from  which 
they  have  sprunsr,  without  withdraw- 
ing their  sympathies  from  the  land  of 
their  adoption  or  birth,  directs  his 
trustees  to  establish  sixty  colonial 
scholarships  for  male  students  of  $1,- 
500  each  a  year  for  three  years  at  the 
University  of  Oxford,  these  colonial 
scholarships  being  spread  over  most  of 


the    colonies,    twenty-four    being    al- 
lotted to  South  Africa. 

Two  Oxford  scholarships  are  to  be 
allotted  to  each  of  the  existing  States 
and  Territories  of  the  United  States 
of  America — 104  in  all.  By  a  codicil 
executed  in  South  Africa,  Mr.  Rhodes, 
after  stating  that  the  German  Em- 
peror had  made  instruction  in  English 
compulsory  in  German  schools,  estab- 
lishes fifteen  scholarships  for  students 
of  German  birth  (five  in  each  of  the 
first  three  years  after  his  death),  of 
$1,250  each,  tenable  for  three  vears.  to 
be  nominated  by  the  German  Emperor, 
for  "a  good  understanding  between 


342 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


England,  Germany,  and  the  United 
States  of  America  will  secure  the 
peace  of  the  world,  and  educational 
relationships  form  the  strongest  tie." 
So  that  the  students  who  shall  be 
elected  to  the  scholarships  shall  not 
be  merely  bookworms,  regard  is  to  be 
had,  not  only  to  their  "literary  and 
scholastic  attainments,"  but  also  to 
their  "fondness  of  and  success  in  man- 
ly outdoor  sports,  qual.ties  of  man- 
hood, truth,  courage,  devotion  to  duty, 
sympathy  for  and  protection  of  the 
weak,  kindliness,  unselfishness,  and 


fellowship,"  moral  force  of  character 
and  instincts  of  leadership.  "No  stu- 
dent shall  be  qualified  or  disqualified 
for  election  to  a  scholarship  on  ac- 
count of  his  race  or  religious  opin- 
ions." The  scholars  are  to  be  distrib- 
uted among  all  the  colleges  of  the 
University  of  Oxford,  and  there  is  to 
be  an  annual  dinner  of  past  and  pres- 
ent scholars  and  trustees. 

Dr.  G.  R.  Parkin,  Principal  of  the 
Uppe.r  Canada  School,  Toronto,  was 
appointed  organizing  agent  for  the 
trustees. — "Daily  Mail"  Year  Book. 


THE    CARNEGIE   INSTITUTION. 


This  institution  was  founded  by  Mr. 
Andrew  Carnegie  for  the  promotion 
of  original  research  in  science,  litera- 
ture and  art.  He  set  aside  $10,100,- 
000  for  the  purpose.  The  interest  is 
used  to  conduct,  endow  and  assist  in- 
vest gation  in  any  department  of 
science,  literature,  or  art  and  to  this 
end  co-operate  with  governments,  uni- 


versities, colleges,  technical  schools, 
learned  soc'eties,  and  individuals.  The 
headquarters  of  the  institution  are  in 
Washington.  Prof.  D.  C.  Gilman  is 
the  President,  and  Mr.  Charles  D. 
Walcott  is  the  Secretary.  Many 
grants  have  already  been  made,  and 
the  investigations  have  been  impor- 
tant. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


MIXES    AXD    MIXING. 


SUMMARY   OF   THE    MINERAL   PRODUCTION   OF   THE   UNITED 
STATES    IN   1902. 


GENERAL  REMARKS. 

In  1902,  for  the  third  time,  the  total 
value  of  the  commercial  mineral  pro- 
duction of  the  United  States  exceed- 
ed the  enormous  sum  of  $1,000,000,- 
000.  The  exact  figures  for  1902  were 
$1,260,039,415  as  compared  with 
$1,08(5,584,851  in  1901,  with  $1,063,- 
678,053  in  1900,  and  with  $972,208,- 
008  in  1899,  a  gain  of  1902  over  1901 
of  $174,0(54,414,  or  16.02  per  cent;  a 
gain  of  1902  over  1900  of  $196,961,- 
362,  or  18.52  per  cent ;  and  a  gain  of 
1902  over  1899  of  $288,431,407,  or 
29.67  per  cent.  Although  this  gain  is 
not  so  great  either  actually  or  propor- 
tionally as  was  the  gain  in  1899,  when 
the  gain  over  1898  was  $273,601,810, 
or  39.17  per  cent,  it  is  sufficient  to  be 
worthy  of  note. 

The  notable  gains  and  losses  of  the 
last  two  decades  are  as  follows : 

The  largest  actual  gain  was  that  of 
1899  over  1898,  $273,601,810,  or  39.17 
per  cent ;  next,  that  of  1902  over  1901, 
$174,053,760.  or  16.02  per  cent;  then 
the  gain  of  1895  over  1894.  which  was 
$94,215,822,  or  17.88  per  cent;  then 
that  of  1900  over  1899,  $91,468,340, 
or  9.41  per  cent ;  and  the  gain  of  1887 
over  1886,  $74,927,880,  or  16.81  per 
cent.  In  other  years  than  those  men- 
tioned between  1880  and  1898  the 
gains  were  not  noteworthy,  and  in 
some  of  the  years,  notably  in  1884.  the 
production  decreased  $40,451,968,  or 
nearly  9  per  cent.  During  the  indus- 
trial depression  of  1892-1895  the  pro- 
duction would  have  been  expected  to 
decline,  as  it  did,  going  from  $648,- 
895,031  in  1892  to  $574,464.724  in 
1893,  and  to  $527,079.225  in  1894,  and 
then  rising  to  $621,295,047  in  1895, 
and  not  reaching  the  output  of  1892 
until  1898. 

As  heretofore,  iron  and  coal  are  the 
most  important  of  our  mineral  prod- 
ucts. The  value  of  the  iron  in  1902 
was  $372,775,000;  the  value  of  coal 


$367,032,069.  Nearly  all  the  impor- 
tant metals  increased  in  both  output 
and  value ;  and  among  the  less  im- 
portant metals,  platinum,  as  com- 
pared with  1901.  lost  in  both  quantity 
and  value  even  more  than  it  gained  in 
1901  as  compared  with  1900,  the  pro- 
duction in  1902  being  94  ounces,  val- 
ued at  $l,oi4,  as  compared  with  1,408 
ounces,  valued  at  $27,526,  in  1901, 
with  -^00  ounces  in  1900,  and  with  300 
ounces  in  1899.  The  fuels  increased 
from  $442,410,904  in  1901  to  $469,- 
078.647  in  1902,  a  gain  of  $26,667,743, 
or  6  per  cent.  Every  variety  of  fuel 
increased  in  value  except  anthracite 
coal,  which  showed  a  decrease  in  quan- 
tity of  23,301.850  long  tons  and  in 
value  of  $36,330,434.  The  average 
price  of  anthracite  coal  per  long  ton 
at  the  mine  was  $2.35,  as  against  $2.05 
in  1901— the  highest  figure  then  ob- 
tained since  1888 — as  compared  with 
$1.85  in  1900,  and  with  $1.80  in  1899; 
and  the  average  price  per  ton  for  bitu- 
minous coal  at  the  mine  was  $1.125, 
as  compared  with  $1.047  in  1901.  The 
increase  in  value  of  the  bituminous 
coal  output  over  1901  was  $54,436,- 
434. 

The  gain  of  $174,064,414  in  the  to- 
tal value  of  pur  mineral  production  is 
due  to  the  increase  in  both  metallic 
and  nonmetallic  products,  the  metal- 
lic products  showing  an  increase  from 
$518.266,259  in  1901  to  $642.258,58 1 
in  1902,  a  gain  of  $123,992,325,  and 
the  nonmetallic  products  showing  an 
increase  from  $567,318,592  in  1901  to 
$617,380,831'  in  1902,  a  gain  of  $50,- 
072,089.  To  these  products  should  be 
added  estimated  unspecified  products, 
including  building,  molding  and  other 
sands  reported  to  this  office,  the  rare 
mineral  molybdenum,  and  other -min- 
eral products,  valued  at  $1,000,000, 
making  the  total  mineral  production 
for  1902  $1,260,639,415. 

The  manufacture  of  arsenious  oxide, 
noted  for  the  first  time  in  the  United 


343 


344 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


States  in  the  report  for  1901,  was  con- 
tinued in  increased  proportions  in 
1902. 

METALS. 

Iron  and  Steel. — Twenty-two  States 
made  pig-iron  in  1902,  as  against  21 
in  1899  and  1900,  and  20  in  1901.  The 
total  production  of  pig-iron  in  1902 
was  17,821,307  long  tons,  against  15,- 
878,354  tons  in  1901,  13,789,242  tons 
in  1900,  13,620,703  tons  in  1899,  11,- 
773,934  tons  in  1898,  and  9,652,680 
tons  in  1897.  The  production  of  1902 
shows  an  increase  of  1,942,953  long 
tons,  or  12.2  per  cent,  in  quantity 
over  the  production  of  1901,  and  in 
increase  in  value  from  $242,174,000  to 
$372,775,000,  amounting  to  $130,601,- 
000,  or  about  54  per  cent.  The  aver- 
age price  per  long  ton  of  pig-iron  in- 
creased from  $15.25  in*  1901  to  $20.90 
in  1902.  The  average  prices  per  long 
ton  in  recent  years  have  been  as  fol- 
lows:  1900,  $18.85;  1899,  $18:  1897, 
$9.85;  1896,  $10.47;  1895,  $11.14; 
1894,  $9.76. 

Iron  Ores. — The  production  of  iron 
ores  in  1902  amounted  to  35,554,135 
long  tons,  as  compared  with  28,887,479 
long  tons,  in  1901,  a  gain  of  6,666,- 
656  long  tons,  or  23  per  cent.  The 
value  at  the  mines  of  the  ore  mined  in 
1902  was  $65,412,950.  As  in  the  four 
previous  years,  the  production  of  iron 
ores  in  1902  in  the  United  States  has 
never  been  equaled  by  any  other  coun- 
try. There  were  mined  also  in  1902, 
13.275  long  tons  of  manganiferous 
iron  ore,  valued  at  $52,371,  which 
were  used  in  the  production  of  spiegel- 
eisen. 

Gold. — The  production  of  gold  in 
1902,  as  reported  by  the  Bureau  of  the 
Mint,  was  3,870,000  fine  ounces,  val- 
ued at  $80,000.000. 

Silver. — The  production  of  silver  in 
1902,  as  reported  by  the  Bureau  of  the 
Mint,  was  55,500,000  fine  ounces; 
coining  value,  $71,757,575;  commercial 
value,  $29,415,000. 

Manganese  Ores. — The  production 
of  manganese  ores  increased  from  11.- 
995  long  tons,  valued  at  $116.722,  in 
1901,  to  16,477  long  tons,  valued  at- 
$177,911,  in  1902,  an  increase  in 
quantity  of  4,472  tons  and  in  value  of 
$61,189.  The  avprage  price  per  ton 
was  $10.74  in  1902.  as  comnared  with 
$9.73  in  1901  and  with  $8.52  in  1900. 

Copper. — The  copper  mining  indus- 
try suffered  dnring  1902  from  the  re- 
action which  followed  the  unsuccessful 
attempt  in  1901  to  maintain  the  metal 
at  an  artificial  level.  The  production. 


however,  increased  from  602,072,519 
pounds  in  1901  to  659,508,6*4  pounds 
in  1902,  an  increase  of  57,436,125 
pounds,  or  about  9  per  cent,  in  quan- 
tity, but  decreased  in  value  from  $87,- 
300,575  in  1901  to  $76,568,954  in 
1902,  a  decrease  of  $10,731,561,  or 
about  12  per  cent.  Unless  unforeseen 
events  cause  widespread  or  long  stop- 
page at  the  mines,  the  production  of 
copper  in  the  United  States  will  be 
considerably  larger  in  1903  than  it  has 
ever  been. 

Lead. — The  production  of  lead  has 
been  almost  exactly  the  same  for  the 
last  three  years,  viz.,  270,000  short 
tons  in  1902,  270,700  short  tons  in 

1901  and  270,824  short  tons  in  1900. 
The  value  of  the  production  in  1902 
was    $22,140,000,    as    compared    with 
$23,280,200   in    1901,    and   with   $23,- 
564,688  in  1900. 

Zinc. — The    production    of    zinc    in 

1902  showed  a  continued   increase  in 
quantity  as  compared  with   1901  and 
1900,    the    production    being    156,927 
short  tons  in  1902,  as  compared  with 
140,822  short  tons  in   1901   and  with 
123,ooo  short  tons  in  1900.    The  value 
of   the    zinc   production    in    1902   was 
$14,625,596,    as   compared   with    $11,- 
265,760  in  1901  and  with  $10,654,196 
in  1900. 

Aluminum.  —  The  production  of 
aluminum  during  1902  was  7,300,000 
pounds,  valued  at  $2,284,590,  as  com- 
pared with  7,150,000  pounds,  valued  at 
$2,238,000  in  1901,  and  with  7,150,000 
pounds,  valued  at  $1,920,000  in  1900. 

Platinum. — The  production  of  plati- 
num from  domestic  ores  in  the  United 
States  during  1902  was  94  ounces, 
valued  at  $1,814,  as  compared  with 
1,408  ounces,  valued  at  $27,526  in 
1901. 

Quicksilver.  —  The  production  of 
quicksilver  during  1902  amounted  to 
34,291  flasks  of  76V2  pounds  net,  as 
compared  with  29,727  flasks  in  1901 
and  with  28,317  flasks  in  1900.  The 
value  of  the  quicksilver  produced  in 
1902  was  $1,467,848.  as  compared 
with  $1,382,365  in  1901  and  with 
$1,302,586  in  1900.  California  re- 
ported 28,972  flasks  in  1902,  as  com- 
pared with  26,720  flasks  in  1901  :  and 
Texas  reported  5,319  flasks  in  1902, 
as  against  2.932  flasks  in  1901.  In 
addition,  the  census  reports  10.427 
tons  of  crude  or  cinnabar,  valued  at 
$67.242,  mined  in  California,  and 
1.300  tons  of  cinnabar,  valued  at 
$1,500,  mined  in  Texas  in  1902,  but 
not  roasted  or  treated,  a  total  of  11,- 
727  short  tons  of  cinnabar,  valued  at 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


345 


$82,242.  The  total  production  of  both 
quicksilver  and  cinnabar  in  1902  was 
therefore  valued  at  $1,550,090. 

Lithium. — The  production  of  lithi- 
um minerals  in  1902  was  1,245 
short  tons,  valued  at  $25,750  ^at 
the  railroad,  a  decrease  of  505 
tons  in  amount  and  of  $17.- 
450  in  value  as  compared  with 
the  production  of  1901,  which  was 
1,750  tons,  valued  at  $43,200.  As  far 
as  can  be  ascertained  the  greater  part 
of  the  lithium  minerals  mined  during 
1902  was  not  shipped.  Although  the 
price  of  these  minerals  was  lower  in 
1902  than  in  1901  for  the  same  grade 
of  mineral,  there  was  apparently  no 
increase  in  the  home  demand.  There 
is,  however,  an  increase  in  the  demand 
for  these  minerals  from  foreign  chem- 
ical manufacturers. 

Nickel — The  production  of  metallic 
nickel  in  1902  was  5,748  pounds,  val- 
ued at  $2,701,  as  compared  with  6,700 
pounds,  valued  at  $3,551  in  1901. 

Antimony. — No  antimony  was  ob- 
tained from  domestic  ores  during  1902. 
The  antimony  obtained  from  the  smelt- 
ing of  foreign  imported  ores  amounted 
to  G57  short  tons,  valued  at  $129,120, 
and  the  antimony  obtained  from  hard 
lead  produced  from  foreign  and  domes- 
tic lead  ores  was  2,904  short  tons, 
valued  at  $505,240,  a  total  production 
for  1902  of  3,5G1  short  tons,  valued  at 
$034,506,  as  compared  with  2.039 
short  tons,  valued  at  $539,902,  in  1901. 
The  estimated  total  amount  of  anti- 
mony available  for  consumption  in  1902 
was  0,255  short  tons,  including  2,094 
short  tons  of  imported  antimony  reg- 
ulus,  as  compared  with  4,475  short 
tons,  including  1,837  short  tons  of  im- 
ported antimony  regulus  in  1901,  and 
with  0,053  short  tons,  including  1,827 
short  tons  of  imported  antimony  regu- 
lus in  1900. 

Bismuth. — No  bismuth  ores  were 
produced  in  the  United  States  during 
1902.  The  marketed  output  in  1901 
was  318.6  short  tons.  The  ore  con- 
tained gold  and  silver,  for  which  the 
producers  were  paid.  As  nearly  as 
can  be  ascertained,  the  value  of  the 
output  in  1901  was  $80  per  ton,  not 
including  charges  for  transportation 
or  treatment. 

Molybdenum. — The  production  of 
molybdenum  in  1902  was  approxi- 
mately the  same  as  that  of  1901,  but 
none  of  the  product  was  shipped  in 
1902.  The  value  of  these  molybdenum 
ores  is  very  erratic,  the  highest  price 
hitherto  quoted  being  $1,500  per  ton, 
and  the  lowest  $100. 


Tungsten. — The  production  of  tung- 
sten during  1902  was  184  short  tons  of 
crude  ore,  of  which  no  more  than  a  few 
tons  were  sold.  This  does  not  repre- 
sent the  amount  of  tungsten  ore  sold 
in  1902,  for  76  tons  of  concentrated 
ore,  mined  in  1901,  were  sold  in  1902. 
In  1901  the  production  amounted  to 
179  tons  of  concentrated  ore,  valued 
at  $27,720.  The  larger  part  of  the 
production  of  1902  was  from  Colo- 
rado. 

Uranium  and  Vanadium.  —  There 
was  a  marked  increase  in  the  produc- 
tion of  uranium  and  vanadium  min- 
erals in  1902,  which,  as  reported  to 
the  Survey,  amounted  to  3,810  short 
tons,  valued  at  $48.125,  or  $12.62  per 
ton.  This,  of  course,  represents  the 
crude  ore.  In  1901  the  production  was 
375  tons  of  crude  ore. 

FUELS. 

Coal. — For  the  first  time  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  United  States  the  produc- 
tion of  coal  reached  a  total  of  over 
300,000,000  short  tons,  showing  an 
actual  output  of  301,590,439  tons  of 
2,000  pounds,  valued  at  $367,032,069. 
Of  this  total  the  output  of  anthracite 
coal  amounted  to  36,940.710  long  tons 
(equivalent  to  41,373,595  short  tons), 
which,  as  compared  with  the  produc- 
tion of  60,242,560  long  tons  in  1901, 
was  a  decrease  of  23,301,850  long  tons, 
or  about  39  per  cent.  This  decrease, 
as  is  well  known,  was  due  entirely  to 
the  suspension  of  operations  by  the 
strike  in  the  anthracite  region  from 
May  10  to  October  23,  a  little  over 
five  months.  But  for  the  strike  the 
output  for  the  year  would  probably 
have  been  over  65,000,000  long  tons. 
The  value  at  the  mines  of  the  anthra- 
cite coal  in  1902  was  $76,173,586,  as 
against  $112,504,020  in  1901,  a  loss  of 
about  32.3  per  cent.  The  average 
value  of  the  marketed  coal  sold  during 
the  year  at  the  mines  was  $2.35  p«r 
long  ton,  the  value  in  1901  having 
been  $2.05. 

The  output  of  bituminous  coal 
(which  includes  semi-anthracite  and 
all  semi-bituminous  and  lignite  coals) 
amounted  in  1902  to  260,216,844  short 
tons,  valued  at  $290.858,483,  as 
against  225,828,1  '9  short  tons,  valued 
at  $230,422.049  in  1901.  The  increase 
in  the  production  of  bituminous  coal 
was,  therefore,  34.388.695  tons  in 
quantity  and  $54,436.434  in  value. 

Out  of  30  States  and  Territories  pro- 
ducing coal  in  1902,  seven — California, 
Michigan,  New  Mexico,  Oregon,  Penn- 
sylvania, Texas  and  Washington — had 
smaller  outputs  than  in  1901, 


346 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


The  production  of  bituminous  coal 
in  Pennsylvania  in  1902  exceeded  that 
of  1901  by  15,755,874  short  tons,  but 
was  not  sufficient  to  overcome  the 
great  loss  in  anthracite  production. 
The  States  in  which  the  more  impor- 
tant increases  occurred  with  the  cor- 
responding gains  are  as  follows :  Illi- 
nois, 5,547,751  short  tons ;  Colorado, 
2,314,412  short  tons;  Ohio,  2,444,577 
short  tons ;  Indiana,  2,268,371  short 
tons;  Alabama,  1,490,865  short  tons; 
Kentucky,  1,193,176  short  tons. 

Coke. — The  coke  production  of  the 
United  States  in  1902  exceeded  that 
of  any  year  in  our  history.  The  pro- 
duction, which  includes  the  output 
from  1,663  retort  or  by-product  ovens, 
amounted  to  25,401,730  short  tons,  as 
compared  with  21,795,883  short  tons 
in  1901,  and  with  20,533,348  short  tons 
in  1900.  The  increase  in  1902  over 
1901  amounted  to  3,605,847  short  tons, 
or  16.5  per  cent.  Large  as  this  in- 
crease was,  it  was  considerably  less 
than  it  would  have  been  had  the  trans- 
portation facilities  been  commensurate 
with  the  demand  for  coke  and  with  the 
productive  capacity  of  the  ovens.  The 
increase  in  the  value  of  coke  was  even 
more  noteworthy.  The  average  price 
per  ton  at  the  ovens  was  the  highest 
recorded  in  a  period  of  twenty-three 
years,  and  the  total  value  reached  the 
high  figure  of  $63,339,167,  an  increase 
over  1901  of  $18,893,244,  or  42.5  per 
cent.  The  value  of  the  coal  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  coke  in  1902  ex- 
ceeded that  of  1901  by  $7,932,563, 
from  which  it  appears  that  the  value 
of  the  coke  product  increased  $10,970,- 
681  over  and  above  the  increased  value 
of  the  coal  used  in  its  production.  In 
1901  the  highest  price  obtained  for 
Connellsville  furnace  coke  was  $4.25. 
In  September  and  October  of  1902, 
while  the  contract  coke  was  nominally 
quoted  at  $3  per  ton,  consumers  were 
paying  from  $10  to  $12  per  ton  for 
prompt  delivery,  and  $15  was  reported 
as  paid  for  this  fuel  at  one  time.  With 
the  termination  of  the  anthracite  strike 
in  the  latter  part  of  October  prices  for 
coke  quickly  declined,  but  in  December 
of  1902  fnmace  coke  for  prompt  deliv- 
ery was  still  commanding  $5  and  $6 
per  ton,  and  contracts  for  delivery  in 
the  first  six  months  of  1903  were  made 
at  from  ^3.75  to  $4  per  ton. 

Gas,  Coke,  Tar  and  Ammonia. — The 
aggregate  value  of  all  the  products  ob- 
tained from  the  distillation  of  coal  in 
gas  works  or  retort  ovens  in  1902  was 
$43,869,440.  About  two-thirds  of  this 
amount,  or  $29,342,881,  was  repre- 


sented by  the  value  of  the  gas  pro- 
duced. The  value  of  the  coke  produced 
was  $11,267,608,  and  the  tar  was 
worth,  at  the  works,  $1,873,966.  The 
total  quantity  of  ammoniacal  liquor 
sold  was  49,490,609  gallons,  contain- 
ing 14,683,374  pounds  NHs,  and  was 
worth  at  the  works  $1,065,300.  In 
addition  to  this  there  was  an  actual 
production  of  11,276,502  pounds  of 
sulphate,  which  sold  for  $319,685. 

Petroleum. — The  total  production  of 
crude  petroleum  in  the  United  States 
in  1902  was  88,766,916  barrels,  as 
against  69,389.194  barrels  in  1901,  an 
increase  of  19,377,722  barrels,  or  27.92 
per  cent,  over  the  production  of  1901 
and  of  39.52  per  cent  over  that  of  1900. 
The  greatest  portion  of  the  increase  in 
1902  came  from  Texas  and  California, 
the  gain  over  1901  being  13,690,000 
barrels,  or  311.6  per  cent,  for  Texas, 
and  5,197,938  barrels,  or  59.16  per 
cent,  for  California.  The  increase  in 
Indiana  in  1902  over  1901  was  1,723,- 
810  barrels,  or  about  30  per  cent. 
Louisiana  produced  for  the  first  time 
in  1902,  the  production  being  548,617 
barrels.  The  increase  over  1901  in  the 
production  of  Kansas  was  152,598  bar- 
rels, or  about  85  per  cent.  Kentucky 
and  Tennessee  increased  their  produc- 
tion in  1902  by  48,072  barrels,  or 
nearly  35.02  per  cent.  Indian  Terri- 
tory increased  37,000  barrels  and  Wy- 
oming 853  barrels  as  compared  with 
1901.  The  largest  decrease  in  produc- 
tion in  1902  as  compared  with  1901 
was  in  West  Virginia,  where  it 
amounted  to  663,781  barrels,  or  about 
4.5  per  cent,  and  Ohio  in  62  fields 
showed  a  decrease  of  633,852  barrels, 
or  nearly  3  per  cent.  The  decrease  in 
Pennsylvania  was  561,888  barrels,  or 
about  7  per  cent ;  in  Colorado,  63,619 
barrels,  or  about  13.81  per  cent.  The 
percentages  of  production  for  fields 
show  a  remarkable  change  from  1900 
to  1902.  In  1900  the  percentages  were : 
Appalachian  field,  57.05;  Lima-Indi- 
ana field,  34.20;  all  other  fields,  8.75. 
In  1902  the  respective  percentages 
were:  Appalachian  field.  36,07 ;  Lima- 
Indiana  field,  26.31;  all  other  fields, 
about  37.62.  The  value  of  crude  pe- 
troleum produced  during  1902  was 
$71,178,910,  or  80.19  cents  per  bar- 
rel, as  compared  with  $66,417.335,  or 
95.7  per  barrel,  in  1901 — a  decrease  of 
15.51  cents  per  barrel,  or  16  per  cent, 
in  1902. 

Natural  Gas. — The  value  of  the  nat- 
ural gas  produced  in  1902  increased  to 
$30.867,668,  as  compared  with  $27,- 
067,500  in  1901,  with  $23,698,674  in 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


1900,  and  with  $20,074,873  in  1899— a 
gain  of  13  per  cent  in  1902  over  1901. 

STRUCTURAL   MATERIALS. 

Stone. — The  value  of  all  kinds  of 
building  stone  produced  in  the  United 
States  during  1902  amounted  to  $61,- 
559,099,  as  compared  with  $55,615,- 
926  in  1901,  with  $44,321,345  in  1900, 
and  with  $44,090,670  in  1899. 

Clay  Products. — The  activity  in  all 
branches  of  the  clay-working  indus- 
tries noted  in  1899,  1900  and  1901, 
continued  during  1902.  The  value  of 
all  clay  products  as  reported  to  the 
office  of  the  Geological  Survey  in  1902 
was  $122,169,531,  as  compared  with 
$110,211.587  in  1901,  and  with  $96,- 
212,345  in  1900.  The  brick  and  tile 
products  in  1902  were  valued  at  $98,- 
042,078,  as  compared  with  $87,747,727 
in  1901  and  with  $76,413,775  in  1900. 
The  pottery  products  were  valued  in 
1902  at  $24.127.453,  as  compared  with 
$22,463,860  in  1901  and  with  $19,798,- 
570  in  1900. 

The  clay  mined  and  sold  by  those 
not  manufacturing  the  product  them- 
selves in  1902  was  valued  at  $2,061,- 
072,  as  compared  with  $2,576,932  in 
1901  and  with  $1,840,377  in  1900. 

Cement. — The  total  production  of 
hydraulic  cement  in  the  United  States 
in  1902  was  25,753,504  barrels,  valued 
at  $25,366,380,  as  compared  with  20,- 
068,737  barrels,  valued  at  $15,786,789, 
in  1901,  and  with  17,231,150  barrels, 
valued  at  $13,283,581,  in  1900.  The 
Portland  cement  production  in  1902 
was  17,230,644  barrels,  valued  at  $20,- 
864,078.  as  compared  with  12,711,225 
barrels,  valued  at  $12,532,360,  in  1901, 
and  with  8,482,020  barrels,  valued  at 
$9,280,525,  in  1900,  an  increase,  as 
compared  with  1900,  in  quantity  of 
about  100  per  cent,  and  in  value  of 
over  50  per  cent.  The  number  of 
plants  using  Portland  cement  increased 
from  50  in  1900  to  56  in  1901,  and 
to  65  in  1902.  The  production  of 
natural  rock  cement  in  1902  was  8,- 
041,305  barrels,  valued  at  $4,076,630, 
as  compared  with  7.084.823  barrels, 
valued  at  $3,056,278,  in  1901,  and  with 
8,383.519  barrels,  valued  at  $3,728,848, 
in  1900.  The  production  of  slag  ce- 
ment amounted  to  478.555  barrels,  val- 
ued at  $425.672,  in  1902,  as  compared 
with  272.689  barrels,  valued  at  $198,- 
151,  in  1901,  and  with  365.611  bar- 
rels, valued  at  $274,208,  in  1900. 

ABRASIVE  MATERIALS. 

Carborundum.^-There  was  a  slight 
decrease  in  the  quantity  of  carborun- 


dum— 3,741,500  pounds  produced  in 
1902,  as  compared  with.  3,838,175 
pounds  in  1901 — due  in  part  to  lack 
of  a  sufficient  supply  of  raw  materials, 
a  result  of  the  anthracite  coal  strike. 
The  value  of  the  carborundum  varies 
from  8  to  10  cents  per  pound. 

Corundum  and  Emery. — The  com- 
bined production  of  corundum  and  em- 
ery in  1902  amounted  to  4,251  short 
tons,  valued  at  $104,605,  as  compared 
with  4,305  short  tons,  valued  at  $146,- 
040,  in  1901,  a  decrease  of  54  tons  in 
quantity  and  of  $41,435  in  value. 

Crushed  Steel — The  production  of 
crushed  steel  in  1902  was  735,000 
pounds,  as  compared  with  690,000 
pounds  in  1901,  and  the  product  is 
quoted  at  S1/^  cents  per  pound  free  on 
board  at  Pittsburg. 

Crystalline  Quartz. — In  1902  the 
production  of  crystalline  quartz  includ- 
ed under  abrasives  amounted  to  15,104 
short  tons,  valued  at  $84,335,  as  com- 
pared with  14,050  short  tons,  valued 
at  $41,500,  in  1901.  This  large  varia- 
tion in  value  is  due  to  the  fact  that  in 
1902  the  value  reported  was  in  some 
cases  that  of  the  quartz  after  it  had 
been  crushed  or  ground.  The  actual 
value  of  the  crude  quartz  produced  in 
1902  was  $-13,085. 

Garnet. — The  production  of  abrasive 
garnet  in  the  United  States  during 
1902  amounted  to  3,926  short  tons, 
valued  at  $132,820,  as  compared  with 
4,444  short  tons,  valued  at  $158,100, 
in  1901,  and  with  3,185  short  tons, 
valued  at  $123,475,  in  1900.  As  re- 
ported to  the  Survey  the  prices  varied 
from  $20  to  $60  a  ton,  the  highest 
price  being  obtained  for  the  North 
Carolina  garnet.  The  average  value 
per  ton  of  the  production  in  1902  was 
$35.10,  as  compared  with  $35.57  per 
ton  in  1901  and  with  $38.77  in  1900. 

Grindstones. — The  total  value  of  all 
kinds  of  grindstones  produced  during 
1902  was  $667.431,  as  compared  with 
$580,703,  in  1901,  an  increase  of  $86,- 
728.  The  production  of  1900,  valued 
at  $710,026,  still  remains  the  largest 
on  record  for  any  year.  It  should  be 
remembered,  however,  that  the  price 
per  ton  has  decreased  from  $15  to  from 
$8  to  $10,  and  that  therefore  the  ton- 
nage of  grindstones  used  has  corre- 
spondingly increased  within  the  last 
few  years.  The  imports  for  1902 
amounted  in  value  to  $76,906,  as  com- 
pared with  $88.871  in  1901  and  with 
$92.581  in  1900. 

Infusorial  Earth  and  Tripoli. — In 
1902  the  production  of  infusorial  earth 
and  tripoli  amounted  to  5,665  short 


348 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


tons,  valued  at  $53,244,  including  175 
short  tons  mined  as  a  by-product  and 
valued  at  $1,430,  an  increase  of  1,045 
tons  in  quantity  and  of  $294  in  value, 
as  compared  with  the  production  of 
4,020  tons,  valued  at  $52,950,  in  1901. 

Millstones  and  Buhrstones. — The 
value  of  the  production  of  millstones 
and  buhrstones  in  1902  was  $59,808, 
an  increase  of  $2,G29  over  the  value 
of  1901.  which  was  $57,179.  The  value 
for  1902  was  almost  twice  the  value  of 
the  production  of  1900,  which  amount- 
ed to  $32.858.  From  1886  to  1894 
there  was  a  very  large  decrease — from 
$140,000  to  $13,887— in  the  production 
of  buhrstones.  Since  1894  there  has 
been  a  gradual  increase  in  the  produc- 
tion. 

Oilstones  and  Whetstones. — There 
was  a  decided  increase  in  the  domestic 
commercial  production  of  oilstones  and 
whetstones  during  1902,  the  value  of 
which  amounted  to  $221,762,  as  com- 
pared with  $158,300  in  1901,  an  in- 
crease in  1902  of  $63,462.  Until  1902, 
the  year  of  maximum  production  was 
1809,  when  the  value  of  the  output 
amounted  to  $208.283.  The  crude  pro- 
drction  of  oilstones  and  whetstones  in 
1902,  as  reported  by  the  census,  was 
valr.ed  at  $113.968. 

Pumice. — The  volcanic  ash  deposits 
in  Nebraska  were  worked  to  some  ex- 
tent in  1902,  the  product  being  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  certain  soaps 
and  scouring  powders.  The  production 
of  pumice  amounted  to  700  short  tons, 
valued  at  $2,750. 

CHEMICAL  MATERIALS. 

Arscnious  Oxide. — The  domestic  pro- 
duction of  arsenious  oxide  (white  ar- 
senic) in  1902  was  1,353  short  tons, 
valued  at  $81,180,  as  compared  with 
300  short  tons,  valued  at  $18,000,  in 
1901.  The  entire  product  was  made 
by  the  Puget  Sound  Reduction  Com- 
pany at  Everett,  Wash.,  which  began 
the  manufacture  of  this  important 
substance  in  1901.  The  largely  in- 
creased output  in  1902  is  a  sign  of  the 
success  of  the  new  industry. 

Borax. — The  reported  returns  for 
1902  gave  an  aggregate  commercial 
production  of  crude  borax  of>  2,600 
short  tons,  valued  at  $91,000,  of  re- 
fined borax  and  boric  acid,  amounting 
to  17,404  short  tons,  valued  at  $2,447,- 
614,  of  which  rt  was  stated  that  862 
short  tons,  valued  at  $155,000,  were 
boric  acid.  This  gives  a  total  produc- 
tion for  1902  of  20.004  short  tons,  val- 
ued at  $2.538,614.  The  production 
during  1901  was  17,887  short  tons  of 


crude  borax  and  5,344  short  tons  of 
refined  borax,  with  a  total  value  of 
$1,012,118. 

Bromine. — The  production  of  bro- 
mine in  1902,  including  the  amount  of 
bromine  contained  in  potassium  bro- 
mide, amounted  to  513,890  pounds,  val- 
ued at  $128,472,  as  compared  with 
522,043  pounds,  valued  at  $154,- 
572,  in  1901,  a  decrease  for  the 
year  of  38,153  pounds  in  quan- 
tity and  of  $26,100  in  value.  The 
price  per  pound  during  1902  averaged 
25  cents,  as  compared  with  28  cents  in 

1901  and  with  29  cents  in  1900.    There 
has  been  practically  no  change  in  the 
bromine  industry  in  the  United  States 
in  1902. 

Fluorspar. — There  was  a  large  in- 
crease in  the  production  of  fluorspar  in 

1902  over  that  of  1901,  due  partly  to 
its  increased  use  for  metallurgic  pur- 
noses.      The   total   production   in   1902 
was  48,018  short  tons,  valued  at  $271,- 
832,  as  compared  with  19,586  tons,  val- 
ued at  $113,803.  in  1901.  This  increase 
in  production  was  not  due  to  any  one 
State,  but  there  was  a  large  increase 
in    production    in    both    Illinois    and 
Kentucky,    and    also    an    increase    in 
Arizona.     The  average  price  of  crude 
fluorspar   was    reported    as   $5.19    per 
ton,  as  compared  with  $5  in  1901,  and 
the  average  price  of  ground  fluorspar 
was  $9.98  per  ton,  as  compared  with 
$9.22  in  1901.     In  addition  to  this  pro- 
duction there  were  800  short  tons,  val- 
ued at  $3,850,  mined  but  not  marketed 
in  1902. 

Gypsum. — The  production  of  gyp- 
sum, particularly  for  the  manufacture 
of  calcined  plaster,  continues  to  show 
a  remarkable  gain.  The  output  of 
crude  gypsum  in  1902  was  816,478 
short  tons,  valued  in  its  first  market- 
able condition  at  $2,089.341.  as  com- 
pared with  633,791  short  tons,  valued 
at  $1,506,641,  in  1001,  and  with  595,- 
462  short  tons,  valued  at  $1,627,203. 
in  1900.  The  production  in  1899  was 
486,235  short  tons,  and  in  1898  it  was 
291,638  short  tons.  The  greatly  in- 
creased production  of  the  last  four 
years  is  attributable  to  the  largely  in- 
creased use  of  plaster  of  paris  in  the 
large  modern  buildings  and  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  staff  for  temporary  build- 
ings. 

Marls. — The  production  of  marls  in 
the  United  States  in  1902  was  12,439 
short  tons,  valued  at  $12,741. 

Phosphate  Rock. — The  total  com- 
mercial production  of  phosphate  rock 
reported  to  the  Survey  in  1902 
amounted  to  1,490,314  long  tons,  val- 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


349 


ued  at  $4,693,444,  as  compared  with 
1,483,723  long  tons,  valued  at  $5,316,- 
403,  in  1901,  an  increase  in  quantity 
of  6,591  tons  and  a  decrease  in  value 
of  $622,959.  The  total  quantity  of 
phosphate  rock  reported  as  mined  dur- 
ing 1902  was  1,548,720  long  tons,  val- 
ued at  $4.922,943,  as  compared  with 
1,440,408  long  tons  in  1901. 

Salt. — The  salt  product  includes 
salt  in  the  form  of  brine  used  in  large 
quantities  for  the  manufacture  of  soda 
ash,  sodium  bicarbonate,  caustic  soda 
and  other  sodium  salts.  The  domestic 
production  of  salt  in  1902  amounted 
to  23,849,221  barrels  of  280  pounds 
net,  valued  at  $5,668,636,  as  compared 
with  20,556,661  barrels,  valued  at  $6.- 
617,449,  in  1901,  and  with  20,869,342 
barrels,  valued  at  $6,944,603,  in  1900. 

Sulphur  and  Pyrite. — The  domestic 
production  of  sulphur  and  of  pyrite  for 
the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid 
amounted  in  1902  to  207,874  long  tons, 
valued  at  $947,089,  as  compared  with 
a  combined  production  of  241,691  long 
tons,  valued  at  $1,257,879,  in  1901. 
The  production  of  sulphur  was  from 
Louisiana,  Nevada  and  Utah,  named 
in  the  order  of  the  importance  of 
their  outputs.  Oregon  and  Idaho  re- 
ported no  production  in  1902.  The 
greater  part  of  the  output  of  pyrite 
was  derived  from  Virginia,  Georgia, 
North  Carolina,  Colorado  and  Massa- 
chusetts, named  in  the  order  of  pro- 
duction. 

PIGMENTS. 

Barytes. — The  production  of  crude 
barytes  in  1902  was  considerably  in 
excess  of  that  of  the  year  before, 
amounting  to  61,668  short  tons,  valued 
at  $203,154,  as  compared  with  49,- 
070  tons,  valued  at  $157,844,  in  1901. 
This  is  an  increase  of  12,598  tons  in 
quantity  and  of  $45,310  in  value. 

Cobalt  Oxide. — The  domestic  pro- 
duction of  cobalt  oxide  in  1902  was 
3,730  pounds,  valued  at  $6,714,  as 
compared  with  13.360  pounds,  valued 
at  $24,048,  in  1901,  a  decrease  in 
quantity  of  9,630  pounds.  All  the  co- 
balt oxide  was  obtained  as  a  by-prod- 
uct in  smelting  lead  ores  at  Mine  La- 
motte,  Mo. 

Mineral  Paints. — The  Commercial 
production  of  mineral  paints  in  1902 
amounted  to  73,049  short  tons,  valued 
at  $944,332,  as  compared  with  61,- 
460  short  tons,  valued  at  $789.962,  in 
1901.  The  production  of  crude  min- 
eral paints  in  1902  is  reported  as  35.- 
479  short  tons,  valued  at  $360.885.  in- 
cluding 4,500  tons,  valued  at  $18,000, 


of  ocher  and  metallic  paint  reported  as 
mined  but  not  marketed  in  1902. 

Zinc  White. — The  production  of  zinc 
white  in  1902  amounted  to  52,645 
snort  tons,  valued  at  $4,016,499,  as 
compared  with  46,500  short  tons,  val- 
ued at  $3,720,000  in  1901. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Asbestos. — The  commercial  produc- 
tion of  asbestos  in  the  United  States 
in  1902  was  chiefly  from  the  mines  at 
Sail  Mountain,  White  County,  Geor- 
gia, with  smaller  quantities  from  Hills- 
dale,  Berkshire  County,  Massachu- 
setts. This  production  was  1,005 
short  tons,  valued  at  $16,200,  an  in- 
crease of  258  tons  in  quantity  and  of 
$2,702  in  value  over  the  production  of 
1901,  which  was  747  short  tons,  val- 
ued at  $13,498.  The  production  in 
1900  was  1,054  short  tons,  valued  at 
$16,310.  In  addition  there  were  re- 
ported as  produced  but  not  marketed 
in  1902  1,500  short  tons  of  crude  as- 
bestos, valued  at  $30,000. 

Asphaltum. — Under  this  title  are  in- 
cluded the  various  bitumens  or  hydro- 
carbons not  discussed  under  the  head- 
ing "Petroleum"  in  the  volume  on 
Mineral  Resources.  The  commercial 
production  of  asphaltum  in  1902  was 
105,458  short  tons,  valued  at  $765,048, 
as  compared  with  63,134  short  tons, 
valued  at  $555,335,  in  1901— a  large 
increase,  amounting  in  quantity  to  42,- 
324  short  tons  and  in  value  to  $209,- 
713.  The  production  of  crude  asphal- 
tum in  1902  is  reported  as  66,238  short 
tons,  valued  at  $236,728. 

Bauxite. — In  1902  the  production  of 
bauxite  increased  to  29,222  long  tons, 
valued  at  $128,206,  as  compared  with 
18,905  long  tons,  valued  at  $79,914, 
in  1901.  Georgia  yielded  the  greater 
bulk  of  the  product,  the  remainder  be- 
ing supplied  by  Alabama  and  Arkan- 
sas. 

Chromic  Iron  Ore. — California  was 
the  one  State  to  produce  any  chro- 
mite  during  1902,  the  quantity  being 
315  long  tons,  valued  at  $4,567,  a  de- 
crease of  53  tons  in  quantity  and  of 
$1,223  in  value,  as  compared  with  the 
production  of  1901,  which  was  368 
long  tons,  valued  at  $5,790. 

Feldspar. — The  production  of  feld- 
spar in  1902  was  45,287  short  tons, 
valued  at  $250,42  *,  as  against  34,741 
short  tons,  valued  at  $220,422,  in  1901. 

Fibrous  Talc. — This  variety  of  talc 
or  soapstone  occurs  in  but  one  local- 
ity in  the  United  States — Gonverneur, 
St.  Lawrence  County,  New  York.  It 


350 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


is  used  principally  as  makeweight  in 
the  manufacture  of  paper.  In  1902 
the  production  was  71,100  short  tons, 
valued  at  $015,350,  an  increase  of 
$131,750  in  value  and  of  only  1,900 
tons  in  quantity,  as  compared  with  the 
production  of  69,200  short  tons,  valued 
at  $483,600,  in  1901. 

Flint. — The  production  of  flint  in 
1902  was  36,365  short  tons,  valued  at 
$144,209,  as  compared  with  34,420 
short  tons,  valued  at  $149,297,  in  1901. 

Fuller's  Earth. — As  reported  for  the 
Survey,  the  production  of  fuller's 
earth  in  1902  showed  a  decrease  in 
quantity  and  an  increase  in  value,  be- 
ing 11,492  short  tons,  valued  at  $98,- 
144,  as  compared  with  14,112  short 
tons,  valued  at  $96,835,  in  1901.  The 
maximum  production  of  fuller's  earth 
was  obtained  in  1897,  when  the  pro- 
duction was  17,113  short  tons. 

Glass  Sand. — The  production  of 
glass  sand  in  1902  was  943,135  short 
tons,  valued  at  $807,797;  the  produc- 
tion of  engine,  furnace,  building,  mold- 
ing and  other  sands,  mined  incidental- 
ly, was  904,776  short  tons,  valued  at 
$615,817 — a  total  production  of  1,847,- 
901  short  tons  of  sand,  valued  at  $1,- 
423,614. 

Graphite. — The  commercial  produc- 
tion of  crystalline  graphite  during 
1902  amounted  to  3,936,824  pounds, 
valued  at  $126,14i,  as  compared  with 
3,967,612  pounds,  valued  at  $135,914, 
in  1901,  and  with  5,507,855  pounds, 
valued  at  $178,761,  in  1900.  The  com- 
mercial production  of  amorphous 
graphite  in  1902  was  4,739  short  tons, 
valued  at  $55,964,  as  compared  with 
809  short  tons,  valued  at  $31,800,  in 
1901.  The  decline  in  value  was  due 
to  a  proportionate  increase  in  the  pro- 
duction of  the  lower  grades.  Consid- 
erable development  and  exploratory 
work  was  done  during  the  year  in 
Montana,  Wyoming,  North  Carolina 
and  New  Mexico.  In  addition,  30,000 
pounds  of  refined  graphite,  valued  at 
$1,800,  and  20,716  short  tons  of  crude 
graphite,  valued  at  $43.600,  were  re- 
ported as  produced  but  not  marketed 
in  1902.  This  gives  a  total  production 
of  3,966,824  pounds  of  refined  graphite 
and  of  25,455  short  tons  of  amorphous 
graphite,  with  a  total  value  of  $227,- 
508,  as  produced  in  1902.  The  produc- 
tion of  artificial  graphite  was  2,358,- 
828  pounds,  valued  at  $110,700,  the 
average  price  being  4.69  cents  per 
pound,  as  compa-ed  w'th  2.500.000, 
valued  at  $119.000,  in  1901.  the  aver- 
age price  being  4.75  cents  per  pound. 

Limestone     for     Iron     Flux. — The 


quantity  of  limestone  used  for  fluxing 
in  blast  furnaces  in  1902  was  11,878,- 
675  long  tons,  valued  at  $5,271,252,  as 
compared  with  8,540,168  long  tons, 
valued  at  $4.659,836,  in  1901,  and  with 
7,495,435  long  tons,  valued  at  $3,687,- 
394,  in  1900. 

Magnesite. — The  production  of  mag- 
nesite  in  the  United  States  continues 
to  be  limited  to  California,  and  during 
the  year  1902  the  commercial  produc- 
tion reported  was  3,466  short  tons, 
valued  at  $21,362 — a  large  decrease  as 
compared  with  the  production  in  1901, 
which  was  13,172  short  tons,  valued  at 
$43,057.  Of  the  1902  production,  380 
tons,  valued  at  $1,723,  were  sold  in 
1902,  but  were  mined  previously. 

Mica. — The  production  of  mica  in 
1902  was  as  follows :  373,266  pounds 
of  plate  or  sheet  mica,  valued  at  $83,- 
843;  1,028  short  tons  of  scrap  mica, 
valued  at  $13,081,  and  372  short  tons 
of  rough  mica,  valued  at  $21,925 — a 
total  value  of  $118,849. 

Mineral  Waters. — The  total  produc- 
tion of  mineral  waters  for  1902  was 
64,859,-151  gallons,  valued  at  $8,793,- 
761,  as  compared  with  55,771,181  gal- 
lons, valued  at  $7,586,962,  in  1901— a 
gain  in  quantity  of  9,088,263  gallons 
and  in  value  of  $1,206,799. 

Monasite. — The  production  of  mona- 
zite  is  confined  exclusively  to  North 
Carolina  and  South  Carolina,  by  far 
the  larger  quantity  being  obtained 
-from  the  former  State,  and  in  1902 
this  amounted  to  802,000  pounds,  val- 
ued at  $64,160,  as  compared  with  748,- 
736  pounds,  valued  at  $59,262,  in  1901 
— an  increase  in  quantity  of  53,264 
pounds  and  in  value  of  $4,898.  The 
price  per  pound  received  by  the  miners 
for  the  monazite  produced  in  1902  va- 
ried from  2.5  to  8  cents,  according  to 
the  percentage  of  thoria. 

Precious  Stones. — The  value  of  the 
gems  and  precious  stones  found  in  the 
United  States  in  1902  was  $328,450, 
as  compared  with  $289.050  in  1901, 
with  $233.170  in  1900,  and  with  $185,- 
770  in  1899.  There  has  been  a  great 
advance  in  the  lapidary  industry  in  the 
United  States  since  1894.  The  fact 
that  larger  establishments  have  been 
formed,  which  are  able  to  purchase  the 
rough  diamonds  in  greater  quantities, 
has  placed  our  American  diamond  cut- 
ters in  a  position  equal  to  that  held 
by  the  cutters  of  Amsterdam.  Ant- 
werp and  Paris.  The  cutting  of  our 
nntivp  eems  has  also  grown  to  the  pro- 
portions of  an  industry,  notably  in  the 
case  of  the  beryls  and  the  amethyst 
found  in  North  Carolina  and  Connecti- 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


351 


out ;  the  turquoise  from  New  Mexico, 
Arizona,  Nevada  and  California ;  the 
fine-colored  and  deep-blue  sapphires 
found  in  Montana ;  the  colored  tour- 
malines of  San  Joaquin  County,  Cali- 
fornia ;  the  chrysoprase  mine  of  Visa- 
lia,  Tulare  County,  California ;  the 
garnets  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico, 
and  the  pale-purple  garnets  of  North 
Carolina. 

Rutile. — The  production  of  rutile  in 
1902  was  less  than  in  1901. 


Soanstone. — Exclusive  of  the  pro- 
duction of  fibrous  talc  from  Gouver- 
neur,  New  York,  the  production  of  talc 
and  soapstone  in  1902  amounted  to 
26,854  short  tons,  valued  at  $525,157, 
as  compared  with  28,643  tons,  valued 
at  $424,888,  in  1901— a  decrease  of 
1,789  tons  in  quantity  and  an  increase 
of  $100,269  in  value.  The  output  for 
1900  was  .27,943  short  tons,  valued  at 
$383,541,  and  for  1899  it  was  24.765 
short  tons,  valued  at  $330,805.— Min- 
eral Resources  of  the  United  States. 


MINERAL  PRODUCTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  FOR  THE  CALENDAR 

YEAR  1902. 


1902. 


Product. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

METALLIC. 

Pig  iron  (spot  value)  

long  tons. 

17,821,307 

$372,775  000 

Silver,  coining  value.  
Gold,  coining  value  
Copper,  value  at  New  York  City  
Lead,  value  at  New  York  City  
Zinc,  value  at  New  York  City  
Quicksilver,  value  at  San  Francisco.  .  . 

....  fine  ounces.  .  . 
do. 
Ibs..  . 
short  tons.  .  . 
do. 
flasks. 

55,500,000 
3,870,000 
659,508,644 
270,000 
156,927 
1  34,291 

71,757,575 
80,000,000 
76,568,954 
22,140,000 
14,625,596 
1,467  848 

Aluminum,  value  at  Pittsburg 

Ibs 

7  300  000 

2  284  590 

Antimony,  value  at  San  Francisco  
Nickel,  value  at  Philadelphia 

short  tons.  .  . 
Ibs' 

3,561 

5,748 

634,506 
2  701 

Tin  

do. 

None. 

Platinum,  value  (crude)  at  San  Francisco. 

troy  ounces 

94 

1  814 

Total  value  of  metallic  products.  .  . 

$642  258  584 

NON-METALLIC  (SPOT  VALUES). 
Bituminous  coal  

.  .      short  tons.    . 

260,216,844 

$290,858,483 

Pennsylvania  anthracite.  .  .  . 

long  tons 

36,940,710 

76,173  586 

Natural  gas  
Petroleum  
Brick  clay.  .  .  . 

.'  ,'  .'  .'  .'  .'  .'  .'  .'  .'b'  bis'.  ;  ; 

2'  88,766,916' 

30,867,668 
71,178,910 
15  000  000 

Cement  
Stone  
Corundum  and  emery.  . 

bbls... 

25,753,504 
4  251 

25,366,380 
64,559,099 
104  605 

Crystalline  quartz  
Garnet  for  abrasive  purposes  
Grindstones  

do. 
do. 

15,104 
3,926 

a  84,335 
132,820 
667  431 

Infusorial  earth  and  tripoli. 

5  665 

53  244 

Millstones 

59  808 

Oilstones,  etc  

3  221  762 

Arsenious  oxide      .  . 

1  353 

81  180 

Borax  (refined)  
Borax  (crude).  .  .  . 

do. 
do 

4  17,404 
2  600 

2,447,614 
91  000 

Bromine  

...    .              Ibs. 

513,890 

128,472 

Fluorspar  
Gypsum 

short  tons.  .  . 
do 

s  48,018 
816  478 

271,832 
2  089  341 

Lithium.  .  . 

do. 

1,245 

25  750 

Marls  

do. 

12,439 

12,741 

1  In  addition  the  census  reports  11,727  short  tons  of  cinnabar,  valued  at  $82,242,  as  mined 
but  not  marketed  in  1902. 

2  In  addition  the  census  reports  508,386  barrels  of  petroleum,  valued  at  $218,829,  as  pro- 
duced but  not  marketed  in  1902. 

3  Value  of  crude  production  as  reported  by  the  census:    Crystalline  quartz,  $43,085;    oil- 
stones, $113,968. 

4  Production  in  1902,  as  reported  by  the  census,  19,142  short  tons,  valued  at  $2,383,614. 

5  In  addition  the  census  reports  800  short  tons  of  fluorspar,  valued  at  $3,850,  as  mined  but 
not  marketed  in  1902, 


352 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


MINERAL  PRODUCTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  FOR  THE  CALENDAR 
YEAR  1902.— Continued. 


Product. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Phosphate  rock 

e  i  49Q  314 

Pyrite  
Salt 

do. 
bbh 

297,874 
23  849  221 

947,089 

Sulphur  
Barytes  (crude) 

.  .  short  tons.  .  . 
do 

61  668 

(7) 

9flO    1  ft 

Cobalt  oxide  
Mineral  paints  
Zinc  white  
Asbestos.  . 

Ibs... 
.  .short  tons..  . 
.  .        do. 
do 

3,730 
8  73,049 
52,645 
9  i  005 

6,714 
944,332 
4,016,499 

Asphaltum  
Bauxite  
Chromic  iron  ore  
Clay  (all  other  than  brick)  
Feldspar  
Fibrous  talc. 

do. 
.  .  .  long  tons.  .  . 
do. 
.  .  short  tons.  .  . 
do. 
do 

10  105,458 
29,222 
315 
1,455,357 

45,287 
71  100 

765,048 
128,206 
4,567 
2,061,072 
250,424 

fi1  ^  350 

Flint  
Fuller's  earth  
Glass  sand  
Graphite  (crystalline)  
Graphite  (amorphous)  
Limestone  for  iron  flux  
Magnesite  
Manganese  ore.  
Mica  (sheet) 

do. 
do. 
do. 
Ibs... 
.  .  short  tons.  .  . 
.  .  long  tons.  .  . 
.  .short  tons.  .  . 
.  .  long  tons.  .  . 
Ibs 

36,365 
11,492 
943,135 
11  3,936,824 
4,739 
11,878,675 
12  3,466 
16,477 
373  266 

144,209 
98,144 
807,797 

[•         182,108 

5,271,252 
21,362 
177,911 

o-}  040 

Mica  (scrap)  
Mineral  waters  
Monazite  
Ozocerite  (refined)  

.  .  short  tons.  .  . 
gallons  sold.  .  . 
Ibs... 
do. 

1,400 
64,859,451 
802,000 

35,006 
8,793,761 
64,160 

Precious  stones  

328  450 

Pumice  stone  

700 

2  750 

Rutile  
Soapstone  
Uranium  and  vanadium  

Ibs... 
.  .  short  tons.  .  . 
do. 

(12) 

26,854 
3,810 

525,157 
48,125 

Total  value  of  non-metallic  mineral  products.  .  . 
Total  value  of  metallic  products  
Estimated  value  of  mineral  products  unspecified 

$617,380,831 
642,258,584 
1  000  000 

Grand  total  

1,260,639,415 

1902. 


6  The  total  quantity  of  phosphate  rock  mined  in  1902  was  1,548,720  long  tons,  valued  at 
$4,922,943. 

7  Included  under  pyrite. 

8  Production  of  crude  material  of  mineral  paints  was  35,479  short  tons,  valued  at  $360,885. 

9  In  addition,  1500  short  tons  of  crude  a?bestos,  valued  at  $30,000,  are  reported  by  the  cen- 
sus as  mined  but  not  marketed  in  1902. 

10  The  production  of  the  crude  material  is  reported  by  the  census  as  66,238  short  tons, 
valued  at  $236,728. 

11  In  addition,  graphite  to  the  value  of  $45,400  is  reported  as  mined  but  not  marketed  in 
1902. 

12  The  magnesite  actually  mined  in  1902  is  reported  as  3,086  short  tons,  valued  at  $19,639. 

13  Included  under  estimated  unspecified  products. 


SPEEDS   FOR    GRINDING   AND    POLISHING, 

ETC. 

Speed  of  Ft.  per  Min. 

Large  grindstones  for  polishing.  .  .     2,000 

Emery  disks 2,500  to  3,000 

Polishing  large  articles.  , 750 

Tool  grinders 650 

Circular  saws  for  hot  iron 20,000 

Disintegrators 10,000 

Plate-bending  rolls 4 

Millstones 17000 

Sack  tackle .          50 


DEPRECIATION  OF  MACHINERY,  ETC. 
ANNUM  ON  FIRST  COST. 


Machinery,  etc. 

Depre- 
cia- 
tion. 

Wear 
and 
Tear. 

Total. 

Engines  
Boilers  
Machines  
Millwork  and  gearing.  . 
Bands  and  belts  

11 

.??.. 

3  % 
3  % 
3  % 
2*% 
45  % 

6  % 
10  % 
8  % 
5i% 
45  % 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


353 


Number  of  mines,   quarries,  or 
wells.  .  . 


MINES    AND    QUARRIES. 
DETAILED  SUMMARY,  UNITED  STATES:  1902. 

Wage-earners — Continued : 
151,516  Miners- 
Number  of  operators 46,858 

Salaried  officials,  clerks,  etc: 

Total  number 38,128 

Total  salaries $39,020,552 

General  officers — 

Number 4,591 

Salaries $8,218,541 

Superintendents,  managers, 
foremen,  surveyors,  etc — 

Number 15,538 

Salaries $16,666,416 

Foremen,  below  ground* — 

Number 6,863 

$6,208,307 


11,136 


Salaries 

Clerks- 
Number 

Salaries $7,927;288 

Wage-earners : 

Aggregate  average  number.  .  .  581,728 

Aggregate  wages $369,959,960 

Above  ground — 

Total  average  number  . .  .  221,505 

Total  wages $125,086,530 

Engineers,  firemen, 
and  other  mechan- 
ics— 
Average  number.  . .  . 

„  Wages 

Miners,    or   quarrymen 

and  stonecutters — 

Average  number.  .  . . 

Wages 

Boys,  under  16  years — 
Average  number.  . .  . 

Wages 

All    other    wage-earn- 
ers— 
Average  number.  . .  . 

Wages $45,297;516 

Below  ground — 

Total  average  number  .  .  360,223 

Total  wages $244,873,430 


60,859 
$44,478,246 


67,129 
$33,971,290 

6,219 
$1,339,478 


87,298 


Average  number.  ..  .  257,301 

Wages $184,674,193 

Miners'  helpers — 

Average  number.  . .  .  18,736 

Wages $11,496,910 

Boys,  under  16  years — 

Average  number.  . .  .  5,638 

Wages $1,548,889 

All  other  wage-earners — 

Average  number.  ...  78,548 

Wages $47,153.438 

Contract  work  : 

Amount  paid $20,677,938 

Number  of  employees 21,183 

Miscellaneous  expenses,  total.  ..     $71,771,713 
Royalties   and   rent   of   mine 

and  mining  plant $34,530,713 

Rent  of  offices,  taxes,  insur- 
ance,   interest,    and    other 

sundries $37,241,000 

Cost  of  supplies  and  materials.  .   $123,814,967 

Product,  value $796,826,417 

Power : 

Total  horsepower 

Owned— 
Engines — 

Steam,  number 

Horsepower 

Gas,  or  gasoline,  num- 
ber  

Horsepower 

Water  wheels,  number. .  . 

Horsepower 

Other  power,  number  .  .  . 

Horsepower 

Rented — 

Electric,  horsepower.  .  .  . 
Other  kind,  horsepower.  . 
Electric  motors  owned,  num- 
ber  

Horsepower 

Supplied   to    other   establish- 
ments, horsepower 


2,867,562 


64,179 
2,432,963 

13,506 

259,695 

980 

60,897 

1,162 

84,546 

23,556 
5,905 

2,893 
130,494 


2,852 


*  Foremen  here  reported  should  be  added  to  the  number  of  wage-earners  below  ground  in 
order  to  ascertain  the  actual  number  employed  below  ground. — Census  Bulletin. 


CLAY   PRODUCTS   OF   THE 

In  1902  there  were  produced  8,475,- 
067  thousands  of  common  brick.  The 
value  of  this  product  was  $48,885,869, 
and  the  average  price  per  thousand 
was  $5.77.  The  quantity  of  front 
brick  produced  was  458,391  thousands, 
valued  at  $5,318,008.  The  average 
price  per  thousand  was  $11.00.  Of 
vitrified  paving  brick  the  amount  pro- 
duced was  617,192  thousands,  valued 
at  $5,744,530,  the  average  price  per 
thousand  being  $9.31.  The  value  of 
fancy  or  ornamental  brick  was  $806,- 
453.  The  value  of  fire  brick  was  $11,- 
970,511.  The  value  of  stove  lining  was 
$630.924.  The  value  of  drain  tile  was 
$3,506,787.  The  value  of  sewer  pipe 
was  $7,174,892.  The  value  of  orna- 
mental terra  cotta  was  $3,526,906. 
The  value  of  the  clay  products  used  in 


UNITED  STATES  IN  1902. 
fire-proofing  was  $3,175,593.  The 
value  of  tile  other  than  drain  tile  was 
$3,622,863.  The  value  of  adobes, 
aquarium  ornaments,  boiler  and  loco- 
motive brick  and  tile,  burnt-clay  bal- 
last, carboy  stoppers,  chemical  brick 
and  tile ;  chimney  blocks,  pipe  and 
tops ;  clay  furnaces,  retorts,  and  set- 
tings ;  conduits  for  underground  wires, 
crucibles,  curbing  block,  fire-clay  in- 
sulators, fire  mortar,  flue  lining,  fur- 
nace brick  and  tile,  gas  logs,  glass- 
house supplies,  grave  markers,  ground 
fire  brick,  muffles,  oven  tile,  paving 
block,  porous  cups,  saggers,  stone 
pumps,  wall  coping,  web  tile  sewer, 
and  well  brick  was  $3,678,742.  The 
value  of  the  pottery  produced  was 
$24,127,453.  making  a  grand  total  of 
all  clay  products  of  $122,169,531.— U. 
S.  Geological  Survey. 


354 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


PRODUCTION  OF  GAS. 

Q 
H 

°  +sT3 
"H  §|j 

:Ks 

| 

m 

The  total  quantity  of  gas  sold  for  lighting 
and  heating,  as  reported  to  the  Census  in  1900 
by  877  gas  establishments  from  which  returns 

£ 

fepu  x 

OUS-'f  « 

were  received,  was  67,093,553,471  cubic  feet. 

^ 

P-I  ^ 

i 

The  total  quantity  of  gas  manufactured  by 

H 

1 

companies  as  a  by-product  and  disposed  of 
was  1,171,942,697  cubic  feet.     A  combination 

W 

«|§ 

HI! 

1 
o 

of  this  latter  quantity  with  the  quantity  re- 
ported for  gas  companies  shows  that,  in  1900, 

Q 

S  a 

§  <N  (Nonas' 

<n 

the    total    quantity    sold    was    68,265,496,168 

\~r 

'«  a 

.  S  t~    1C  C*l  iQ 

S 

cubic  feet. 

/-* 

11 

^3    "    "   "   " 

1 

The  price  per  1,000  cubic  feet  varied  from 

*S 

S  S 

^roScoco 

CC 

$0.832  in  Pennsylvania    to   $4.50  'in  Nevada. 

~ 

olio 

l-H~Cvf 

1 

Proximity  to   the  coal  and  oil-producing  dis- 

P 

H 

'3 

tricts   gives    to    Pennsylvania   the   minimum 
average  rate,   while   distance  from  source  of 

EH 

^^ccS 

i-1 

supplies  and  limited  transportation  facilities 

1 

X 
H  . 

' 

^     "    "    *    * 

o5iSl 

fiscal  year. 
?y  Office  of 

are  accountable  for  the  high  price  in  Nevada. 
These  averages  represent  the  price  of  all  man- 
ufactured gas,  both  fuel  and  illuminating,  as 
the  quantity  of  each  kind  was  not  separately 
reported  ;  this  statement  is  necessary  in  order 
to     obviate     erroneous     deductions.      Idaho, 

Q" 

be 

1    "S 

Indian  Territory,  and  Oklahoma  have  no  gas 
plants. 

£_l 

^JHJCO 

M       "w 

The  quantity  of  gas  sold  in  New  York  city 

Cd 

^                  "Ta 

y             c3^  45 

g-<ti^«5  O5 

.s    -a 

was  18,180,821,125  cubic  feet,  at  an  average 

o 

,o||gg 

'S     S 

price  of  $0.905  per  1,000,  or  $16,457,822  in  the 

PL,      . 

'•i    IP 

rKCOGOOOO 

o       <S 
£        (3 

aggregate. 

S  0 

S           ~# 

^®SS 

a     .0 

»—i 

0              '""' 

i   1 

DIMENSIONS  OF  THE  EARTH. 

g| 

a  * 

According  to  Bessel,  in  the  metric  system. 

D  § 

-8 

g  OS_<»  CO  ^H 

"S     1 

Equatorial  radius    (large   axis,   one   half), 

1 

^oiSe^S 

J 

a  =  6,377,397.15m. 

§  § 

s 

^(M_TJH_OC» 

0 

Polar   radius    (small   axis,    one   half),    6  = 

O  O 

Oc^osww 

l-Hl-l 

P 

6,356,078.96  m. 

JH  U 

^  '-5 

Oblateness, 

„•£ 

a 
*°  § 

a  —  &            1 

P  =  9QQ  i  ,9Q  =  0.0033427731. 

r        Q 

a        299.1528 

IS 

J 

rf2J*SS 

11 

Eccentricity  of  the  meridians  of  the  earth, 

/    2       /j2 

m 

!_, 

ISS1S 

|  J5 

e  =  V  -    r-  =  0.08  169683. 
a* 

—  i 

t^ 

^So^wS 

T3  ^ 

A     meridian-degree     at      the     equator  = 

•H 

i-^c^co" 

(_,   "P 

110,563.68  m. 

—  H 

a  S 
a 

A      meridian  -  degree      at       the       pole  = 

^ 

H  5 

111,679.90  m. 

5 

1 

A  degree  of  the  equator  =  111,  306.58  m. 

3 

a 

§   ;^§g 

Meridian  quadrant  =  10,000,855.76  m. 

or 

a   • 

^O     •»"3<N  ' 

A     geographic     mile  =  1-15    degree   of   the 

"3    ^^N 

equator  =  7,420.  4385  m. 

H 

1 

o  :^^ 

Radius  of  the  sphere  having  the  same  sur- 
face as  the  earth  =  6,370,289.5  m. 

R/ficiius    of    tli6    spli6r6    hRvinc    tli6    sarnG 

D 

<M<0 

capacity  as  the  earth  =  6,370,283.2  m. 

^ 

c 

,J2^0^; 

Area  of  the  earth  =  509,950,714  qkm. 

•1 

a  •*  t^"»o  cs 

Cubic  contents  of  the  earth  =  1,082,841,  320,- 

i_? 

§ 

.28£S;£ 

000  ckm. 

•« 

3  CO  CO  «  00 

Gravity  at  the  level  of  the  sea  for  the  geo- 

5 

8 

^So^wS 

graphical    latitude     $,    g  =  9.  7810m  +  0.0503m 

j 

PH 

r-Tcico' 

sin2  <j>. 

i—  ) 

T  f\          4-V.           -f      4-1*                                 ,3                         J      1                          L       ^T_ 

O 

be 

J-jengtn  01   tne  seconds   pendulum    at  tne 
sea-level    for    the    geographical    latitude    d>, 

1, 

k 

Z  =  0.99102m  +  0.00510m  sin2  a). 

F 

ooow 
oootoo 

OOOOO5O5 

BARBED  WIRE.  —  A  pound  of  barbed  wire 
should  measure  1  6£  feet,  and  an  acre  of  ground 
will  require  50$  Ib.  per  line  of  fencing. 

CHAPTER    XV. 


FARMS    AND    FOOD. 


DIVISION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES    AS    TO    LAND. 


Farms. — According  to  the  Census  of 
]900  there  are  5,737,372  farms  hav- 
ing 414,498,487  acres  of  improved  land 
and  424.093,287  acres  of  unimproved 
land.  The  value  of  all  farm  property 
was  $20,439,901,164.  The  value  of 
the  land  with  improvements,  including 
buildings,  was  $16,614,647,491.  The 
value  of  implements  and  machinery 
was  $749,775,970.  The  value  of  the 
live  stock  was  $3,075,477,703.  The 


average  number  of  acres  to  a  farm  was 
146.2  acres. 

The  total  value  of  the  product  of  all 
the  farms  was  $4,717,069,973,  and  was 
divided  as  follows :  Animal  products, 
$1,718,365,561;  crops,  $2,998,704,612. 
Of  the  latter,  $974,940,616  was  fed  to 
the  live  stock.  The  value  of  all  live 
stock  on  farms  and  ranges  was  $2,- 
979,197,586 ;  poultry,  $85,756,503 ; 
bees,  $10,178,087. 


i860 


1900 


THE  POULTRY  INDUSTRY. 


Chickens  form  an  essential  part  of 
the  stock  upon  many  farms.  The 
Twelfth  Census  shows  that  there  were 
5.737,372  farms  in  the  United  States 
in  1900,  and  it  is  safe  to  say  that  those 
which  did  not  have  chickens  among  the 
stock  were  very  few  indeed.  The 
Census  also  shows  that  there  were 
250,681,593  fowls  (chickens,  turkeys, 
geese,  and  ducks)  in  the  United  States. 
This  gives  an  average  of  forty-two  to 
every  farm.  The  value  of  all  fowls 


on  farms  in  1900  was  $85,794,996,  pro- 
ducing for  market  in  one  year  poultry 
worth  $136,891.877  and  eggs  worth 
$144,286,370,  a  total  value  of  $281.- 
178,547.  The  investment  has  yielded 
an  income  of  40  per  cent.  In  seeking 
for  the  cause  of  the  great  success  at- 
tending poultry  raising,  one  must  not 
overlook  the  great  amount  of  work 
done  by  the  mechanical  incubator, 
which  is  not  only  as  fully  successful  as 
the  hen,  but  works  on  a  large  scale. 


355 


356 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


DAIRY    FARMS. 


The  Twelfth  Census  reports  that  in 
the  year  1900  there  were  5,737372 
farms  in  the  United  States,  and  of 
these  4,514,210  had  dairy  cows.  Where 
a  farm  was  found  upon  which  at  least 
40  per  cent,  of  the  value  of  annual 


products  was  from  dairy  products,  it 
was  classified  as  a  dairy  farm.  The 
total  quantity  of  milk  produced  on 
farms  in  this  country,  during  the  year 
1899,  was  7,266,392,074  gallons,  or,  in 
round  numbers,  02,500,000,000  pounds. 


150 


300 


PRODUCTION   OF   BUTTER 

in  hundreds  of  millions  of  pounds. 

450  600          750         900         1050         1200 


1350 


1500 


1900 
1890 
1880 
1870 
1860 
1850 


FACTORY  PRODUCT 
FARM 


PRODUCTION   OF  CHEESE 

in  hundreds  of  millions ,  of  pounds. 


300 


MINERAL  CONSTITUENTS  ABSORBED  OR  REMOVED  FROM  AN 
ACRE  OF  SOIL  BY  THE  FOLLOWING  CROPS: 


Minerals. 

Wheat, 
25  Bushels. 

Barley, 
40  Bushels. 

Turnips, 
20  Tons. 

Hay, 
li  Tons. 

Potassium  

Lbs. 
29.6 

Lbs. 
17.5 

Lbs. 
47.1 

Xbs. 
38.2 

Sodium  
Lime.  
Magnesium  
Oxide  of  Iron  
Phosphoric  Acid   . 

12^9 
10.6 
2.6 
20.6 

5.2 
17. 
9.2 
2.1 
25.8 

8.2 
29.9 
19.7 
7.1 
46.3 

12. 
44.5 
7.1 
.6 
15  1 

Sulphuric  Acid  

10.6 

2.7 

13.3 

9.2 

Chlorine                                   .    . 

2. 

16. 

3.6 

4.1 

118  1 

129.5 

247  8 

78.2 

2  4 

Total.  . 

210.00 

213.00 

423.00 

209.00 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


357 


NUMBER    AND    VALUE    OF    DOMESTIC    ANIMALS:    1900. 


Domestic 
Animals. 

Age  in 
Years. 

Total. 

On  Farms  and 
Ranges. 

Not  on  Farms  or 
Ranges. 

Number. 

Value. 

Number. 

Value. 

Num- 
ber. 

Estimated 
Value. 

All  domestic  an- 
imals. 

Dollars. 
3,193,856,459 

Dollars. 
2,979,197,586 

Dollars. 
214,658,873 

41,102,637 

AH  neat  cattle.  .  . 

Calves  
Steers  
Steers  
Steers 

Under  1.  . 
1  &  und'r  2 
2  &  und'r  3 
3  and  over 
1  and  over 
1  &  und'r  2 

2  and  over 
2  and  over 

69,335,832 

1,516,307,270 

67,719,410 

1,475,204,633 

1,616,422 

15,577,728 
7,008,656 
5,244,011 
3,179,069 
1,328,741 
7,254,000 

18,108,666 
11,634,961 
21,203,901 

139,638,829 
131,392,522 
152,871,930 
113,123,532 
45,831,378 
122,874,299 

537,496,120 
273,078,660 
1,050,526,967 

15,315,582 
6,953,113 
5,193,006 
3,073,267 
1,315,132 
7,174,483 

17,135,633 
11,559,194 
18,267,020 

137,290,001 
130,352,202 
151,386,664 
109,366,503 
45,362,004 
121,528,076 

508,616,501 
271,302,682 
896,513,217 

262,146 
55,543 
51,005 
105,802 
13,609 
79,517 

973,033 

75,767 
2,936,881 

2,348,828 
1,040,320 
1,485,266 
3,757,029 
469,374 
1,346,223 

28,879,619 
1,775,978 
154,013,750 

Bulls  
Heifers  
Cows  kept  for 
milk.  ..... 
Cows  not  kept 
for  milk.  .  .  . 

All  horses  

Colts  
Horses  
Horses  

All  mules.  .... 

Mule  colts  
Mules.  . 

Under  1.  . 
1  &  und'r  2 
2  and  over 

Under  1.  . 
1  &  und'r  2 
2  and  over 

All  ages.  . 

Under  1  .  . 
1  and  over 

1  and  over 

All  ages 
All  ages 

1,347,919 
1,476,627 
18,379,355 

3,438,523 

26,548,413 
49,313,762 
974,664,792 

207,274,557 

1,314,829 
1,446,225 
15,505,966 

3,264,615 

25,896,871 
48,298,639 
822,317,707 

196,222,053 

33,090 
30,402 
2,873,389 

173,908 

651,542 
1,015,123 
152,347,085 

11,052,504 

234,784 
283,829 
2,919,910 

110,012 

61,735,014 

6,286,385 
11,937,495 
189,050,677 

6,776,583 
170,881,743 

231,628 
279,501 
2,753,486 

94,165 
61,503,713 

6,201,899 
11,755,416 
178,264,738 

5,811,184 
170,203,119 

3,156 
4,328 
166,424 

15,847 
231,301 

84,486 
182,079 
10,785,939 

965,399 
678,624 

Mules.  . 

Asses  and  burros 
All  sheep  

Lambs  
Sheep  (ewes)  . 
Sheep  (rams 
and  wethers). 

Swine  
Goats  

21,702,447 
31,997,274 

8,035,293 

64,686,155 
1,948.952 

42,116,628 
101,732,728 

27,032,387 

238,686,872 
3,402,467 

21,650,746 
31,857,652 

7,995,315 

62,868,041 
1,870,599 

42,016,328 
101,288,730 

26,898,061 

231,978,031 
3,265,349 

51,701 
139,622 

39,978 

1,818,114 
78,353 

100,300 
443,998 

134,326 

6,708,841 
137,118 

— From  Reports  of  the  Census. 


QUANTITY  AND   VALUE   OF   ANIMAL   PRODUCTS  OF  FARMS:  1899. 


Product. 

Unit  of  Measure. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Total  

Wool  
Mohair  and  goat  hair.     
Milk  
Butter 

Pound 
do. 
Gallon 

276,567,584 
961,328 
i  7,265,804,304 
1  071  626  056 

I 

$1,718,365,561 

$45,670,053 
267,864 

472  276  783 

Cheese  

do. 

16,372,318 
1  293  662  433 

i 

144  240  541 

Poultry  

136,830,152 

Honsy  . 

Pound 

61  099  290 

) 

Wax 

do 

1  763  595 

f 

6,656,611 

Animals  sold  

722,614,328 

Animals  slaughtered.  .  . 

189,809,229 

Includes  all  milk  produced. 


— From  Reports  of  the  Census. 


358 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


ACREAGE,   QUANTITY,  AND  VALUE   OF  FARM   CROPS   IN   1899. 
From  Reports  of  the  Census. 


Crop. 

Acres. 

Unit  of 
Measure. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Total.  .     .  . 

$2  998  704  412 

Corn  

94,913,673 

Bushel 

2  666  324  370 

$828  192  388 

Wheat.  .  . 

52  588  574 

do 

658  534  252 

369  945  320 

Oats 

29  539  698 

do 

943  389  375 

217  098  584 

Barley.  .     . 

4,470  196 

do 

119  634  877 

41  631  762 

Rye  
Buckwheat.  . 

2,054,292 
807,060 

do. 
do 

25,568,625 
11  233  515 

12,290,540 
5  747  853 

Broom  corn  . 

178  584 

90  947  370 

3  588  414 

Rice  

342,214 

do 

250  280  227 

6  329  562 

Kaffir  corn  
Flaxseed  
Clover  seed. 

266,513 
2,110,517 

Bushel 
do. 

5,169,113 
19,979,492 
1  349  209 

1,367,040 
19,624,901 
5  359  578 

Grass  seed  

do. 

3  515  869 

2  868  839 

Hay  and  forage  
Cottonseed.  .     

61,691,069 

Ton 
do. 

84,010,915 
1  4,566,100 

484,254,703 
46,950  575 

Cotton  
Tobacco  
Hemp  
Honey 

24,275,101 
1,101,460 
16,042 

Bale 
Pound 
do. 
do 

9,534,707 
868,112,865 
11,750,030 
61  196  160 

323,758,171 
56,987,902 
546,338 

Hops  
Peanuts 

55,613 
516  654 

do. 
Bushel 

49,209,704 
11  964  109 

4,081,929 
7  270  515 

Peppermint.  ,  
Dry  beans 

8,591 
453  841 

Pound 
Bushel 

187,427 
5  064  490 

143,618 
7  633  636 

Castor  beans  

25,738 

do. 

143,388 

134,084 

Dry  pease.  .  . 

968,370 

do. 

9  440,210 

7,908  966 

Potatoes  
Sweet  potatoes  

2,938,778 
537,312 

do. 
do. 

273,318,167 
42,517,412 

98,380,110 
19,869,840 

Onions  

47,981 

do. 

11,790,974 

6,637,413 

Chicory  
Milk  

3,069 

Pound 
Gallons 

21,495,870 
7  266  392  674 

73,627 

Miscellaneous  vegetables.  
Maple  sugar  

2,114,149 

Pound 

11,928,770 

113,644,398 
1  074  260 

Gallon 

2  056  611 

1  562  451 

Sugar-cane.  .    
(a)  Cane  sold  
(6)  Cane  kept  for  seed  

386,986 

Ton 
do. 
do. 

2  4,202,202 
1,126,076 
1,453,447 

'3,88i,758 
5,018,469 

(c)  Sugar  made. 

Pound 

159  454  814 

6  558  944 

(rf)  Molasses  made  

Gallon 

6,312,809 

788,990 

(e)   Sirup  made  

do. 

12,293,032 

4  293  475 

293  152 

Ton 

s  291  703 

815  019 

Sorghum  sirup.  -  . 

Gallon 

16,972  783 

5,288  OS3 

Sugar  beets   . 

110  170 

Ton 

793  353 

3  323    40 

Small  fruits.  .  .      .    .  

309,770 

25,029,757 

Grapes 

Cental 

13  009  841 

4  14  090  234 

Orchard  products  
Subtropical  fruits.  . 

Bushel 

212,365,600 

*  83,750,961 
8,227,838 

Nuts  

1,949,931 

Forest  products.  . 

109,864,774 

Flowers  and  plants 

9,307 

18,758,864 

Miscellaneous  seeds  

10,106 

826,019 

Nursery  products.  .  . 

59,492 

10,123,873 

Willows  

521 

36,523 

Miscellaneous  

23,793 

6  1,120,343 

1  Not  including  166,861  tons  sold  with  fiber  before  ginning. 

2  Comprising  all  cane  grown,  whether  sold  as  cane,  kept  for  seed,  or  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  sugar,  molasses,  and  sirup. 

3  Sold  as  cane. 

4  Including  value  of  raisins,  wine,  etc. 

5  Including  value  of  cider,  vinegar*  etc. 

6  The  greater  part  of  this  value  was  derived   from   products   for  which   no   acreage   was 
reported. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


359 


360 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


FRUIT    PRODUCTS. 

(Abstracted  from  the  United  States  Census  Reports.) 


Product. 

Unit  of 
Measure. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Fruits  (orchard) 

Bushels 

212  366  646 

$83  751  840 

Apples  
Apricots. 

Bushels 
Bushels 

175,397,626 
2  642  128 

Cherries  

Bushels 

2,873,499 



Peaches,  etc.  . 

Bushels 

15  433  623 

Pears  
Plums,  etc  
Unclassified  
Cider  

Bushels 
Bushels 
Bushels 
Barrels 

6,625,417 
8,764,032 
630,321 
1,754  927 

Cider  vinegar  
Fruits  (small)  
Blackberries  
Currants  
Gooseberries  
Raspberries  
Strawberries  
Unclassified  
Fruits  (sub-tropical) 

Barrels 
Quarts 
Quarts 
Quarts 
Quarts 
Quarts 
Quarts 
Quarts 

392,497 
431,628,520 
62,189,885 
18,592,695 
9,320,530 
76,628,107 
257,437,523 
7,459,780 

'25,030,877' 
8  549  863 

Bananas  

Bunches 

141,653 

Citrons  
Figs  
Guava  
Lemons  
Limes  
Olives 

Boxes 
Pounds 
Pounds 
Boxes 
Boxes 
Pounds 

90 
13,016,274 
1,677,165 
876,978 
24,375 
5  053  637 

Oranges  
Persimmons  

Boxes 
Pounds 

6,171,259 
136,030 
2  980  240 

Pomeloes  
Unclassified 

Boxes 
Pounds 

30,791 
2  969  239 

Olive  oil  
Coffee.  . 

Gallons 
Pounds 

8,643 
2  297  000 

246  isi 

STATISTICS    OF    PRINCIPAL    CROPS. 


Crop. 

Year. 

Acreage. 

Unit. 

Average 
Yield 
per  Acre. 

Production. 

Corn  
Wheat  
Oats  

1903 
1903 
1903 

88,091,993 
49,464,967 
27,638,126 

Bushel 

25.5 
12.9 

28.4 

2,244,176,925 
637,821,835 
784,094,199 

Barley  
Rye  
Buckwheat  
Potatoes  
Hay.  . 

1903 
1903 
1903 
1903 
1903 

4,993,137 
1,906,894 
804,393 
2,916,855 
39,933,759 

Ton 

26.4 
15.4 
17.7 
84.7 
1  54 

131,861,391 
29,363,416 
14,243,644 
247,127,880 
61,305  940 

Cotton  
Tobacco  
Flaxseed  
Suear,  beet  and  cane  .  .  . 

1902-1903 
1903 
1903 
1903-1904 

27,114,103 
1,037,735 
3,233,239 

Bale 
Pound 
Bushel 
Lone  ton 

'  '786'.  3' 
8.4 

10,725,422 
815,972,425 
27,300,510 
423.135 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


361 


STATISTICS     OF     PRINCIPAL     CROPS— Continued. 


Crop. 

Year. 

Unit. 

Average 
Farm 
Price. 

Farm  Value. 

Exports, 
Bushels.* 

Corn  
Wheat  
Oats  
Barley  
Rye 

1903 
1903 
1903 
1903 
1903 

Bushel 

42.  5c. 
69.  5  c. 
34.  Ic. 
45.  6  c. 
54.  5  c. 

$952,868,801 
443,024,826 
267,661,665 
60,166,313 
15,993,871 

76,639,261 
202,906,273 
8,381,805 
56,462 
5,445,273 

Buckwheat  
Potatoes  
Hay  
Cotton  
Tobacco  
Flaxseed  

1903 
1903 
1903 
1902-1903 
1903 
1903 

Ton 
Bale 
Pound 
Bushel 

60.  7  c. 
61.  4  c. 

$9.08 

'  '  Q'.S'C.'  ' 
81.  7c. 

8,650,733 
15,638,094 
556,376,880 
458,051,005 
55,514,627 
22,291,557 

843,075 
2  50,974 
a  7,086,086 

Sugar,  beet  and  cane  

1903-1904 

Long  ton 

1  Does  not  necessarily  mean  the  crop  year ;  in  all  cases  one  year  and  generally  two  years 
behind. 

2  Tons  instead  of  bushels. 

3  1902-1903. 

STATISTICS    OF    PRINCIPAL    ANIMALS. 


Animals. 

Year. 

Number. 

Value. 

Horses 

1904 

16,736,059 

$1,136,940,298 

Mules  

1904 

2,757,916 

217,532,916 

Cows. 

1904 

17,419,817 

508,841,489 

Other  cattle  
Sheep  

1904 
1904 

43,629,438 
51,630,144 

712,178,134 
133  530,099 

Hogs. 

1904 

47  009  367 

289  224  627 

CUTS    OF    MEAT. 


The  method  of  dividing  up  the  car- 
casses of  slaughtered  animals  varies 
considerably  in  different  localities.  In 
order  that  there  may  be  no  confusion 


on  this  account  the  character  of  the 
cuts  of  beef,  veal,  pork  and  mutton 
is  shown  in  the  diagrams  given  on 
page  362. 


THE  FUNCTIONS  AND  USES  OF  FOODS. 

BY    C.    F.    LANGWORTHY,     PH.    D. 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations. 


In  this  article  a  number  of  the 
terms  used  in  discussing  food  are  de- 
fined and  some  of  the  principles 
of  nutrition  are  briefly  stated. 
The  average  composition  of  a 
number  of  the  more  common 
American  foods  is  quoted  as  well  as 
the  commonly  accepted  dietary  stand- 
ards. With  the  aid  of  such  data,  the 
nutritive  value  of  any  given  diet  may 
be  computed  and  its  comparative  value 
ascertained. 

Ordinary  food  materials,  such  as 
meat,  fish,  eggs,  potatoes,  wheat,  etc., 
consist  of: 

Refuse. — As  the  bones  of  meat  and 
fish,  shells  of  shellfish,  skins  of  pota- 
toes, bran  of  wheat,  etc. 

Edible    Portion. — As    the    flesh    of 


meat  and  fish,  the  white  and  yolk  of 
eggs,  wheat  flour,  etc.  The  edible  por- 
tion consists  of  water  and  nutritive 
ingredients,  or  nutrients.  The  nutri- 
tive ingredients  are  protein,  fats,  car- 
bohydrates and  mineral  matters. 

The  water,  refuse,  and  salt  of  salt- 
ed meat  and  fish  are  called  non-nutri- 
ents. In  comparing  the  values  of  dif- 
ferent food  materials  for  nourishment 
they  are  left  out  of  account. 

USE    OF    NUTRIENTS. 

Food  is  used  in  the  body  to  build 
and  repair  tissue  and  to  furnish  en- 
ergy. The  manner  in  which  the  valu- 
able constituents  are  utilized  in  the 
body  may  be  expressed  in  tabular  form 
as  follows : 


362 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


Protein 

White  (albumen)  of  eggs,  curd  (casein) 

of  milk,  lean  meat,  gluten  of  wheat,  etc. 

Fats 

Fat  of  meat,  butter,  olive  oil,  oils  of 

corn  and  wheat,  etc. 
Carbohydrates 

Sugar,  starch,  etc. 
Mineral  matters  (ash) 

Phosphates  of  lime,  potash,  soda,  etc. 


Forms     tissue     (muscles,  -, 
tendon,   and   probably 
fat). 

Form  fatty  tissue. 


Transformed  into  fat. 

Aid     in     forming     bone, 
assist  in  digestion,  etc. 


All  serve  as  fuel  and 
yield  energy  in  form 
of  heat  and  muscular 
strength. 


The  Fuel  Value  of  Food.— Heat  and 
muscular  power  are  forms  of  force  or 
energy.  The  energy  is  developed  as 
the  food  is  consumed  in  the  body.  The 
unit  commonly  used  in  this  measure- 
ment is  the  calorie,  the  amount  of  heat 
which  would  raise  the  temperature  of 
a  pound  of  water  4  deg.  Fahrenheit. 

Instead  of  this  unit  some  unit  of 
mechanical  energy  might  be  used — for 


DIAGRAM   OF  CUTS  OF  MUTTON. 

instance,  the  foot-ton,  which  repre- 
sents the  force  required  to  raise  one 
ton  one  foot.  One  calorie  is  equal  to 
very  nearly  1.53  foot-tons. 

The  following  general  estimate  has 
been  made  for  the  average  amount  of 
potential  energy  in  1  pound  of  each  of 
the  classes  of  nutrients : 

Calories. 

In  1  pound  of  protein 1,860 

In  1  pound  of  fats 4,220 

In  1  pound  of  carbohydrates..    1,860 

In  other  words,  when  we  com- 
pare the  nutrients  in  respect  to 
their  fuel  values,  their  capacities  for 
yielding  heat  and  mechanical  power, 


DIAGRAM    OF    CUTS    OF    VEAL. 

a  pound  of  protein  of  lean  meat  or  al- 
bumen of  egg  is  just  about  equivalent 
to  a  pound  of  sugar  or  starch,  and  a 
little  over  two  pounds  of  either  would 


DIAGRAM   OF   CUTS   OF  PORK. 

be  required  to  equal  a  pound  of  the  fat 
of  meat  or  butter  or  the  body  fat. 

Within  recent  years  analyses  of  a 
large  number  of  samples  of  foods  have 
been  made  in  this  country.  In  the 
tables  on  pages  364-3G7  the  results  of 
a  number  of  these  analyses  are  given  : 


DIAGRAM   OF   CUTS  OF  BEEF. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


363 


364 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


AVERAGE     COMPOSITION     OF     AMERICAN     FOOD     PRODUCTS. 


Food  Materials  (as  purchased). 

Ref- 
use. 

Water. 

Pro- 
tein. 

Fat. 

Car- 
bohy- 
drates. 

Ash. 

Fuel 
Value 
per 
Lb. 

ANIMAL,  FOOD. 
Beef,  fresh: 

Per  Ct. 
17.3 
19.1 
5.5 
13.3 
12.7 
12.8 
31.2 
20.1 

"8'.5' 
19.0 
38.3 
17.4 
20.6 
16.3 

8.4 
6.0 
4.7 

Per  Ct. 
54.0 
53.8 
56.1 
52.9 
52.4 
54.0 
45.3 
45.3 
64.8 
62.5 
46.9 
43.2 
57.0 
49.5 
52.0 

49.2 

58.9 
53.7 
51.8 
51.8 

52.5 
63.4 
63.3 
54.2 
56.2 

39.0 
51.9 
46.8 
41.6 
43.3  x 

45.5 
50.3 

48.5 
45.1 
40.8 
44.9 
66.5 

35.8 
30.7 
7.9 
18.4 

55.2 

22.2 
57.2 

88.6 
92.9 
84.5 
90.0 

43.7 
47.1 
38.5 
42.4 

58.5 
61.9 
40.4 
50.7 
35.2 
71.2 
40.2 

Per  Ct. 
15.8 
15.3 
18.6 
16.4 
19.1 
16.5 
14.2 
14.4 
19.4 
19.2 
15.2 
13.2 
16.5 
14.4 
16.1 

14.3 
11.9 
26.4 
25.5 
26.3 

15.7 
18.3 
20.1 
15.1 
16.2 

13.8 
15.4 
13.7 
12.3 
13.0 

15.4 
16.0 

15.1 
14.3 
13.2 
12.0 
18.9 

14.5 
12.6 
1.9 
9.5 

18.2 
27.9 
19.6 

2.1 
4.4 
4.6 
1.8 

12.8 
13.7 
13.4 
16.1 

11.1 
15.3 
10.2 
12.8 
9.4 
20.9 
19.0 

Per  Ct. 

12.5 
11.1 
19.9 
16.9 
17.9 
16.1 
9.2 
20.0 
15.5 
9.2 
18.6 
5.2 
8.4 
15.1 
15.4 

23.8 
19.2 
6.9 
22.5 

18.7 

8.2 
5.8 
7.5 
6.0 
6.6 

36.9 
14.5 
17.1 
24.5 
24.0 

19.1 
19.7 

18.6 
29.7 
26.0 
29.8 
13.0 

33.2 
33.0 

86.2 
59.4 

19.7 
40.4 
18.6 

2.8 
.4 
4.3 
1.1 

1.4 
12.3 
29.8 
18.4 

.2 
4.4 
4.2 
.7 
4.8 
3.8 
.4 

Per  Ct. 

Per  Ct. 

0.7 

.8 
.8 
.9 
.8 
.9 
.7 
.7 
.9 
1.0 
.8 
.6 
.9 
.7 
.8 

4.6 
4.3 
8.9 
1.3 
4.0 

.8 
1.0 
1.0 

'.8 
.6 

:? 

.8 
.9 

.7 
.8 
.8 

M 

4.2 
5.0 
3.9 
4.5 

3.8 
7.3 
3.4 

1.5 
1.2 
1.1 
1.5 

.7 
.7 
.7 
.8 

.8 
.9 
.7 
.9 
.7 
1.5 
18.5 

Calo- 
ries. 
820 
755 
1,185 
1,020 
1,110 
985 
650 
1,110 
1,015 
745 
1,065 
465 
660 
905 
950 

1,271 
1,030 

780 
1,425 
1,280 

635 
585 
690 
535 
580 

1,815 
900 
975 
1,265 
1,255 

1,090 
1,130 

1,065 
1,520 
1,340 
1,480 
900 

1,670 
1,625 
3,670 
2,685 

1,170 
2,225 
1,170 

250 
120 
370 
185 

295 
775 
1,505 
1,075 

215 
470 
365 
265 
380 
600 
315 

Chuck  ribs      .                                    

Flank  
Loin  

Sirloin  steak  
Neck  
Ribs  
Rib  rolls  
Round  
Rump  
Shank,  fore  
Shoulder  and  clod  

Beef,  corned,  canned,  pickled,  and  dried: 

Tongue,  pickled  
Dried,  salted,  and  smoked  
Canned  boiled  beef  

Veal: 
Breast  
Leg                                    

23.3 
11.7 
3.4 
24.5 
20.7 

9.9 
17.7 
22.1 
21.2 
19.3 

19.1 
13.8 

18.0 
10.3 
19.3 
12.4 

12.2 
18.9 

Leg  cutlets  

Hind  quarter  
Mutton: 
Flank  
Leg,  hind  
Shoulder  
Fore  quarter  
Hind  quarter,  without  tallow  
Lamb: 
Breast  



Pork,  fresh:                                                       * 
Flank  

Shoulder  
Tenderloin  

Pork,  salted,  cured,  and  pickled: 
Ham,  smoked  
Shoulder,  smoked  

"  i  .'  i  ' 

5.0 
1.1 
5.5 
5.6 

"2."  6" 

8.7 

3.3 
3.9 

Sausage  : 

Farmer  

Soups  : 

Beef                                   

Meat  stew  

Poultry: 

41.6 
25.9 
17.6 
22.7 

29.9 
17.7 
44.7 
35.1 
50.1 

Fowls  

Fish: 

Halibut,  steaks  or  sections  
Mackerel   whole  

Perch,  yellow,  dressed  
Shad   whole                                     

Shad  roe        

Fish,  salt:  Cod...                              

24.9 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


365 


AVERAGE     COMPOSITION     OF     AMERICAN     FOOD     PRODUCTS— Continued. 


Food  Materials  (as  purchased). 

Ref- 
use. 

Water. 

Pro- 
tein. 

Fat. 

Car- 
bohy- 
drates. 

Ash. 

Fuel 
Value 
per 
Lb. 

Fish,  canned: 
Salmon.  . 

Per  Ct. 
14.2 

Per  Ct. 

56.8 

PerCt. 
19.5 

Per  Ct. 
7.5 

PerCt. 

Per  Ct, 
2  0 

Calo- 
ries. 
680 

1  5  0 

53  6 

23  7 

12  1 

5  3 

950 

Shellfish: 
Oysters    '  '  solids  '  ' 

88  3 

6  0 

1  3 

3  3 

1   1 

230 

Clams  

80.8 

10.6 

1.1 

5.2 

2.3 

340 

Crabs 

52  4 

36  7 

7  9 

9 

.6 

1  5 

195 

Lobsters  
Eggs'  Hens'  eggs.  .  . 

61.7 
2  11.2 

30.7 
65.5 

5.9 
11  9 

.7 
9  3 

.2 

.8 
9 

140 
635 

Dairy  products,  etc.  : 
Butter  

11  0 

1  0 

85.0 

3  0 

3,605 

Whole  milk  

87.0 

3.3 

4.0 

5.0 

.7 

325 

Skim  milk  
Buttermilk  

90.5 
91.0 

3.4 
3.0 

.3 
.5 

5.1 
4.8 

.7 
.7 

170 
165 

Condensed  milk  
Cream 

26.9 
74  0 

8.8 
2  5 

8.3 

18  5 

54.1 
4.5 

1.9 
5 

1,520 
910 

Cheese,  Cheddar  

27.4 

27.7 

36.8 

4.1 

4.0 

2,145 

Cheese,  full  cream   .  .  . 

34.2 

25  9 

33  7 

2.4 

3  8 

1,950 

VEGETABLE  FOOD. 
Flour,  meal,  etc.: 
Entire-wheat  flour  
Graham  flour  

11.4 
11.3 

13.8 
13.3 

1.9 
2.2 

71.9 
71.4 

1.0 
1.8 

,675 
,670 

Wheat  flour,  patent  roller  process  — 
High-grade  and  medium.  .  . 

12  0 

11  4 

1  0 

75.1 

5 

650 

12  0 

14  0 

1  9 

71  2 

9 

665 

Macaroni.  . 

78  4 

3  0 

1  5 

15.8 

1  3 

415 

Crushed  wheat 

10  1 

11   1 

1  7 

75  5 

1   6 

685 

Buckwheat  flour.  . 

13  6 

6  4 

1  2 

77.9 

9 

620 

Corn  meal   .  . 

12  5 

9  2 

1  9 

75  4 

1  0 

655 

Oatmeal.  .  . 

7.3 

16  1 

7  2 

67.5 

1  9 

1  860 

Rice.  .  . 

12  3 

8  0 

3 

79  0 

4 

1  630 

Tapioca  
Starch. 

11.4 

.4 

88.0 
90.0 

.1 

1,650 
1  675 

Bread,  pastry,  etc.: 
White  bread.  ... 

35  3 

9  2 

1  3 

53.1 

1   1 

1  215 

Brown  bread 

43  6 

5  4 

1  8 

47  1 

2   1 

1  050 

Graham  bread.  .        .    . 

35  7 

8  9 

1  8 

52.1 

1  5 

1,210 

Whole-wheat  bread.  . 

38  4 

9  7 

9 

49  7 

1  3 

140 

Rye  bread  
Cake  

35.7 
19  9 

9.0 
6  3 

.6 
9  0 

53.2 
63.3 

1.5 

1  5 

,180 
675 

Cream  crackers  
Oyster  crackers. 

6.8 
4  8 

9.7 
11  3 

12.1 
10  5 

69.7 
70.5 

1.7 
2  9 

,990 
965 

Soda  crackers.  . 

5  9 

9  8 

9  1 

73  1 

2  1 

925 

Sugars,  etc.: 
Molasses.  .  . 

25  1 

2  4 

69  3 

3  2 

290 

Candy  

96.0 

,785 

Honey  3  

18  2 

4 

81  2 

2 

520 

Sugar,  granulated. 

100  0 

800 

Maple  sirup  

71.4 

,330 

Vegetables:4 
Beans,  dried  

12  6 

22  5 

1  8 

59.6 

3  5 

1,605 

Beans,  Lima,  shelled  

68  5 

7  1 

7 

22  0 

1  7 

570 

Beans,  string.  .  . 

7  0 

83  0 

2  1 

3 

6  9 

7 

180 

Beets.  .  .  . 

20  0 

70  0 

1  3 

1 

7  7 

9 

170 

Cabbage  
Celery  
Corn,  green  (sweet),  edible  portion  
Cucumbers  
Lettuce    . 

15.0 
20.0 

'is.  '6' 

15  0 

77.7 
75.6 
75.4 
81.1 
80  5 

l.,4 
.9 
3.1 
.7 
1  0 

.2 
.1 
1.1 

.2 

2 

4.8 
2.6 
19.7 
2.6 
2  5 

.9 

.8 
.7 
.4 
g 

125 
70 
470 
70 
75 

Mushrooms.  .  . 

88  1 

3  5 

4 

6  8 

1  2 

210 

Onions  
Parsnips.  .  . 

10.0 
20  0 

78.9 
66  4 

1.4 
1  3 

.3 
4 

8.9 
10  8 

.5 
1   i 

205 
240 

Peas  (Pisum  sa'ivum),  dried  

9.5 

24.6 

1.0 

62.0 

2.9 

1,655 

Refuse,  oil.         2  Refuse,  shell. 

3  Contained  on  an  average  cane  sugar  2.8  and  reducing  sugar  71.1  per  cent.     The  reducing 
sugar  was  composed  of  about  equal  amounts  of  glucose  (dextrose)  and  fruit  sugar  (levulose). 

4  Such  vegetables  as   potatoes,   squash,  beets,  etc.,  have  a  certain  amount   of  inedible 
material,  skin,  seeds,  etc.     The  amount  varies  with  the  method  of  preparing  the  vegetables,  and 
cannot  be  accurately  estimated.     The  figures  given  for  refuse  of  vegetables,  fruits,  etc.,  are 
assumed  to  represent  approximately  the  amount  of  refuse  in  these  foods  as  ordinarily  prepared. 


366 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


AVERAGE    COMPOSITION     OF     AMERICAN    FOOD     PRODUCTS— Continued. 


Food  Materials  (as  purchased). 

Ref- 
use. 

Water. 

Pro- 
tein. 

Per  Ct. 
7.0 
21.4 
1.8 
.4 
1.4 
2.1 
.7 
.9 
.9 

3.6 
2.8 
1.2 

.3 

.8 
1.0 
.7 
.3 
.6 
.5 
.8 
1  0 

Fat. 

Car- 
bohy- 
drates. 

Ash. 

Fuel 
Value 

K 

Vegetables  —  (  Continued)  : 
Peas  (Pisum  sativum),  shelled  

PerCt. 

PerCt. 

74.6 
13.0 
62.6 
56.6 
55.2 
92.3 
44.2 
94.3 
62.7 

85.3 
76.1 
94.0 

63.3 
48.9 
58.0 
62.5 
44.8 
63.4 
76.0 
66.1 
85  8 

PerCt. 
0.5 
1.4 
.1 
.4 
.6 
.3 
.2 
.4 
.1 

.2 
1.2 

.2 

.3 

.4 
1.2 
.5 

".'i' 

.4 

.7 

PerCt. 
16.9 
60.8 
14.7 
2.2 
21.9 
3.2 
•    4.5 
3.9 
5.7 

9.8 
19.0 
4.0 

10.8 
14.3 
14.4 
5.9 
4.6 
8.5 
12.7 
31.5 
12.6 
7.0 
2.7 

66.1 
17.3 
70.6 
74.2 

9.5 
7.8 
3.5 
.5 
35.4 
56.4 
14.3 
31.5 
6.2 
4.3 
6.2 
18.5 
10.2 
3.0 
6.8 
68.5 

30.3 
37.7 

1.4 

PerCt. 

1.0 
3.4 
.8 
.4 
.9 
2.1 
.4 
.5 
.6 

1.1 
.9 
.6 

.3 

.6 
.4 
.4 
.3 
.4 
.4 
.9 
.6 
.6 
.1 

2.0 
.4 
1.2 
2.4 

1.1 
2.1 
2.0 
.4 
1.1 
1.7 
.9 
1.3 
1.1 
.8 
.7 
1.5 
1.7 
.5 
.6 
3.1 

2.2 

7.2 

.2 

Calo- 
ries. 
465 
1,590 
310 
65 
640 
110 
105 
105 
125 

255 
455 
105 

220 
300 
335 
145 
90 
170 
260 
630 
255 
175 
60 

1,350 
340 
1,450 
1,475 

1,660 
1,820 
1,655 
430 
945 
,425 
,413 
3,125 
,575 
,265 
,620 
,935 
1,905 
805 
,375 
,455 

2,860 
2,320 

30 

Cowpeas,  dried. 

Potatoes  

20.0 
40.0 
20.0 

Rhubarb  

Sweet  potatoes  

Spinach.  .  . 

50.0 

Tomatoes.  . 

Turnips 

30.0 

Vegetables,  canned: 
Peas  (Pisum  sativum),  green  .  . 

Corn,  green  

Tomatoes.  . 

Fruits,  berries,  etc.,  fresh:1 
Apples.  .  . 

25.0 
35.0 
25.0 
30.0 
50.0 
27.0 
10.0 

Bananas  
Grapes.  . 

L/emons  

Muskmelons 

Pears.  ...                                      

Persimmons,  edible  portion.  .  . 

Strawberries.  .  . 

5.0 
59.4 

85.9 
37.5 

28.1 
81.4 
13.8 
18.8 

2.7 
2.3 
2.6 
.6 
37.8 
4.5 
7.2 
3.5 
1.8 
1.4 
1.4 
6.9 
2.0 
.6 
1.0 
13.1 

5.9 
4.6 

98.2 

.9 
.2 

1.6 
.9 
1.9 
4.3 

11.5 
13.0 
8.6 
3.8 
5.2 
8.1 
2.9 
6.3 
7.5 
5.8 
5.2 
19.5 
8.7 
7.2 
6.9 
2.3 

12.9 
21.6 

.2 

.6 
.1 

2.2 

'  '2.'5" 
.3 

30.2 
34.0 
33.7 
8.3 
4.5 
5.3 
25.9 
57.4 
31.3 
25.5 
33.3 
29.1 
36.8 
14.6 
26.6 
3.0 

48.7 
28.9 

Fruits,  dried: 

Apricots.  .  . 

'io.'o' 

Dates  . 

Figs. 

Nuts: 
Almonds  
Beechnuts.  . 

45.0 

40.8 
49.6 
86.4 
16.0 
24.0 
2  48.  8 

'  52  .'  1  ' 
62.2 
53.2 
24.5 
40.6 
74.1 
58.1 
10.0 

Brazil  nuts  
Butternuts. 

Chestnuts,  fresh.  . 

Cocoanuts  .  . 

Cocoanut,  prepared  
Filberts   

Hickory  nuts  

Pecans,  polished.  ... 

Peanuts  

PiSon  (Pinus  edulis)  
Walnuts,  California,  black  
Walnuts,  California,  soft-shell  
Raisins.  .  .                                             .    . 

Miscellaneous: 
Chocolate.  .                   

Cereal  coffee,  infusion  (1  part  boiled  in 
20  parts  water)  3  

1  Fruits  contain  a  certain  proportion  of  inedible  materials,  as  skin,  seeds,  etc.,  which  are 
properly  classed  as  refuse.     In  some  fruits,  as  oranges  and  prunes,  the  amount  rejected  in 
eating  is  practically  the  same  as  refuse.     In  others,  as  apples  and  pears,  more  or  less  of  the 
edible  material  is  ordinarily  rejected  with  the  skin  and  seeds  and  other  inedible  portions. 
The  edible  material  which  is  thus  thrown  away,  and  should  properly  be  classed  with  the  waste, 
is  here  classed  with  the  refuse.     The  figures  for  refuse  here  given  represent,  as  nearly  as  can 
be  ascertained,  the  quantities  ordinarily  rejected. 

2  Milk  and  shell. 

3  The  average  of  five  analyses  of  cereal  coffee  grain  is:    Water  6.2,  protein  13.3,  fat  3.4, 
carbohydrates  72.6,  and  ash  4.5  per  cent.     Only  a  portion  of  the  nutrients,  however,  enter  into 
the  infusion.     The  average  in  the  table  represents  the  available  nutrients  in  the  beverage      In- 
fusions of  genuine  coffee  and  of  tea  like  the  above  contain  practically  no  nutrients. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


367 


Dietary  studies  have  been  made  in 
considerable  numbers  in  different  coun- 
tries. The  results  of  such  studies  and 
experiments  to  determine  the  amount 


DIETARY  STANDARDS. 

of  food  required  by  men  engaged  in 
different  occupations  have  resulted  in 
the  adoption  of  dietary  standards. 
Some  of  these  follow : 


STANDARDS    FOR   DAILY    DIETARIES. 


Nutrients. 

Character  of  Work  to  be  Performed. 

Protein. 

Fat. 

Carbohy- 
drates. 

Fuel. 
Value. 

European  : 
Man  at  moderate  work  

Pound. 
0.26 

Pound. 
0.12 

Pounds. 
1.10 

Calories. 
3,055 

.32 

.22 

99 

3,370 

American  : 
Man  without  muscular  work 

.20 

3,000 

Man  with  light  muscular  work  

.22 

3,000 

Man  with  moderate  muscular  work.  . 

.28 

3,500 

Man  with  hard  muscular  work  

.39 

4,500 

The  table  of  composition  of  food  ma- 
terials shows  the  amount  of  water, 
protein,  fat,  carbohydrates  and  ash 
content  and  the  total  fuel  value  per 
pound  for  each  kind  of  food  named. 
The  protein,  fat  and  carbohydrates  all 
furnish  energy.  In  addition  to  fur- 
nishing energy,  protein  forms  tissue. 
Since  protein  and  energy  are  the  essen- 
tial features  of  food,  dietary  stand- 
ards may  be  expressed  in  their  simplest 
form  in  terms  of  protein  and  energy 
alone. 

Observation  has  shown  that  as  a  rule 
a  woman  requires  less  food  than  a 
man,  and  the  amount  required  by  chil- 
dren is  still  less,  varying  with  the 
age.  It  is  customary  to  assign  cer- 
tain factors  which  shall  represent  the 
amount  of  nutrients  required  by  chil- 
dren of  different  ages  and  by  women 
as  compared  with  adult  man.  The  va- 
rious factors  which  have  been  adopted 
are  as  follows : 

FACTORS  USED  IN  CALCULATING  MEALS 
CONSUMED    IN     DIETARY     STUDIES. 

One  meal  of  woman  equivalent  to  0.8 
meal  of  man  at  moderate  muscular  la- 
bor. 

One  meal  of  boy  14  to  16  years  of 
age,  inclusive,  equivalent  to  0.8  meal 
of  man.  • 

One  meal  of  girl  14  to  16  years  of 
age,  inclusive,  equivalent  to  0.7  meal 
of  man. 

One  meal  of  child  10  to  13  years  of 
age,  inclusive,  equivalent  to  0.6  meal 
of  man. 

One  meal  of  child  6  to  9  years  of 
age,  inclusive,  equivalent  to  0.5  meal 
of  man. 


One  meal  of  child  2  to  5  years  of 
age,  inclusive,  equivalent  to  0.4  meal 
of  man. 

One  meal  of  child  under  2  years  of 
age  equivalent  to  0.3  meal  of  man. 

These  factors  are  based  in  part  upon 
experimental  data  and  in  part  upon 
arbitrary  assumptions.  They  are  sub- 
ject to  revision  when  experimental  evi- 
dence shall  warrant  more  definite  con- 
clusions. 

The  plan  followed  in  making  dietary 
studies  is,  briefly,  as  follows :  Exact 
account  is  taken  of  all  the  food  ma- 
terials (1)  at  the  beginning  of  the 
study,  (2)  purchased  during  its  prog- 
ress, and  (3)  remaining  at  the  end. 
The  difference  between  the  third  and 
the  sum  of  the  first  and  second  is  taken 
as  representing  the  amount  used.  From 
the  figures  thus  obtained  for  the  total 
quantities  of  the  different  food  ma- 
terials the  amounts  of  the  different  nu- 
trients and  the  energy  furnished  by 
them  are  calculated.  Deducting  from 
these  values  the  nutrients  and  energy 
found  in  the  kitchen  and  table  refuse, 
the  amounts  actually  consumed  are  ob- 
tained. Account  is  also  taken  of  the 
meals  eaten  by  different  members  of 
the  family  or  groups  studied  and  by 
visitors,  if  there  are  any.  From  the 
total  food  eaten  by  all  the  persons  dur- 
ing the  entire  period  the  amount  eaten 
per  man  per  day  may  be  calculated. 
In  making  these  calculations  due  ac- 
count is  taken  of  the  fact  that,  as  stat- 
ed above,  women  and  children  eat  less 
than  men  performing  the  same  amount 
of  work. 


368 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


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SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


Copyright,  1904,  by  Muiiu  &  Co. 

COMPARISON    OF    CANNED    GOODS    PUT    UP     IN     THE     UNITED     STATES 

IN     1900. 


CANS,  TIN. — Size  of  sheet  for  from  1  to  100 
gallons. 


For 


For  25  gal.  30X56  in. 


gal.  10X20  in. 
'  10X28  " 
12X40  " 
14X40  " 
20X42  " 
30X42  " 

This  includes  all  the  laps,  seams,  etc.      Is 
sufficiently  correct  for  all  practical  purposes. 


40 
50 
75 
100 


36X63  " 
40  X  70  " 
40X84  " 
40X98  " 


WIRE,  to  ARcertain  Amount  Required  for 
Cable. — For  the  length  of  a  wire  in  a  strand, 
add  to  a  given  length  as  many  times  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  strand  as  there  are  twists 
in  the  given  length,  for  the  outside  wires;  and 
proportionately  for  the  inner  row.  The 
centre  wire  is  supposed  to  be  straight.  Pro- 
ceed in  the  same  way  for  the  strands.  The 
excess  of  wire  in  each  strand  added  to  the 
excess  of  the  strands  over  the  length  of  the 
cable  will  give  the  whole  length  of  wire  used. 


CHAPTER    XVI. 


MISCELLANEOUS    INFORMATION. 


CENTRAL    ELECTRIC    LIGHT    AND    POWER    STATIONS, 
UNITED  STATES:   1902. 


ITEMS. 

Total. 

Private  sta- 
tions. 

Municipal 
stations. 

Number  of  stations. 

3  620 

2  805 

815 

Condensed  statement  —  income  and  expenses  : 
Earnings  from  operation,  total  
Arc  lighting 

$84,186,605 
$25  481  045 

$77,349,749 

$22  091  800 

$6,836,856 
$3  389  245 

Incandescent  lighting  

$44,657,102 

$4l]297|484 

$3  359  618 

All  other  electric  service 

$14  048  458 

$13  960  465 

$87  993 

Income  from  all  other  sources  '  
Gross  income  

$1,514,000 
$85  700  605 

$1,385,751 
$78  735  500 

$128,249 
$6  965  105 

Expenses,  total  

$68  081  375 

$62  835  388 

$5  245  987 

Salaries  and  wages  
Supplies,  materials,  and  fuel  
Rents,  taxes,  insurance,  and  miscellaneous 
Interest  on  bonds  

$20,646,692 
$22,915,932 
$11,895,206 
$12,623,545 

$18,766,970 
$20,493,641 
$11,456,037 
$12  118,740 

$1,879,722 
$2,422,291 
$439,169 
$504  805 

Analysis  of  income. 
Aggregate           .  . 

$85  700  605 

$78  735  500 

$6  965  105 

Arc  lighting,  total  
Commercial  or  other  private  
Public 

$25,481,045 
$8,460,320 
$17  020  725 

$22,091,800 
$8,220,154 
$13  871  646 

$3,389,245 
$240,166 
$3  149  079 

Incandescent  lighting,  total  
Commercial  or  other  private  
Public.  .  . 

$44,657,102 
$41,907,853 
$2  749,249 

$41,297,484 
$39,039,557 
$2,257,927 

$3,359,618 
$2,868,296 
$491  322 

Motor  service 

$9  910  217 

$9  839  677 

$70  540 

Electric  railway  service  
Electric  heating 

$2,304,515 
$39  213 

$2,301,343 
$39  155 

$3,172 

$58 

Charging  automobiles  
All  other  electric  service  
All  other  sources  
Analysis  of  supplies,  materials,  and  fuel  : 
Aggregate  cost 

$30,056 
$1,764,457 
$,1,514,000 

$22  915  932 

$29,959 
$1,750,331 
$1,385,751 

$20  493  641 

$97 
$14,126 
$128,249 

$2  422  291 

Meters  — 
Number  . 

27  632 

25739 

1  893 

Cost 

$416  994 

$390  569 

$26  425 

Motors  — 
Number 

60  9 

572 

30 

Cost  
Transformers  — 
Number  

$30,099 
13  288 

$29,202 
7  843 

$897 
5  445 

Cost      ... 

$365  028 

$326  407 

$38  621 

Incandescent  lamps  — 
Number  

8  839  905 

8  399  571 

440  334 

Cost 

$1  507  249 

$1  426  224 

$81  025 

Incandescent  lamp  fittings,  sockets,  etc.,  cost.  . 
Carbons  for  arc  lamps  — 
Number  . 

$177,236 
94  686  596 

$154,517 
82  156  930 

$22,719 
12  529  666 

Cost  
Globes  for  arc  lamps  — 
Number  

$1,051,386 
485  073 

$900,788 
428  979 

$150,598 
56  094 

Cost              .... 

$170  929 

$150  509 

$20  420 

Arc  lamp  repairs,  cost  
Poles  or  other  supports,  cost  
Wire  and  cable  cost 

$244,537 
$346,587 
$1  152  915 

$212,231 
$319,617 
$1  081  380 

$32,306 
$26,970 
$71  535 

Mill  supplies  (oil,  waste,  etc.),  cost   . 

$712'797 

$617  911 

$94  886 

All  other  materials  cost 

$1  853  544 

$1  747  896 

$105  648 

Power  purchased,  cost  
Freight  paid,  not  included  in  other  items  

379 

$2,130,759 
$1,120,363 

$2,007,193 
$939,512 

$123,566 
$180,851 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


CENTRAL    ELECTRIC    LIGHT    AND    POWER    STATIONS, 
UNITED  STATES,  1902— Continued. 


ITEMS. 

Total. 

Private  sta- 
tions. 

Municipal 
stations. 

Analysis  of  supplies,  materials,  and  fuel  —  Contin'd  . 
Fuel,  cost  

I 
$11  635  509 

$10  189  685 

$1  445  824 

Coal- 
Tons  

4  817  597 

4  249  137 

568  460 

Cost  

$9  943  125 

$8  749*394 

$1  193  731 

Crude  petroleum,  cost.  . 

$721  838 

$700  136 

$21  702 

Natural  gas,  cost  
Manufactured  gas,  cost. 

$254,269 
$28  654 

$220,460 
$20  135 

$33,809 
$8  519 

All  other  fuel,  cost  
Average  number  of  employees,  total  salaries,  wages: 
Salaried  officials  and  clerks  — 
Average  number,  total.  . 

$687,623 
6  996 

$499,560 
6  046 

$188,063 
950 

Salaries,  total  

$5,663,580 

$5  206  199 

$457  381 

General  officers  — 
Average  number  
Salaries.  .  .  . 

1,587 
$1  501  522 

1,416 

$1  465  471 

171 

$36  051 

Other  officers,  managers,  superintend- 
ents, etc.  — 
Average  number  
Salaries  
Clerks- 
Average  number  
Salaries 

2,393 

$2,445,227 

3,016 
$1  716  831 

1,875 

$2,088,298 

2,755 

$1  652  430 

518 
$356,929 

261 
$64  401 

Wage-earners  — 
Average  number,  total.  . 

23  330 

20  863 

2  467 

Wages,  total  

$14,983,112 

$13,560  771 

$1  422  341 

Foremen  — 
Average  number  
Wages  

1,000 
1953  738 

943 

$910  972 

57 

$42  766 

Inspectors  — 
Average  number  
Wages  

571 
$415,904 

546 
$397,983 

25 
$17  921 

Engineers  — 
Average  number  
Wages 

4,587 
$3  259  870 

3,743 

$2  721  127 

844 
$538  743 

Firemen  — 
Average  number  
Wages  
Dynamo  and  switchboard  men  — 
Average  number  

3,456 
$1,963,465 

1  978 

2,951 
$1,717,149 

1  872 

505 
$246,316 

106 

Wages  

$1,351  676 

$1  286  065 

$65  611 

Linemen  — 
Average  number  
Wages  

4,217 
$2  710  841 

3,868 
$2  510  269 

349 
$200  572 

Mechanics  — 
Average  number  
Wages 

1,057 
$796  355 

1,009 
$768  694 

48 
$27  661 

Lamp  trimmers  — 
Average  number 

2  637 

2  318 

319 

Wages  

$1,654  462 

$1,460  046 

$194  416 

All  other  employees  — 
Average  number 

3  827 

3  613 

214 

Wages  
Analysis  of  miscellaneous  expenses: 
Total  

$1,876,801 
$11  895  206 

$1,788,466 
$11  456  037 

$88,335 
$439  169 

Rent  of  stations,  supports,  conduits,  etc  .  . 
Rent  of  offices  
Taxes  
Injuries  and  damages  
Insurance. 

$1,011,691 
$275,007 
$2,665,005 
$248,304 
$893  567 

$1,001,504 
$270,446 
$2,654,885 
$246,545 
$827  926 

$10,187 
$4,561 
$10,120 
$1,759 
$65  641 

Ordinary  repairs  of  buildings  and  mach'y  .  . 
All  other 

$2,701,747 

$4  099  885 

$2,480,217 
$3  974  514 

$221,530 
$125  371 

Electric  line  construction: 
Aggregate  miles  — 
Mains.  .    .             

107,263  63 

93  352  95 

13  910  68 

Feeders 

17  880  51 

16  452  28 

1  428  23 

Lighting  and  stationary  motor  service, 
miles  — 
Mains,  total  
Feeders,  total  

107,184.13 
17,760.26 

93,273.45 
16,332.03 

13,910.68 
1,428.23 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


381 


CENTRAL    ELECTRIC    LIGHT    AND    POWER    STATIONS, 
UNITED  STATES,   1902— Continued. 


ITEMS. 

Total. 

Private  sta- 
tions. 

Municipal 
stations. 

Electric  line  construction  —  Continued  : 
U  nderground  — 

5  847.71 

5,408.55 

439  16 

Feeders  

2,276.55 

2,262.02 

14.53 

Overhead- 
Mains  

101,304.26 

87,833.63 

13,470  63 

Feeders 

15  472  34 

14  061  50 

1  410  84 

Submarine  — 
Mains 

32  16 

31  27 

0  89 

Feeders  
Electric  railway  car  service  owned  by 
lighting  companies,  miles  — 
Mains 

11.37 
79  50 

8.51 
79  50 

2.86 

Feeders  

120.25 

120.25 

Power  and  generating  equipment  : 
Steam  engines  —  Number,  total                   

5,930 

4,870 

1,060 

Horsepower  total 

1,379  941 

1,232  923 

147  018 

500  horsepower  and  under  — 
Number  

5,451 

4,407 

1,044 

Horsepower                           

849,336 

715,418 

133,918 

Over  500  and  under  1,000  horsepower 
Number  .              

278 

266 

12 

193  570 

184  670 

8  900 

1,000  horsepower  and  over  — 
Number 

201 

197 

4 

Horsepower  

337,035 

332,835 

4,200 

Water  wheels  — 
Number,  total  

1,390 

1,308 

82 

Horsepower  total                                          .  . 

438,472 

427,254 

11,218 

500  horsepower  and  under  — 
Number  .                                       .  . 

1,187 

1,107 

80 

Horsepower  

173,903 

164,325 

9,578 

Over  500  and  under  1,000  horsepower 
Number 

90 

89 

1 

Horsepower  
1,000  horsepower  and  over  — 
Number  

57,816 
113 

57,176 
112 

640 
1 

Horsepower  .  .  . 

206  753 

205  753 

1,000 

Gas  engines  — 
Number.  .                                         .... 

165 

147 

18 

12  181 

11  224 

957 

Auxiliary  steam  engines  —  - 
Number 

365 

329 

36 

Horsepower  
Dynamos  — 
Number,  total  

14,454 
12,484 

13,619 
10,662 

835 
1,822 

Horsepower  total 

1,624  980 

1,472,996 

151,984 

Direct  current,  constant  voltage  — 
Number.  . 

3  823 

3,405 

418 

Horsepower  
Direct  current>  constant  amperage  — 
Number  

442,446 
3,539 

418,913 
2,957 

23,533 
582 

Horsepower  
Alternating  and  polyphase  current  — 
Number  

195,531 
5,122 

157,768 
4,300 

37,763 
822 

Horsepower      .            ... 

987,003 

896,315 

90,688 

Boosters  — 
Number                              .        .    . 

193 

184 

9 

17  911 

17  735 

176 

Rotaries  — 

132 

131 

1 

Horsepower  
Storage  battery  cells  in  main  plants  — 

63,817 
6  881 

63,683 
5  981 

134 
900 

Horsepower  

16,355 

16.335 

20 

Substation  plants: 

552  950 

551  467 

1  483 

Storage  battery  cells  — 
Number 

8  388 

8,388 

Horsepower  

25,284 

25,284 



SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


CENTRAL    ELECTRIC    LIGHT    AND    POWER    STATIONS, 
UNITED  STATES,  1902— Continued. 


ITEMS. 

Total. 

Private  sta- 
tions. 

Municipal 
stations. 

Substation  plants  —  Continued: 
Transformers  — 
Number  

2  525 

0  4Qf) 

Horsepower  

420  667 

419  368 

1  9QQ 

Rotary  converters  — 
Number  

163 

162 

1 

Horsepower  .  

85  556 

QC    K.A(\ 

in 

Miscellaneous  — 
Number  

140 

1  OC 

Horsepower  .  . 

21  443 

21   9fiQ 

Transformers  on  circuits  for  consumers: 
Number  

207  151 

1  7Q  081 

Horsepower  

922  774 

822  668 

i  on  i  OR 

Meters  on  consumers'  circuits,  total. 

582  689 

526  01  1 

cc  «78 

Mechanical  

575  004 

518  428 

56  576 

Chemical  

7  685 

7  583 

*102 

Output  of  stations: 
Kilowatt  hours  — 
Total  for  year  

2  507  051  115 

2  311  146  676 

195  904  439 

Average  per  day  

6  960  783 

6  413  012 

^47  771 

Horsepower  hours  of  current  — 
Total  for  year  

3  341  943  090 

3  083  212  074 

258  731  016 

Average  per  day  

9  294  456 

8  566  231 

'728*925 

Analysis  of  service  : 
Arc  lighting  —  number  of  lamps  in  service  — 
Aggregate  

385  698 

334  903 

50  795 

Commercial  or  other  private,  total  .  .  . 
Open  

173,973 
42  988 

168,180 
41  622 

5*793 
1  366 

Inclosed. 

130  985 

126  558 

4*427 

Direct  current  .  .  . 

104*176 

101  849 

2*327 

Open 

38  120 

36  856 

1  264 

Inclosed  
Alternating  current 

66,056 
67  538 

64,993 
64  085 

1*063 
Q  453 

Open  
Inclosed. 

3,733 
63  805 

3,631 
60  454 

102 
3  351 

All  other  
Open.  . 

2,259 
1  135 

2,246 
1  135 

'  13 

Inclosed  

1  124 

1  111 

13 

Public,  total  

211  725 

166  723 

45  002 

Open  

138  684 

108  082 

30*602 

Inclosed 

73  041 

58  641 

14  400 

Direct  current 

154  749 

119  520 

35*229 

Open  
Inclosed.    . 

125,298 
29  451 

96,659 
22  861 

28*639 
6  590 

Alternating  current 

48  063 

38  316 

9*747 

Open  

4  630 

2  681 

1*949 

Inclosed. 

43,433 

35  635 

7*798 

All  other  

8  913 

8  887 

26 

Open.  . 

8  756 

8  742 

14 

Inclosed  
Incandescent  lighting  —  lamps  in  service  — 
Aggregate  

157 
18  194  044 

145 
16  616  593 

12 

1  577  451 

Commercial  or  other  private,  total.  . 
16-candlepower.  .  . 

17,738,384 
15  261  067 

16,243,853 
13  890  281 

1,494,531 
1  370  786 

32-candlepower  
All  other  candlepower  
Public,  total  
16-candlepower.  .  . 

514,679 
1,962,638 
455,660 
296  776 

484,246 
1,869,326 
372,740 
235  842 

'  30*433 
93,312 
82,920 
60  934 

32-candlepower  

59,988 

47  063 

12*925 

All  other  candlepower  

98  896 

89  835 

9061 

Motors  in  service  — 
Stationary  — 
Number 

101  064 

qq  ino 

1  962 

Horsepower                                    

624  686 

619  283 

5*403 

Railway  car  number  of  cars  served  . 

2  379 

2  370 

°»*    g 

Character  of  ownership: 
When  installed— 
Individual 

1  041 

Qfi4 

77 

Corporation  

1  921 

1  828 

93 

Municipal.  . 

658 

fa 

fi45 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


CENTRAL    ELECTRIC    LIGHT    AND    POWER    STATIONS, 
UNITED  STATES,  1902— Continued. 


ITEMS. 

Total. 

Private  sta- 
tions. 

Municipal 
stations. 

Character  of  ownership  —  Continued: 
In  1902— 
Individual  . 

756 

756 

Corporation  

2,049 

2,049 

Municipal  

815 

815 

Character  of  service  : 
Arc  lighting  — 
Commercial  or  other  private  

2,020 

1,667 

353 

Public                   

2,522 

1,810 

712 

Incandescent  lighting  — 
Commercial  or  other  private.  .  . 

3,484 

2,752 

732 

Public 

2491 

1  889 

602 

Motor  power  — 

1  093 

975 

118 

Electric  railway  
All  other 

159 
161 

157 
152 

2 

9 

Stocks  and  bonds  issued,  total  par  value  
Capital  stock  : 
Authorized,  total  

$639,125,363 
$435,178,372 

$627,515,875 
$435,178,372 

$11,609,488 

Issued  total 

$372  951  952 

$372,951  952 

$6  189  837 

$6  189  837 

Common  — 
Authorized  

$407  807  934 

$407,807  934 

Issued  

$349  080  281 

$349  080  281 

$5  560  341 

$5  560  341 

Preferred  — 
Authorized. 

$27  370  438 

$27  370  438 

Issued  

$23  871  671 

$23  871  671 

Dividends    . 

$629  496 

$629  496 

Bonds: 
Authorized.     .    .    . 

$320  743  376 

$308  117  894 

$12  625  482 

Outstanding  

$266  173  411 

$254'  563  *923 

$11,609488 

Interest  

$12  623  545 

$12  118  740 

$504  805 

Cost  of  construction  and  equipment  : 
To  date.  

$504  740  352 

$482  719  879 

$22  020  473 

During  the  year  

$41,792,447 

$40,050,613 

$1,741,834 

COMPARATIVE     VELOCITIES, 

PER  SECOND. 

Snail  (0.0394  inch),   1  millimeter. 
Pedestrian  (39.37  inches)  1  meter  =  1.09  ya. 
Horse,  walking,    1.2  meters  =1.31  yards. 
Pedestrian,  quick  walk,  2  meters  =  2. 19  ya. 
Horse,  trotting,  3.5  meters  =  3.82  yards. 
Mild   wind,   4  meters  =  4.37  yards. 
Horse,   galloping,    4.5   meters  =  4.91   yards. 
Steamer,   ordinary,    5  meters  =  5.47  yards. 
Sail-boat,  8  meters    =8.75  yards. 
Ocean  steamer,    10  meters  =  10.93  yards. 
Skater,  12  meters  =  13.08  yards. 
Freight  train,  12  meters  =  13.08  yards. 
Gale,  17  meters  =  18.53  yards. 
Passenger  train,    18  meters  =  19.62  yards. 
Carrier  pigeon,  18  meters  =  19. 62  yards. 
Bicycle,  racing,  20  meters  =  21. 87  yards. 
Race  horse,  25  meters  =  27.05  yards. 
Express  train,  26  meters  =  28. 14  yards. 
Swallow,  45  meters  =  49.05  yards. 
Sound,  330  meters  =  360. 70  yards. 
Rifle-ball     (breech-loader),     430    meters  = 

468.70  yards. 

Cannon  ball,  450  meters  =  490.50  yards. 
Axial  revolution  of  the  earth  at  equator, 

450  meters  =  490.50  yards. 
Revolutions  of  the  earth  around  the  sun, 

30  kilometers  =  18.64  miles. 
Light,  300,000  kilometers  =  186,400  miles. 
Electricity,  400,000  kilometers  =  248,500  mi. 


— Census  Reports. 

TABLE  OF  ELEVATIONS   OF  OBJECTS 

ABOVE  SEA  LEVEL,  WITH  THEIR 

CORRESPONDING    DISTANCES 

OF     VISIBILITY. 


Height, 
in  Feet. 

Distance, 
in  Nauti- 
cal Miles. 

Height, 
in  Feet. 

Distance, 
in  Nauti- 
cal Miles. 

5 
10 
15 
20 
25 

2.555 
3.614 
4.426 
5.111 
5.714 

50 
100 
250 
500 
1,000 

8.081 
11.428 
18.070 
25  .  555 
36.140 

Distances  corresponding  to  heights  not  in- 
cluded in  the  above_table  may  be  found  by 
the  formula  D  =  ?V//J,  in  which  tf  =  the  ele- 
vation, or  height,  in  feet,  of  the  object  above 
sea-level,  and  Z)  =  the  corresponding  distance 
of  visibility,  in  nautical  miles.  The  formula 
is  based  on  the  mean  curvature  of  the  earth 
and  is  corrected  for  ordinary  atmospheric 
refraction. 

The  distance  of  visibility  of  a  light  may  be 
augmented  by  abnormal  atmospheric  re- 
fraction, which  usually  increases  with  the 
height  of  the  barometer  and  a  falling  tem- 
perature. 


384 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


HOW  TO  READ 

The  dial  marked  "1  THOUSAND"  in 
the  accompanying  illustration  is  divi- 
ded into  hundreds ;  the  dial  marked 
"10  THOUSAND"  is  divided  into  thou- 
sands; that  marked  "100  THOUSAND" 
into  ten-thousands,  and  that  marked 
"1  MILLION"  into  hundred-thousands. 
When  1,000  cubic  feet  of  gas  have  been 
consumed,  the  pointer  on  the  dial 
marked  "1  THOUSAND"  will  have  made 
a  complete  rotation  and  the  fact  will 
be  indicated  by  the  pointer  of  the  next 
dial  at  the  left,  which  will  point  to  the 
figure  1.  When  10,000  cubic  feet 
of  gas  have  been  consumed,  the  point- 
er on  the  "10  THOUSAND"  dial  will 
point  to  1,  and  so  on.  In  reading  a 
gas  meter,  put  down  the  hundreds  first, 
then  the  thousands,  and  so  on,  always 
counting  the  figure  just  under,  or 


A  GAS  METER. 

which  has  just  been  passed  by,  the 
pointer.  In  the  illustration  about  half 
a  hundred  is  indicated  on  the  "1 
THOUSAND"  dial,  three  thousands  is 
indicated  on  the  next  dial,  two  ten- 
thousands  on  the  next  dial,  and  one 
one-hundred-thousands  on  the  "1  MIL- 
LION" dial.  The  reading  will  be  123,- 
050.  The  dial  marked  "TEN  FEET"  is 
called  the  units  dial.  It  is  used  for 
testing  the  meter  to  discover  whether  it 
is  in  working  order  or  not.  Each  mark 
represents  a  cubic  foot  and  the  com- 
plete circle  10  cubic  feet.  If  the 
pointer  moves  when  no  gas  is  burning, 
it  indicates  a  leak.  If  it  does  not 
move  when  the  gas  is  burning,  or  if  its 
motion  is  unsteady,  it  indicates  a  de- 
rangement in  the  mechanism  and  shows 
that  the  meter  requires  attention. 


CUBIC 


GAS   METER    INDICATOR  DIALS. 


PAPER  CURRENCY  OF  EACH  DENOMINATION  OUTSTANDING  MAY  31,  1904. 
[Prepared  by  Treasurer's  Office.] 


Denomination. 

United 
States 
Notes. 

Treasury 
Notes  of 
1890. 

National- 
bank 
Notes. 

Gold  Cer- 
tificates. 

Silver  Cer- 
tificates. 

Total. 

One  dollar  

Dollars 
1,923,494 

Dollars. 
636,992 

Dollars. 
345,145 

Dollars. 

Dollars. 

79,851,727 

Dollars. 
82,757  358 

Two  dollars  

1,472,334 

486,068 

165,282 

45,045,050 

47  168  734 

Five  dollars  

12,278,660 

3,189,330 

62,602,840 

281,708,442 

359,779  272 

Ten  dollars  

243,517,011 

5,679,520 

188,067,250 

39,648,331 

476  912  112 

Twenty  dollars  
Fifty  dollars  

36,775,242 
5,906,875 

2,488,590 
47,500 

140,632,200 
17,427,600 

172,387,164 
34,727,905 

18,658,620 
5,095,810 

370,941,816 
63,205  690 

One  hundred  dollars 
Five  hundred  dollars 
One  thousand  dollars 
Fivethousand  dollars 

11,200,900 
9,748,500 
24,838,000 
10,000 

510,000 
435,000' 

36,591,500 
95,500 
24,000 

51,145,300 
14,236,000 
56,908,500 
49,590,000 

1,493,020 
50,000 
111,000 

100,940,720 
24,130,000 
82,316,500 
49,600,000 

Ten  thousand  dollars 

10,000 

110  980,000 

110,990  000 

Fractional  parts  .... 

37,248 

37,248 

Total  
Unknown,  destroyed 

347,681,016 
1,000,000 

13,473,000 

445,988,565 

489,974,869 

471,662,000 

1,768,779,450 
1,000,000 

Net....'  

346,681,016 

13,473,000 

445,988,565 

489,974,869 

471,662,000 

1,767,779,450 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


385 


AMOUNTS  OF   GOLD  AND   SILVER   COIN   AND  CERTIFICATES,  UNITED  STATES 

NOTES,  AND  NATIONAL  BANK  NOTES  IN  CIRCULATION  AND  IN  THE 

TREASURY  MAY  1  AND  JUNE  1,   1904,  RESPECTIVELY. 

[NOTE.— Population  of  the  United  States,  June  1,  1904,  estimated  at  81,752,000;  circula- 
tion per  capita,  $30.69.] 


Classification. 

General  Stock 
of  Money  in  the 
United  States, 
June  1,  1904. 

Held  in  Treas- 
ury as  Assets 
of  Gov't.,1 
June  1,  1904. 

Money  in 
Circulation, 
June  1,  1904. 

Gold  coin  (including  bullion  in  Treasury)..  .  . 
Gold  certificates  2 

Dollars. 
1,313,120,868 

Dollars. 
217,592,391 

Dollars. 
644,894,548 
450,633,929 

Standard  silver  dollars  
Silver  certificates  2 

559,422,410 

22,659,857 

72,605,727 
464,156,826 

Subsidiary  silver  
Treasury  note"  of  1890      .  . 

106,614,930 
13,473,000 

12,035,831 
98,576 

94,579,099 
13,374,424 

United  States  notes  
Currency  certificates,  act  of  June  8,  1872  2  .  .  . 

346,681,016 

9,376,636 

337,304,380 

National-bank  notes  

445,988,565 

14,257,581 

431,730,984 

Total  

2,785,300,789 

276,020,872 

2,509,279,917 

1  This  statement  of  money  held  in  the  Treasury  as  assets  of  the  Government  does  not  in- 
clude deposits  of  public  money  in  national-bank  depositaries  to  the  credit  of  the  Treasurer 
of  the  United  States,  and  amounting  to  $106,849,757.45. 

2  For  redemption  of  outstanding  certificates  an  exact  equivalent  in  amount  of  the  appro- 
priate kinds  of  money  is  held  in  the  Treasury,  and  is  not  included  in  the  account  of  money 
held  as  assets  of  the  Government. 


PUBLIC  DEBT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Classification. 

May  31,  1904. 

Interest-bearing  debt.  .  . 

Dollars. 
895,157,430  00 

Debt  on  which  interest  has  ceased  since  maturity  

2,109,950.26 

Debt  bearing  no  interest  

391,321,769.38 

Aggregate  of  interest  and  non-interest  bearing  debt  
Certificates  and  Treasury  notes  offset  by  an  equal  amount  of  cash  in  the 

1.288,589,149.64 
975  109  869  00 

Aggregate  of  debt,  including  certificates  and  Treasury  notes  

2,263,699,018.64 

GOLD    BARS,    VALUE    $100    TO    $8,000    EACH. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


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388 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


WORLD'S    PRODUCTION    OF    GOLD    AND    SILVER    FOR    THE    CALENDAR 

YEAR  1902. 
Fine  oz.  of  gold,  $20.671834  -f;  fine  oz.  silver,  $1.292929+,  coining  rate  in  U.  S.  silver  dollars. 


Country 

G 

old. 

! 
1 

Silver. 

Ounces 

(fine). 

Value. 

Ounces 

(fine). 

Coining 
Value. 

Commercial 
Value. 

North  America: 
United  States 

3  870  000 

$80  000  000 

CK  K.f)()  ooo 

Mexico.  .  . 

491  156 

10  153  100 

60  176  604 

Canada  
Africa  

1,003,355 
1  887  773 

20,741,200 
39  023  700 

4,303,774 

5,564,500 

2,281,000 

Australasia  
Europe  : 
Russia  
Austria-Hungary  
Germany  
Norway  
Sweden   . 

3,946,374 

1,090,053 
105,037 
3,023 
97 
3  023 

81,578,800 

22,533,400 
2  171,300 
62,500 
2,000 
62  500 

8,026,037 

158,679 
1,881,132 
5,722,641 
206,413 
4fi  99fi 

'lO,377,lb6' 

205,200 
2,432,200 
7,399,000 
266,900 

'4,253,806 

84,100 
997,000 
3,033,000 
109,400 

Italy.  .  .  . 

257 

5  300 

964  339 

1  94fi  £00 

C1  1      1  A  A 

Spain 

494 

10  200 

q  yon  ion 

Portugal.  . 

63 

1  300 

3  773 

4  QOO 

0   AAA 

Greece  

1  090  188 

1  409  500 

577  800 

Turkey.  .  .  . 

1  480 

30  600 

480  566 

fi91  ^00 

0X4    yAA 

Finland  
France.  .  . 

63 

1,300 

8,679 
384  339 

11,200 
496  900 

4,600 
°03  700 

Great  Britain  
South  America: 
Argentina.  .  .  . 
Bolivia  

5,626 

1,451 

228 

116,300 

30,000 
4  700 

173,208 

37,720 
12  992  641 

223,900 

48,800 
1  6  7QS  fiOO 

91,800 

20,000 
6  886  100 

Chile  
Colombia  

27,825 
122,031 

575,200 
2,522,600 

3,566,792 
1  776  604 

4,611,600 
2  297  000 

1,890,400 
941  600 

Ecuador.  .  .  . 

9  675 

200  000 

7  736 

10  oon 

4  1  00 

Brazil  

96,488 

1,994,600 

Venezuela  
Guiana  (British)  

20,985 
87,491 

433,800 
1,808,600 

1,887 

2,400 

1,000 

Guiana  (Dutch)  
Guiana  (French)  
Peru  
Uruguay.  . 

15,577 
117,077 
112,525 
2  796 

322,000 
2,420,200 
2,326,100 
57  800 

"'4,264,528' 
755 

's'.sisjbo' 

1  000 

'2,260,266 

400 

Central  America.  .  .  . 
Asia: 
Japan  
China  

96,842 

62,259 
422,401 

2,001,900 

1,287,000 
8,731,800 

971,320 
390,567 

1,255,800 
505,000 

514,800 
207,000 

Korea.  

169,313 

3,500,000 

India  (British)  ! 

463,824 

9,588,100 

East  Indies  (British) 

49,686 

1,027,100 

East  Indies  (Dutch)  ! 

27,312 

564,600 

118,302 

152,900 

62,700 

Total  

14,313,660 

295,889,600   1 

166,955,639 

215,861,800 

88,486,500 

'GOLD    BRICKS,"     SPURIOUS     IMITATIONS, 
UNWARY. 


SOLD     TO    THE 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


COMPARATIVE   VALUES   OF   ENGLISH 
AND  UNITED  STATES  MONEY. 


0.02 

0.04 

0.06 

0.08 

0.10 

0.12 

0.14 

0.16 

0.18    I  9 

0.20    |10 

0.22    111 


0.24 
0.49 
0.73 
0.97 


1.22 
1.46 
1.71 
1.95 
2.19 
2.44 
2.68 


2.92 
3.17 
3.41 
3.65 
3.90 
4.14 
4.38 
4.63 


4.87 
9.74 
14.61 
19.48 
24.35 
29.22 
34.09 
38.96 
43.83 
48.87 


HEIGHT  OF  BUILDINGS. 

Total  height 
Building.  from 

sidewalk,  ft. 

Park  Row  Building,  New  York . 
American  Surety  Bldg.,  N.  Y.. 
St.  Paul  Building,  New  York. .  . 

Manhattan  Life  Bldg.,  N.  Y 

Bowling  Green  Bldg.,  N.  Y 

Pulitzer  (World)  Bldg.,  N.  Y. .  . 
Broad-Exchange  Bldg.,  N.  Y.  . 
Wall  St.  Exchange  Bldg.,  N.  Y. 


42  Broadway  Bldg.,  New  York.  . 
Whitehall  Bldg.,  New  York 


386 
312 
313 
348 
224 
309 
280 
341 
260 
257 


DIMENSIONS  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL 
DOMES. 

Diana.  Height, 
ft.  ft. 

Pantheon,  Rome 142         143 

Cathedral,  Florence 139         310 

St.  Peter's,  Rome 139         330 

Capitol,  Washington,  D.  C.  .  .      135J-       287£ 
St.  Sophia,  Constantinople.  .  .      115         201 
Baths  of  Caracalla,  (Ancient) 

Rome 112         116 

St.  Paul's,  London 112         215 

TUNNELS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

Miles.  Under. 

New  York  Subway  (1904)*  23          City. 

London  Metropolitan 13          City. 

Simplon,  Switzerland 12     Mountain. 

St.  Gothard 9     Mountain. 

Paris  Underground    (incom- 
plete)   

Mount  Cenis,  Switzerland.  .  . 

B.  &  O.  Tunnel,  Baltimore  .  .  7 

Arlberg,  Austria 6 

"Tube"  London 6 

Hoosac  Tunnel,  Mass 4i 

Berlin,  Underground 4^ 

Liverpool-Birkenhead 4^ 


8$        City. 
7\  Mountain. 

City. 
Mountain. 

City. 
Mountain. 

City. 

City  and 

Mersey 

River. 

City. 


Boston,  Mass.,  Subway 

*  Other  subways,  tunnels,  and  spurs  are 
progress. 


STRIKING    THE    IMPRESSION    ON    A    GOLD    PIECE    AT    THE    MINT. 


390 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


HEIGHT  OF  COLUMNS,  SPIRES  AND 

TOWERS.  Feet. 

Eiffel  Tower,  Paris 1,000 

Washington  Monument,  Washington, D.C.     555 

Pyramid  of  Cheops 520 

St.  Peter's,  Rome 518 

Cologne  Cathedral.  . 501 

Strasburg 486 

Cathedral,  Antwerp 476 

St.  Stephen's,  Vienna, 465 

Cathedral,  Salisbury 450 

Milan  Cathedral 360 

Cathedral,  Cremona 397 

St.  Peter's,  Rome 391 

Cathedral,  Florence 352 

St.  Paul's,  London 366 

Hotel  des  Invalides,  Paris 344 

Bunker  Hill  Monum't,Charlestown,Mass.  221 

Leaning  Tower  of  Pisa 179 

Alexander  Column,  St.  Petersburg 175 

LENGTH  OF  A 
Name. 

Firth  of  Tay,  Scotland 

Forth,  Scotland 


THE  WEIGHT  OF  BELLS. 


East  River,  New  York. '. '. 

Brooklyn,  New  York 

Manhattan,  New  York.  .  .  . 

Blackwell's  Island,  New  York 

Washington  Bridge,  New  York.  .  .  . 

High  Bridge,  New  York '. 

Niagara,  below  Falls,  New  York 

Niagara 

Freiburg,  Germany 

Clifton,  England 

Buda-Pest,  Hungary 


Pounds 

Kremlin,  Moscow 432,000 

Amarapoora,  Burmah 260.000 

Pekin 130,000 

St.  Ivan's,  Moscow ,  127,800 

Novgorod 62,000 

Sacred  Heart,  Paris 55, 1 16 

Sens 43,000 

Vienna 40  200 

Olmutz,  Bohemia 40,000 

Rouen 40.000 

Erfurt 30,800 

Westminster,  "Big  Ben" 30,300 

Houses  of  Parliament,  London 30,000 

Notre  Dame,  Paris 28,600 

Montreal 28,500 

Cologne 25,000 

City  Hall,  N.  Y 22,500 

FEW  CELEBRATED  BRIDGES. 
Length  ft.  Type. 

•Girder. 

Cantilever. 

Suspension. 

Suspension. 

Suspension. 

Cantilever. 

Composite. 
Stone. 

Suspension.  Niagara 

Cantilever.    Niagara 

Suspension. 

Suspension.  Avon. 

Suspension.          Danube. 


10,779 
8,296 
200 
5,989 
9,900 
7,450 
2,300 
1,460 
1,040 
910 
880 
702 
666 


Spanning. 

Firth  of  Tay. 

Firth  of  Forth. 

East  River. 

East  River. 

East  River. 

East  River. 

Harlem  River. 

Harlem  River. 

River. 

River. 


$50,000    IN     GOLD    BARS    AT    THE    U.    S.    MINT    IN    PHILADELPHIA. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


391 


BALLOONS. 


In  aerostation,  a  bag  or  hollow  pear- 
shaped  vessel,  made  of  varnished  silk 
or  other  light  material,  and  inflated 
with  some  gas  or  vapor  lighter  than 
the  air,  as  hydrogen,  carbureted  hy- 
drogen, heated  air,  etc.,  so  as  to  rise 
find  float  in  the  atmosphere.  When 
filled  with  gas  it  is  called  by  way  of 
distinction  an  AIR-BALLOON  (aerostat, 
etc.,  Fr. ;  luftball,  luft-schiff,  etc., 
Ger.)  ;  when  with  heated  air  a  FIRE- 
BALLOON  or  MONTGOLFIER  B.  (balloon 
a  feu,  etc.,  Fr. ) . 

In  the  early  days  of  aerostation,  and 
indeed  for  some  years  afterwards,  bal- 
loons were  inflated  with  hydrogen  gas, 
obtained  by  the  action  of  sulphuric 
acid  and  water  on  iron  filings  or  small 
fragments  of  iron  ;  but  this  method  of 
filling  them  ultimately  gave  place  to 
the  cheaper  and  more  convenient  sup- 
ply afforded  by  the  gas-light  compa- 
nies. Of  late  years,  the  coal-gas  fur- 
nished by  the  gas-works  has  been  gen- 
erally, if  not  solely,  used  for  the  infla- 
tion of  balloons. 

The  principles  of  ballooning  may  be 
referred  to  the  well-known  difference 
in  the  specific  gravity  of  bodies,  and  to 
the  physical  properties  of  the  atmos- 
phere. Pure  hydrogen,  weighed  at  the 
bottom  of  the  sea,  is  about  16  times 
lighter  than  common  air ;  but  when 
prepared  on  the  large  scale,  and  con- 
taining water  and  other  impurities,  it 
is  only  from  7  to  11  times  lighter  than 
the  atmosphere.  A  globe  of  atmos- 
pheric air  1  foot  in  diameter,  under 
like  circumstances,  weighs  1-25  Ib. ;  a 
similar  globe  of  hydrogen  (reckoning 
it  only  as  6  times  lighter  than  common 
air),  will,  therefore,  have  an  ascen- 
sional force  of  1-30  Ib.  Now  the 
weight  of  the  body  of  air  which  a  bal- 
loon displaces  must  exceed  the  gross 
weight  of  the  balloon  and  all  its  ap- 
pendages, in  order  for  the  latter  to 
ascend  in  the  atmosphere.  The  dif- 
ference of  the  two  weights  expresses 
the  ascensional  force.  The  aerostatic 
power  of  balloons  is  proportional  to 
their  dimensions,  in  the  ratio  of  the 
cubes  of  their  diameters.  Thus,  it  ap- 
pears that  a  balloon  of  60  feet  diame- 
ter filled  with  common  hydrogen  will 
ascend  with  a  weight  of  nearly  7,000 
Ibs.,  besides  the  gas  case ;  whilst  one 
of  only  l1/^  feet  in  diameter  will 
barely  float,  owing  to  the  less  propor- 
tionate volume  of  gas  to  the  weight  of 
the  case  containing  it.  In  round  num- 
bers the  buoyancy  of  a  balloon  may  be 


reckoned  as  equal  to  1  oz.  for  every 
cubic  foot  of  hydrogen  it  contains,  less 
the  weight  of  the  case  and  appen- 
dages. The  carbureted  hydrogen  sup- 
plied by  the  gas-works  is  much  heavier 
than  hydrogen  gas,  and  consequently 
much  less  buoyant,  for  which  due  al- 
lowance must  be  made.  That  which 
possesses  the  least  illuminating  power- 
is  the  lightest,  and  consequently  the 
best  adapted  for  aerostation. 

The  fabric  of  which  the  cases  of 
air-balloons  are  made  is  strong  thin 
silk,  covered  with  an  elastic  varnish 
of  drying  oil  or  india-rubber,  or,  what 
is  better,  a  solution  of  india-rubber  in 
either  chloroform  or  bisulphide  of  car- 
bon :  the  netting  is  of  strong  light  silk 
or  flaxen  cord  ;  and  the  car,  of  basket- 
work.  Fire-balloons,  on  the  small 
scale,  are  generally  made  of  silver- 
paper,  and  are  inflated  with  the  fumes 
of  burning  alcohol  by  means  of 
a  sponge  dipped  in  that  liquid,  and 
suspended  just  within  the  mouth  of  the 
apparatus. 

The  following  table  will  prove  use- 
ful to  the  amateur  aeronaut  or  bal- 
loonist : 

TABLE     SHOWING     THE     RELATIONS 
BETWEEN    THE    DIAMETERS, 
SURFACES,  AND  CAPACI- 
TIES OF  SPHERES. 


Diameters. 

Surfaces. 

Cubical  content 

1 

3.141 

.523 

2 

12.567 

4.188 

3 

28.274 

14.137 

4 

50.265 

33.51 

5 

78.54 

65.45 

10 

314.159 

523.6 

15 

706.9 

1767.1 

20 

1256.6 

4189 

25 

1963.5 

8181 

30 

2827 

14137 

40 

5026 

33510 

Owing  to  the  increasing  rarity  of 
the  atmosphere  as  we  ascend  from  the 
earth's  surface,  balloon  cases  are  made 
very  much  larger  than  is  required  to 
contain  the  necessary  quantity  of  gas, 
to  allow  for  its  expansion  as  it  rises 
into  a  rarer  medium.  A  cubical  foot  of 
gas  measured  at  the  level  of  the  sea, 
occupies  a  space  of  two  feet  at  an  ele- 
vation of  %l/2  miles. — Cooley's  Cyclo- 
pedia. 


392 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


AERIAL    NAVIGATION. 


No  motive  power  machine  suffi- 
ciently light  and  powerful  to  lift  itself 
from  the  ground  and  maintain  itself  in 
the  air  for  any  considerable  time  has 
yet  been  invented.  Aerial  navigation 
is  therefore  at  present  limited  to  the 
use  of  balloons  filled  with  light  gas  or 
hot  air.  Common  coal  gas  is  found  to 
be  the  cheapest  and  most  generally 
available  gas  for  ballooning.  1,000 
cubic  feet  of  coal  gas  will  lift  35 
pounds  weight.  But  hydrogen  is  the 
best  gas  for  the  purpose.  1,000  cubic 
feet  of  hydrogen  gas  will  lift  from  60 
to  70  pounds.  It  is  the  lightest  of  all 
substances.  It  is  fifteen  times  lighter 
than  air,  and  over  eleven  thousand 


times  lighter  than  water.  One  of  the 
cheapest  ways  to  make  hydrogen  for 
bp.lloons  is  to  dissolve  zinc  in  sulphuric 
acid ;  the  latter  is  composed  of  sul- 
phur and  hydrogen.  When  the  acid 
is  poured  on  zinc,  the  sulphur  unites 
with  the  metal  and  sets  free  the  hy- 
drogen, which  bubbles  up,  and  is  con- 
ducted in  a  pipe  to  the  balloon.  Vari- 
i  ous  efforts  to  propel  and  steer  balloons 
have  been  made,  by  means  of  pro- 
pellers turned  by  hand ;  also  by  the 
use  of  the  electrical  storage  battery- 
Balloons  are  generally  made  of  cotton 
cloth  or  silk,  varnished  with  linseed 
oil,  and  dissolved  rubber  is  sometimes 
mixed  with  the  oil. 


HOW    TO    HARNESS    A    HORSE. 


Every  one  should  know  how  to  har- 
ness a  horse,  and  our  second  engraving 
shows  the  harness  placed  on  a  horse 
with  the  buckles  unfastened  and  an 
English  collar.  The  first  engraving 
shows  the  harness  fastened  to  the  shaft 
and  a  Dutch  collar  in  place  of  the  Eng- 
lish collar.  If  a  Dutch  collar  is  used, 
slip  this  over  the  horse's  head,  then 


put  on  the  rest  of  the  harness.  If  an 
English  collar  is  used,  reverse  the  col- 
lar so  that  the  wide  part  will  be  up- 
permost, and  force  it  over  the  horse's 
head,  slipping  it  over  the  ears,  then  at 
the  narrow  part  of  the  horse's  neck 
turn  the  collar  around  so  that  the  nar- 
row part  will  be  uppermost  and  slip 
it  back  on  to  the  horse's  shoulders. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


393 


If  the  hames  are  too  tight  to  allow  the 
collar  to  slip  over  the  ears,  unfasten 
the  hames,  and  after  the  collar  is  on, 
buckle  them  once  more  in  front.  Next, 
put  on  the  saddle  and  breeching,  slip- 
ping the  crupper  over  the  horse's 
tail  by  doubling  the  hair  of  the  tail 
with  the  right  hand  and  slipping  the 
crupper  over  the  bunch  thus  formed, 
drawing  out  the  hair  completely 
through  the  crupper.  Fasten  the  in- 
ner belly  band,  first  passing  it  through 
the  loop  of  the  collar  strap  No.  15  or 
the  martingale,  and  then  pushing  the 
saddle  forward  as  far  as  the  crupper 
will  allow  it  to  go. 

The  time  has  now  arrived  to  bridle 
the  horse.  The  halter  being  removed, 
the  horse's  head  is  taken  by  the  fore- 
lock with  three  fingers  of  the  right 


hand,  leaving  the  forefinger  and  thumb 
free,  and  holding  the  bridle  in  the  left 
hand.  Pass  the  head  piece  of  the 
bridle  to  the  thumb  and  forefinger  of 
the  right  hand  and  slip  the  bit  into  the 
horse's  mouth  with  the  left  hand, 
which  is  then  raised  to  assist  the  right 
hand  in  pulling  the  head  piece  back 
over  the  horse's  ears.  Should  there  be 
any  difficulty  in  making  the  horse  open 
his  mouth,  the  bit  should  be  held  to  his 
teeth  while  dangling  from  the  right 
hand,  and  then  with  the  thumb  and 
second  finger  of  the  left  hand  press 
the  gums  of  the  horse's  mouth  at  the 
junction  of  the  lips  gently  against  the 
teeth.  This  will  quickly  force  any 
horse  to  open  his  mouth.  When  the 
bit  is  in  place,  the  throat  strap  is 
buckled.  If  a  curb  bit  is  used,  the 


A  HORSE  HARNESSED  WITH  THE  BUCKLES  UNFASTENED. 

1,  is  the  brow  band;  2,  nose  band;  3,  blinders;  4,  head  band;  5  and  6,  throat  strap; 
7,  bit;  8  and  9,  reins;  10,  hame  fastener;  11,  check  rein;  12,  collar;  13,  terrets;  14  and  15, 
collar  straps;  16,  martingale;  17  and  18,  traces;  19,  inner  bellyband;  20,  outer  bellyband; 
21,  part  of  inner  bellyband;  22,  shaft  loops;  23,  saddle;  24,  check-rein  hook;  25,  saddle 
terrets;  26,  crupper  strap;  27,  breeching  sjtr?ip;  28  and  29,  crupper;  30,  breeching;  31 
-32,  and  33,  hold-back  straps. 


394 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


curb  chain  must  be  twisted  until  it 
becomes  flat,  and  then  hooked,  pass- 
ing under  the  jaw  of  the  horse  to  the 
curb  chain  hook  in  the  opposite  side 


of  the  bit.  The  reins  are  now  buckled 
in  the  slots  at  the  curb  next  below  the 
bit  ring.  Lift  up  the  shafts  above  the 
horse's  back,  then  draw  up  the  car- 
riage, slipping  the  ends  of  the  shafts 
through  the  shaft  tugs  on  the  sides  of 


the  saddle.  The  traces  are  then  run 
through  the  loop  at  the  side  of  the 
shafts  and  secured  to  the  trace  hooks 
on  each  side  of  the  whiffletree.  After 
the  traces  are  taut,  fasten  the  breech- 
ing or  hold-back  straps. 


PASSPORTS. 


Passports  are  granted  and  issued  by 
the  Secretary  of  State  and  by  diplo- 
matic representatives  of  the  United 
States  and  foreign  countries,  or  by 
United  States  Consuls.  The  fee  is 


$1,  and  the  necessary  blank  and  full 
information  as  to  the  procedure  re- 
quired will  be  sent  on  request.  Ad- 
dress the  Secretary  of  State,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. 


ACCIDENTS  IN  FACTORIES. 


The  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau 
of  Labor  Statistics  of  the  State  of 
New  York  for  1899  gives  some  inter- 


esting figures.  In  April,  May,  June, 
1899,  the  figures  (New  York  State) 
are  as  follows : 


ACCIDENTS  IN  APRIL,  MAY,  JUNE,  1899. 


INDUSTRIES. 

FIRMS  REPORTING. 

Establish- 
ments in 
which  ac- 
cid'ts  oc- 
curred. 

INJURIES. 

Establish- 
ments. 

Employ- 
ees Jun.30 

Employ- 
ees injured 
in  this 
period. 

Propor- 
tionate 
number  in 
one  year. 

Per  ann'm 
in  each 
1,000 
employed. 

Stone  and  clay  products  
Metals,  machinery,  apparatus 
Wood 

277 
1,321 
536 
343 
163 
105 
576 
327 

514 

474 

26 
269 

19,764 
123,467 
31,482 
31,169 
13,164 
8,201 
38.293 
59,709 

65,220 
45,600 

7,043 
9,313 

39 
260 
84 
20 
32 
27 
58 
53 

16 
66 

11 
25 

75 
817 
145 
25 
145 
87 
88 
135 

22 
178 

69 
61 

300 
3,268 
580 
100 
580 
348 
352 
540 

88 
712 

276 
244 

15.18 
26.47 
18.42 
3.21 
44.06 
42.43 
9.19 
9.04 

1.35 
15.61 

37.28 
26.20 

Leather,  rubber,  pear!,  etc  ... 
Chemicals,  oils,  explosives.  .  . 
Pulp,  paper,  etc  

Textiles 

Ctothing,  millinery,  launder- 

Food  tobacco,  liquors  

Distribution    of    water,    gas, 

Building  industry  

Total.. 

4,931 

452,425 

691 

1,847 

7,388 

16.33 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


CAUSE   OR  AGENT  OF  ACCIDENTS   IN 
NEW   YORK. 
Machinery. 
Engines,  power  transmission,  belts,  etc.  .        46 
Lifting  apparatus  50 

NATURE  OF  INJURIES. 
Fatal  29 

Non-fatal: 
Internal  .                 29 

Circular  saws  

102 
135 
319 

652 

110 
26 
115 
374 
197 
54 
71 
193 

1,792 
55 

622 

556 

128 

42 
1,348 

27 

161 
282 
29 

Head  and  face,  except  the  eye  191 

Presses  and  stamping  machines  

Other  machines  and  machine  tools  
Total  —  Machinery 

Arms  and  hands  336 
Fingers                                                             638 

Legs  and  feet  381 
Other  parts  of  the   body  or  several 
parts  at  once  197 
Not  reported.  ....                               35 

Hand  tools  (saws,  axes,  etc.)  
Explosives  of  all  kinds  
Hot  liquids,  steam,  acids,  etc  
Fall  of  objects,  collapse  of  structures,  etc. 
Fall  of  the  person                                ...    . 

Total     .                          .                          1  847 

FATAL  ACCIDENTS  IN  VARIOUS 
OCCUPATIONS. 

Period.           Rate 
per  1,000 
Railroad  brakemen.  ...      1900-02         15.8 
Gloucester  fishermen  ...      1892-00         13.2 
Gunpowder  manufacture    .  .  .  .-00         10.5 
Railroad  switchmen  and 

Loading,  unloading,  etc.,  by  hand  
Vehicles  and  animals  
All  other 

Grand  Total 

Cause  not  reported  

PERIOD  OF  DISABILITY. 
Not  over  one  week  : 
Less  than  one  day  45 
One  day  85 

From  2  to  7  days  492 

Railroad  firemen                   1900  02           7  2 

From  one  week  to  one  month: 
Over  1  to  2  weeks  292 

Railroad  engineers  1900-02           6.8 
Dynamite  manufacturers   ....-00           6.7 
Railroad  conductors  ...      1900-02           6.1 
Anthracite  coal  miners        1892-01           5  .  6 
Bituminous  mine  labor- 
ers                                       1892-01           4  7 

Over  2  to  3  weeks                                    169 

Over  3  to  4  weeks  95 

Over  1  month  to  2  months  
Over  2  months   (but  less  than  '3 

Anthracite   mine  labor- 
ers        1892-01            4.6 

TY>t  al 

Lead  and  zinc  miners  of 
Missouri  1892-01            3.3 

Total  days  lost.                            .  19,980 

Metal  miners  of  Colorado    1896-01           3  .  2 
Copper  miners  of  Mon- 
tana                                    1891-00           2  8 

Average  days  lost  per  capita  .  .          15 
Still  disabled  at  time  of  report 
(June  30) 

Anthracite  fire-bosses.   .     1892-01            2  .  5 
Paid  firemen  in  cities.  .  .      1885-00           2  .  5 
Bituminous  coal  miners.     1892-01           2  .  2 

It  is  shown  by  this  table  that  railroad  brake- 
men   have  the   highest   fatal  accident  figure, 

No  time  lost  (i.e.  less  than  one 
hour)    .                  

Time  lost  not  reported  
Fatal  accidents  

Total  .  . 

1.847 

ina  and  Minina  Journal. 

ANNUAL  FIRE  LOSSES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  FOR  FOURTEEN  YEARS— 
1890-1903— CHRONICLE  FIRE  TABLES. 


Years. 

Aggregate 
Property 
Loss. 

Aggregate 
Insurance 
Loss. 

Years: 

Aggregate 
Property 
Loss. 

Aggregate 
Insurance 

Loss. 

1890  
1891  
1892  

$108,993,792 
143,764,967 
151,516,098 

$65,015,465 
90,576,918 
93,511,936 

1897  
1898  
1899.     . 

$116,354,575 
130,593,905 
153,597,830 

$66,722,145 
73,796,080 
92,683,715 

1893  
1894. 

167,544,370 
140,006,484 

105,994,577 
89,574,699 

1900  
1901. 

160,929  805 
165,817,810 

95,403,650 
100  798  645 

1895  

142,110,233 

84,689,030 

1902.     . 

161,078,040 

94,460,525 

1896  

118,737,420 

73,903,800 

1903  

145,302,155 

Total  property  loss  in  the  United  States  in  14  years $3,371,912,031 

Total  insurance  loss  in  the  United  States  in  14  years 1,988,644,949 

Total  property  loss,  United  States  and  Canada,  Jan.  1,  1904,  to  Sept.  1,  1904 194,172,850 


396 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


WHAT  TO  DO  IN  CASE  OF  FIRE. 

BY    CHIEF    EDWARD    F.    CROKER    OF    THE   NEW   YORK    FIRE    DEPARTMENT. 

In  case  of  fire  immediately  send 
alarm  from  the  nearest  alarm  box; 
wait  at  alarm  box  until  the  arrival 
of  the  firemen  so  as  to  notify  them  as 
to  the  location  of  the  fire.  Occupants 
of  premises  should  endeavor  to  ex- 
tinguish fire,  if  possible,  previous  to 
the  arrival  of  the  firemen,  but  do  not 
delay  an  instant  in  sending  in  alarm. 
Keep  cellars  and  closets  under  stair- 
ways entirely  free  from  rubbish.  Al- 


ways endeavor  to  keep  perfectly  cool 
until  the  arrival  of  the  Department ; 
do  not  jump,  as  the  firemen  will  save 
you,  and  are  very  prompt  in  reaching 
the  scene  of  a  fire  once  the  alarm  is 
turned  in.  Keep  small  chemical  fire 
extinguishers  on  each  floor  in  all  build- 
ings. In  case  of  fire,  endeavor  to  keep 
all  doors  shut,  thereby  avoiding 
draughts  and  preventing  the  rapid  ex- 
tending of  fire. 


THE  COST  OF  LIVING. 


July  1. 

Bread- 
stuffs. 

Meats. 

Dairy 
and 
Garden. 

Other 
Food. 

Clothing. 

Metals. 

Miscella- 
neous. 

Total. 

1860 

20  .  530 

8.973 

12  .  662 

8.894 

22.439 

25.851 

15.842 

115.191 

1861  

15.749 

7.485 

10.813 

7.653 

21.147 

22.500 

16.573 

101.920 

1862  . 

18.057 

7.150 

13.406 

10.987 

28.413 

23.207 

17.290 

118.510 

1863  

26.154 

10.115 

13.530 

16.359 

45  .  679 

37.079 

24.264 

173.180 

1864  
1865  

45.616 
25.404 

15.685 
16.112 

26.053 
18.049 

27.303 
21.057 

73.485 
49.307 

59.192 
38.956 

31  .  653 
25.551 

278.987 
194.436 

1866  .  

31.471 

17.153 

23.472 

20.821 

45.377 

41  .  762 

27.922 

207.978 

1867 

36  537 

14  278 

18.418 

20.167 

38.169 

35.426 

25.529 

188.524 

1868  .  . 

38.416 

13.210 

23.614 

19.720 

35.694 

27.385 

24  .  786 

182.825 

1869 

29  116 

13  181 

18.121 

16.347 

35.309 

28  .  355 

24.201 

164.630 

1870  .  . 
1871  . 

25.322 
24  809 

14.161 
12.177 

16.112 
20.799 

13.308 
13.823 

31  .  480 
30.624 

26.612 
27.371 

21.786 
21.907 

148.781 
151.510 

1872  
1873  . 

22.171 
20  460 

11.055 
10.114 

16.019 
15.629 

14.845 
13.625 

32.427 
29.411 

32.643 
32  .  298 

21.319 
21.552 

150.479 
143.089 

1874  
1875  .  .  . 

25.657 
24  848 

11.560 
13.287 

19  .  142 
14.918 

13.678 
14.418 

27.260 
25.318 

25.254 
23.515 

19.582 
18.398 

143.133 
134.702 

1876  

18.777 

10.726 

15.912 

12.914 

21.747 

20.452 

15.951 

116.479 

1877  .... 

21.812 

10.036 

11.790 

13.321 

21  .  850 

15.578 

15.160 

109.547 

1878 

15  672 

8  181 

10.608 

11.346 

19.836 

15.789 

14.836 

96.268 

1879  

17.054 

8.239 

10.253 

9.884 

20.420 

15.149 

16.286 

97.285 

1880  .  . 

17  461 

9  230 

12.594 

11.539 

21.984 

18.708 

17.139 

108.655 

1881  

20.369 

11.381 

11.311 

11.663 

20.982 

19.295 

16.900 

111.901 

1882 

25  494 

13  740 

14.685 

11.627 

21  .  202 

19.832 

16.650 

123.230 

1883  

19.018 

11.210 

12.250 

10.726 

20.209 

18.071 

15.764 

107.248 

1884  .  . 

17  871 

11.172 

11.369 

9.323 

19.014 

16.272 

14.685 

99  .  706 

1885  
1886  .... 

16.370 
15  311 

9.205 
8.906 

10.872 
10.241 

8.712 
8.570 

17.740 
18.063 

14.132 

14.466 

13.666 
13.669 

90.697 
89  .  226 

1887 

15  156 

8  667 

11.188 

9.252 

18.174 

16.035 

15.153 

93.624 

1888  .  . 

16.984 

9.416 

11.849 

9.917 

17.447 

15.366 

14.155 

95.134 

1889 

14  351 

8  244 

9.695 

10.912 

17.107 

14.782 

14.600 

89.691 

1890  
1891 

14.867 
19  782 

8.036 
9.217 

10.711 
12.455 

9.749 
9.339 

17.264 
16.501 

15.506 
15.107 

15.416 
13.691 

91  .  549 
96.092 

1892  

17.426 

8.700 

10.403 

8.733 

15.648 

14.827 

14.252 

90.105 

1893  
1894 

14.963 
15  115 

10.135 
9  389 

11.710 
10  394 

9.188 
8.478 

15.871 
13.860 

14.030 
12.015 

14.716 
14.041 

90.613 
83.292 

1895  .... 

14.765 

8.622 

9.874 

8.689 

15.315 

11.021 

13.233 

81.519 

1896 

10  504 

7  058 

7.872 

8.529 

13.602 

13.232 

13.520 

74.317 

1897  
1898 

10.587 
12  783 

7.529 
7.694 

8.714 
9  437 

7.887 
8.826 

13.808 
14.663 

11.642 
11.843 

12.288 
12.522 

72.455 
77.768 

1899  

13.483 

7.988 

10.974 

9.157 

15.021 

15.635 

12.969 

85.227 

1900  
1901  
1902  
1903 

14.898 
14.904 
20.534 
17  473 

8.906 
9.430 
11.628 
9  269 

10.901 
11.030 
12.557 
13  083 

9.482 
9.086 
8.748 
9  186 

16.324 
15.098 
15.533 
17.136 

14.834 
15.344 
16.084 
16.544 

16.070 
16.617 
16.826 
16.765 

91.415 
91  .  509 
101.910 
99.456 

1904  

18.244 

9.033 

10  .  648 

10.406 

16.514 

15.428 

16.919 

97.192 

NOTE. — Breadstuffs  include  many  quotations  of  wheat,  corn,  oats,  rye,  and  barley,  be- 
sides beans  and  peas;  meats  include  live  hogs,  beef,  sheep,  and  many  provisions,  lard,  tallow, 
etc.;  dairy  and  garden  products  include  eggs,  vegetables  and  fruits;  other  foods  include  fish, 
liquors,  condiments,  sugar,  rice,  tobacco,  etc.;  clothing,  includes  the  raw  material  of  each 
industry,  and  many  quotations  of  woolen,  cotton  and  other  textile  goods,  as  well  as  hides, 
leather,  boots  and  shoes ;  metals  include  various  quotations  of  pig  iron,  and  partially  manu- 
factured and  finished  products,  as  well  as  minor  metals,  coal,  and  petroleum.  The  mis- 
cellaneous class  embraces  many  grades  of  hard  and  soft  lumber,  lath,  brick,  lime,  glass,  turpen- 
tine, hemp,  linseed-oil,  paints,  fertilizers,  and  drugs. — Dun's  Review. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


397 


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SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


Key  of  C.  Key  of  G.  Key  of  I). 


Key  of  A.  Key  of  F.       Key  of  B  Flat. 


RELIGIONS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

Roman  Catholics 216,000,000 

Protestants    137,000,000 

Greek,     Armenian       and 
Abyssinian  Churches.  . 


Total  of  Christians 


448,000,000 


Buddhists   and    Brahmins  672,000,000 

Mohammedans 200,000,000 

Jews   7,000,000 

Other  creeds 125,000,000 


Total  non-Christiana     1,004,000,000 


THE    CHRISTIAN    ADVOCATE'S    TABLE    OF    DENOMINATIONS. 

Summary  for  1903. 


Denominations. 

Ministers. 

Churches. 

Communi- 
cants. 

Adventists  (6  bodies).  .  .  . 

1,556 

2,377 

89,470 

Baptists  (13  bodies)  .-  
Brethren  (River)  (3  bodies)  
Brethren  (Plymouth)  (4  bodies) 

35,829 
151 

51,492 
108 
314 

4,725,775 
3,605 
6,661 

Catholics  (8  bodies)  

13,422 

11,185 

9,891,869 

Catholic  Apostolic. 

95 

10 

1,491 

Chinese  Temples  

47 

Christadelphians  
Christian  Connection  
Christian  Catholics  (Dowie)  
Christian  Missionary  Association  
Christian  Scientists  
Church  of  God  (Winebrennarian)  
Church  of  the  New  Jerusalem  
Communistic  Societies  (6  bodies)  
Congregationalists  
Disciples  of  Christ                                                  .... 

'  '  1,348 
104 
10 
1,118 
460 
143 

'  '6,213 
6,567 

63 
1,340 
110 
13 
559 
580 
144 
22 
5,891 
11,157 

1,277 
101,597 
40,000 
754 
60,283 
38,000 
7,969 
3,084 
659,704 
1,235,798 

Dunkards  (4  bodies)  

3,231 

1,171 

115,194 

Evangelical  (2  bodies).  .                                   

1,415 

2,642 

162,998 

1,354 

1,093 

116,555 

Friends  of  the  Temple  

4 
100 

4 
155 

340 
20.000 

German  Evangelical  Synod  
Jews  (2  bodies) 

945 
301 

1,213 
570 

209,791 
143,000 

Latter-Day  Saints  (2  bodies)  
Lutherans  (22  bodies)  
Swedish  Evangelical  Miss.  Covenant  
Mennonites  (12  bodies)  
Methodists  (17  bodies) 

1,525 
7,343 
291 
1,138 
39,634 

1,324 
12,275 
307 
673 
57,572 

342,072 
1,715,910 
33,400 
59,892 
6,192,494 

Moravians  
Presbyterians  (12  bodies) 

127 
12,393 

115 
15,452 

16,095 
1,661,522 

5,150 

6,867 

782  543 

Reformed  (3  bodies)   .                                         

1,919 

2,491 

390,578 

Salvation  Army  

2,361 

696 

25,009 

Schwenkfeldians  
Social  Brethren  
Society  for  Ethical  Culture 

3 

17 

4 
20 
4 

306 
913 
1  500 

Soiritualists  
Theosoohical  Society 

334 
70 

45,030 
1,900 

United  Brethren  (2  bodies).  .  .                      

2,368 

4,861 

280,114 

Unitarians  

540 

452 

71,000 

Universalists  

734 

786 

53,538 

Independent  Congregations  
Grand  total  in  1903.  . 

54 
149,963 

156 
196,719 

14,126 
29,323,158 

Grand  total  in  1902..  . 

147,732 

194,072 

28,840,699 

PART  II. 


CHAPTER    I. 


GEOMETRICAL    CONSTRUCTIONS. 


GEOMETRICAL    FIGURES. 


1.  ACUTE  ANGLE. — An  acute  angle  is  less 
than  a  right  angle,  or  less  than  90  degrees. 

2.  ALTERNATE  ANGLES. — The  internal  an- 
gles made  by  two  lines  with  a  third,  on  oppo- 
site sides  of  it.     If  the  two  lines  are  parallel, 
the  alternate  angles  are  equal.     If  the  par- 
allels AD,   CD,  be  cut  by  the  line  EF,  the 
angles  AGH,  GHD,  as  also  the  angles  BGH 
and  GHC,  are  called  alternate  angles. 

3.  ARC. — Any  part  of  the  circumference  of 
a  circle  or  other  curve;  a  segment  of  a  circle. 

4.  5,  6,  and  7.  CONIC  SECTIONS. — Formed  by 
the  intersections  of  cones  and   planes.     The 
conic  sections  are  the  ellipse,  parabola,  and 
hyperbola.   If  the  section  be  taken  parallel  to 
the  base  of  the  cone  its  outline  will  form  a 
perfect  circle.  If  the  section  be  taken  parallel 
to  one  side  of  the  cone  it  will  in  outline  have 
the  form  of  a  parabola  (6).    If  the  section  be 
taken  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  cone  its  outline 
will  have  the  form  of  a  hyperbola  (7).     Any 
other  section  through  the  cone  will  in  outline 
have  the  form  of  an  ellipse  (5). 

8.  CHORD. — A  right  line  marking  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  arc  of  a  circle. 

9.  CIPCLE. — 1.   In  geometry,  a  plane  figure, 
comprehended  by  a  single  curve  line,  called  its 
circumference,  every  part  of  which  is  equally 
distant  from  a  point  called  the  center.     Of 
course  all  lines  drawn  from  the  center  to  the 
circumference,  or  periphery,  are  equal  to  each 
other.     2.   In  popular  use,  the  line  that  com- 
prehends the  figure,  the  plane  or  surface  com- 
prehended, and  the  whole  body  or  solid  matter 
of  a  round  substance,  are  denominated  a  cir- 
cle; a  ring;  an  orb;   the  earth. 

10.  CURVE. — A  curve  line  is  one  which  may 
be  cut  by  a  right  line  in  more  points  than  one. 
A  curve  line  is  that  which  is  neither  a  straight 
line  nor  composed  of  straight  lines. 

11.  CUBE. — A  regular,  solid  body  with  six 
equal  square  sides. 

12.  CYLINDER. — A  solid  body  supposed  to 
be  generated  by  the  rotation  of  a  parallelo- 
gram round  one  of  its  sides ;  or  a  long,  circular 
body,  of  uniform  diameter,  and  its  extremi- 
ties forming  equal  parallel  circles. 

13.  DIAGONAL. — The   line   extending   from 
one  angle  to  another  of  a  quadrilateral   or 
multilateral  figure,  and  dividing  it  into  two 
parts. 

14.  DIAGRAM. — A      figure,      draught,      or 
scheme   delineated  for  the  purpose  of  demon- 
strating the  properties  of  any  figure,   as  a 
square,  triangle,  circle,  etc. 

1 5.  DIAMETER. — A  right  line  passing  through 
the  center  of  a  circle,  or  other  curvilinear  fig- 


ure, terminated  by  the  curve,  and  dividing 
the  figure  symmetrically  into  two  equal  parts. 

16.  ELLIPSE. — In   conic   sections,   a   figure 
formed  by  the  intersection  of  a  plane  and  cone 
when  the  plane  passes  obliquely  through  the 
opposite  sides  of  the  cone. 

17.  EQUILATERAL    TRIANGLE. — A    triangle 
having  all  three  sides  equal. 

18.  HEXAGON. — A  plane  figure  of  six  sides 
and  six  angles.     If  the  sides  and  angles  are 
equal,  it  is  a  regular  hexagon.     The  cells  of 
honey-comb  are  hexagons,  arid  it  is  remark- 
able that  bees  instinctively  form  their  cells  of 
this  figure,  which  fills  any  given  space  without 
any  interstice  or  loss  of  room. 

19.  HYPOTHENUSE. — The  subtense  or  longest 
side  of  a  right-angled  triangle,  or  the  line  that 
subtends  the  right  angle. 

20.  RECTANGULAR    TRIANGLE. — If    one    of 
the  angles  of  a  triangle  is  a  right  angle,  the 
triangle  is  rectangular. 

21.  RIGHT  ANGLE. — A  right  angle  is  one 
formed  by  a  right  line  falling  on  another  per- 
pendicularly, or  an  angle  of  90  degrees,  mak- 
ing the  quarter  of  a  circle. 

22.  ISOSCELES   TRIANGLE. — If  two  of  the 
sides  only  are  equal  in  a  triangle  it  is  an  isos- 
celes or  equicrural  triangle. 

23.  OBLIQUE  LINE. — An  oblique  line  is  one 
that,  falling  on  another,  makes  oblique  angles 
with  it. 

24.  OBTUSE  ANGLE. — An  angle  greater  than 
a   right  angle,   or  containing  more   than   90 
degrees. 

25.  SCALENE  TRIANGLE. — One  in  which  all 
the  three  sides  are  unequal. 

26.  SECANT. — The  secant  of  a  circle  is  a  line 
drawn  from  the  circumference  on  one  side  to  a 
point  without  the  circumference  on  the  other. 

27.  OVAL. — A  body  or  figure  in  the  shape  of 
an  egg,  or  of  an  ellipse. 

28.  PARALLELOGRAM.- — 1.   In    geometry,    a 
right-lined  quadrilateral  figure,  whose  oppo- 
site sides  are  parallel,  and  consequently  equal. 
2.    In  common  use,   this   word  is  applied   to 
quadrilateral    figures    of    more    length    than 
breadth, 

29.  SECTOR. — A   part   of  a   circle   compre- 
hended between  two  radii  and  the  included 
arc;  or  a  mixed  triangle,  formed  by  two  radii 
and  the  arc  of  a  circle. 

30.  PARALLELOPIPED. — A  regular  solid  com- 
prehended under  six  parallelograms,  the  op- 
posite ones  of  which  are  similar,  parallel,  and 
equal  to  each  other;    or  it  is  a  prism  whose 
base  is  a  parallelogram.     It  is  always  triple  to 
a  pyramid  of  the  same  base  and  height.     Or  a 


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SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


parallelepiped  is  a  solid  figure  bounded  by  six 
faces,  parallel  to  each  other,  two  and  two. 

31.  PARALLEL  LINES. — One  line  is  parallel 
to  another,  when  the  lines  are  at  an  equal  dis- 
tance apart  throughout  the  whole  length. 

32.  SEGMENT  OF  A  CIRCLE. — That  part  of 
the  circle  contained   between  a  chord  and  an 
arc  of  that  circle,  or  so  much  of  the  circle  as 
is  cut  off  by  the  chord.     The  segment  of  a 
sphere  is  a  part  cut  off  by  a  plane. 

33.  PENTAGON. — A  plane  figure  having  five 
angles,  and  consequently  five  sides. 

34.  PERPENDICULAR. — In  geometry,  a  line 
falling  at  right  angles  on  another  line,  or  mak- 
ing equal  angles  with  it  on  each  side.     Thus 
if  the  straight  line  AD,  falling  on  the  straight 
line  BC,  make  the  angles  BAD,  DAC  equal  to 
one  another,  AD  is  called  a  perpendicular  to 
BC. 

35.  QUADRANGLE. — A  plane  figure  having 
four  angles,  and  consequently  four  sides. 

36.  RECTANGLE. — A  four-sided  figure  hav- 
ing only  right  angles.     A  right-angled  paral- 
lelogram. 

37.  QUADRANT. — The  quarter  of  a  circle  or 
of  the  circumference  of  a  circle. 

38.  QUADRILATERAL. — Having    four    sides, 
and  consequently  four  angles. 

39.  TANGENT.— In  the  figure,  let  AH  be  a 
straight  line  drawn  touching  the  circle  ADE 
at  A,  one  extremity  of  the  arc  AB,  and  meet- 
ing the  diameter  IB  produced,  which  passes 
through  the  other  extremity  B  to  the  point  H ; 
then  A  H  is  the  tangent  of  the  arc  AB,  or  of 
the  angle  ACB,  of  which  AB  is  the  measure. 

40.  RADIUS. — A  right  line  drawn  or  extend- 
ing from  the  center  of  a  circle  to  the  periphery ; 
the  semidiameter  of  the  circle.      In  trigonom- 
etry, the  radius  is  equal  to  the  sine  of  90  de- 
grees. 

41.  TRAPEZIUM. — A  plane  figure  contained 
under  four  right  lines,  of  which  no  two  are 
parallel. 

42.  TRAPEZOID. — A  plane,  four-sided  figure, 
having  two  of  the  opposite  sides  parallel  to 
each  other. 

43.  REFLECTION. — In    the    figure,    let    A  B 
represent  a  smooth  polished  surface,  or  mirror, 
and  suppose  a  ray  of  light  proceeding  in  the 
direction  LP  to  impinge  on  the  surface  at  P, 
and  to  be  reflected  from  it  in  the  direction  PR. 


Fr.om  P  draw  PQ  perpendicular  to  AB,  then 
the  angle  LPQ  is  called  the  angle  of  incidence, 
and  QPR  the  angle  of  reflection. 

44.  SUPERFICIES,     A  superficies  consists  of 
length  and  breadth;    as,  the  superficies  of  a 
plate   or   of   a   sphere.     Superficies   is   recti- 
linear, curvilinear,  plane,  convex,  or  concave. 

45.  RHOMBOID. — A  figure  having  some  re- 
semblance to  a  rhomb;    or  a  quadrilateral 
figure  whose  opposite   sides   and  angles  are 
equal,  but  which  is   neither  equilateral  nor 
equiangular. 

46.  SEMICIRCLE. — The  half  of  a  circle;   the 
part  of  a  circle  comprehended   between   its 
diameter  and  half  of  its  circumference. 

47.  SQUARE. — A    rectilinear   figure   having 
four  equal  sides  and  four  right  angles. 

48.  RECTILINEAR  TRIANGLE. — One  in  which 
the  three  lines  or  sides  are  all  right  lines,  as 
distinguished  from  curvilinear  triangle. 

49.  RHOMB.  RHOMBUS. — An  oblique-angled, 
equilateral  parallelogram,  or  a  quadrilateral 
figure  whose  sides  are  equal  and  the  opposite 
sides  parallel,  but  the  angles  unequal,  two  of 
the  angles  being  obtuse  and  two  acute. 

50.  SINE.— In  the  circle  ACH,  let  AOH  be 
a  diameter,  and  let  CE  be  perpendicular  there- 
to; then  shall  CE  be  the  sine  of  the  arc  CH, 
or  of  the  angle  COH,  and  of  its  supplement 
CO  A.     The  sine  of  a  quadrant,  or  of  a  right 
angle,  is  equal  to  the  radius.     The  sine  of  any 
arc  is  half  the  chord  of  twice  that  arc. 

51.  ACUTE-ANGLED    TRIANGLE. — One    hav- 
i  ng  all  three  of  its  angles  acute. 

52.  AN  EQUILATERAL  TRIANGLE. — One  hav- 
ing all  the  three  sides  equal. 

53.  POLYGON. — A  plane  figure  of  many  an- 
gles, and  consequently  of  many  sides;    par- 
ticularly,   one    whose    perimeter    consists    of 
more  than  four  sides. 

54.  OBTUSANGULAR  TRIANGLE.  — If  one  of 
the  angles  of  a  triangle  is  obtuse,  the  triangle 
is  called  obtusangular  or  amblygonous. 

55.  CURVILINEAR   AND    SPHERICAL   TRIAN- 
GLES.— If  the  three  sides  of  a  triangle  are  all 
curves,  the  triangle  is  said  to  be  curvilinear. 
If  the  sides  are  all  arcs  of  great  circles  of  the 
sphere,  the  triangle  is  said  to  be  spherical. 

56.  MIXTILINEAR   TRIANGLE. — If    some    of 
the  sides  of  a  triangle  are  right  and  others 
curve,  the  triangle  is  said  to  be  mixtilinear. 


GEOMETRICAL  CONSTRUCTIONS/ 


1. 

To  divide  a  given  line  A  B  into  two  equal 
parts;  and  to  erect  a  perpendicular  through 
the  middle. 

With  the  end  A  and  B  as  centers,  draw  the 
dotted  circle  arcs  with  a  radius  greater  than 
half  the  line.  Through  the  crossings  of  the 
arcs  draw  the  perpendicular  C  D.which  divides 
the  line  into  two  equal  parts. 

2. 

From  a  given  point  C  on  the  line  A  B,  erect 
a  perpendicular  C  D. 

With  C  as  a  center,  draw  the  dotted  circle 
arcs  at  A  and  B  equal  distances  from  C.  With 
A  and  B  as  centers,  draw  the  dotted  circle  arcs 
at  D.  From  the  crossing  D  draw  the  required 
perpendicular  D  C. 


3. 

From  a  given  point  C  at  a  distance  from  the 
line  A  B,  draw  a  perpendicular  to  the  line. 

With  C  as  a  center,  draw  the  dotted  circle  arc 
so  that  it  cuts  the  line  at  A  and  B.  With  A 
and  B  as  centers,  draw  the  dotted  cross  arcs  at 
D  with  equal  radii.  Draw  the  required  per- 
pendicular through  C  and  crossing  D. 

4. 

At  the  end  of  A  to  a  given  line  A  B,  erect  a 
perpendicular  A  C. 

With  the  point  D  as  a  center  at  a  distance 
from  the  line,  and  with  A  D  as  radius,  draw 
the  dotted  circle  arc  so  that  it  cuts  the  line  at 
E  through  E  and  Z>,  draw  the  diameter  E  C; 
then  join  C  and  A,  which  will  be  the  required 
perpendicular. 


*  Copyright,  1895,  by  J.  B.  Lippincott  Co.    Published  by  special  permission  of,  and  arrange- 
ment with  Messrs.  J.  B.  Lippincott  Co. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


403 


5. 

Through  a  given  point  C  at  a  distance  from 
the  line  A  B,  draw  a  line  C  D  parallel  to  A  B. 

With  C  as  a  center,  draw  the  dotted  arc  ED, 
with  E  as  a  center,  draw  through  C  the  dotted 
arc  F.  C.  With  the  radius  F  C  and  E  as  a 
center,  draw  the  cross  arc  at  D.  Join  C  with 
the  cross  at  D,  which  will  be  the  required 
parallel  line. 


On  a  given  line  A  B  and  at  the  point  B,  con- 
struct an  angle  equal  to  the  angle  C  D  E. 

With  D  as  a  center,  draw  the  dotted  arc  C 
E;  and  with  the  same  radius  and  B  as  a  ce  ter, 
draw  the  arc  G  F;  then  make  G  F  equal  to  C 
E;  then  join  B  F,  which  will  form  the  required 
angle,  F  B  G  =  C  D  E. 


Divide  the  angle  A  C  B  into  two  equal  parts. 

With  C  as  a  center,  draw  the  dotted  arc  D 
E;  with  D  and  E  as  centers,  draw  the  cross 
arcs  at  F  with  equal  radii.  Join  C  F,  which 
divides  the  angle  into  the  required  parts. 

Angles     A  CF  =  FCB  =  ^(A  C  B). 

8. 

Divide  an  angle  into  two  equal  parts,  when 
the  lines  do  not  extend  to  a  meeting  point. 

Draw  the  lines  C  D  and  C  E  parallel,  and  at 
equal  distances  from  the  lines  A  B  and  F  G. 
With  C  as  a  center,  draw  the  dotted  arc  B  G; 
and  with  B  and  G  as  centers,  draw  the  cross 
arcs  H.  Join  C  H,  which  divides  the  angle 
into  the  required  equal  parts. 

9. 

To  construct  a  parallelogram,  with  the 
given  sides  A  and  B  and  angle  C. 

Draw  the  base  line  D  E,  and  make  the  angle 
F  D  E  =  C;  lines  D  E  =  B  and  D  F  =  A;  com- 
plete the  parallelogram  by  cross  arcs  at  G,  and 
the  problem  is  thus  solved. 

10. 

To  divide  the  line  A  B  in  the  same  propor- 
tion of  parts  as  A  C. 

Join  C  and  B,  and  through  the  given  divi- 
sions 1,  2,  and  3  draw  lines  parallel  with  C  B, 
which  solves  the  problem. 

11. 

To  find  the  center  of  a  circle  which  will  pass 
through  three  given  points  A,  B,  and  C. 

With  B  as  a  center,  draw  the  arc  D  E  F  G; 
and  with  the  same  radius  and  A  as  a  center, 
draw  the  cross  arcs  D  and  F;  also  with  C  as  a 
center,  draw  the  cross  arcs  E  and  G.  Join  D 
and  F,  and  also  E  and  G,  and  the  crossing  o  is 
the  required  center  of  the  circle. 

12. 

To  construct  a  square  upon  a  given  line 
A  B. 

With  A  B  as  radius  and  A  and  B  as  centers, 
draw  the  circle  arcsA  E  D  and  B  E  C.  Divide 
the  arc  B  E  in  two  equal  parts  at  F,  and  with 
E  F  as  radius,  and  E  as  center,  draw  the  circle 
C  F  D.  Join  A  and  C  B  and  D,  C  and  D, 
which  completes  the  required  square. 

13. 

Through  a  given  point  A  in  a  circumference, 
draw  a  tangent  to  the  circle. 


Through  a  given  point  A  and  center  C, 
draw  the  line  B  C.  With  A  as  a  center,  draw 
the  circle  arcs  B  and  C;  with  B  and  C  as  cen- 
ters, draw  the  cross  arcs  D  and  E;  then  join  D 
and  E,  which  is  the  required  tangent. 

14. 

From  a  given  point  A  outside  of  a  circum- 
ference, draw  a  tangent  to  the  circle. 

Join  A  and  C,  and  upon  A  C  as  a  diameter 
draw  the  half  circle  ABC,  which  cuts  the  given 
circle  at  B.  Join  A  and  B,  which  is  the  re- 
quired tangent. 

15. 

To  draw  a  circle  with  a  given  radius  R,  that 
will  tangent  the  circle  A  B  C  at  C. 

Through  the  given  point  C,  draw  the  diam- 
eter A  C  extended  beyond  D;  from  C  set  off 
the  given  radius  R  to  D;  then  D  is  the  center  of 
the  required  circle,  which  tangents  the  given 
circle  at  C. 

16. 

To  draw  a  circle  with  a  given  radius  R,  that 
will  tangent  two  given  circles. 

Join  the  centers  A  and  B  of  the  given  circles 
Add  the  given  radius  R  to  each  of  the  radii  of 
the  given  circle,  and  draw  the  cross  arcs  C, 
which  is  the  center  of  the  circle  required  to 
tangent  the  other  two. 

17. 

To  draw  a  tangent  to  two  circles  of  different 
diameters. 

Join  the  centers  C  and  c  of  the  given  circles, 
and  extend  the  line  to  D;  draw  the  radii  A  C 
and  a  c  parallel  with  one  another.  Join  A  a, 
and  extend  the  line  to  D.  On  C  D  as  a  diam- 
eter, draw  the  half  circle  C  e  D;  on  c  D  as  a 
I  diameter,  draw  the  half  circle  c  f  D;  then  the 
crossings  e  and  /  are  the  tangenting  points  of 
the  circles. 

18. 

To  draw  a  tangent  between  tw9  circles. 

Join  the  centers  C  and  c  of  the  given  circles ; 
draw  the  dotted  circle  arcs,  and  join  the  cross- 
ing m,  n,  which  line  cuts  the  center  line  at  a. 
With  a  C  as  a  diameter,  draw  the  half  circle 
a  f  C;  and  with  a  c  as  a  diameter,  draw  the 
half  circle  c  e  a;  then  the  crossings  e  and  /  are 
the  tangenting  points  of  the  circles. 

19. 

With  a  given  radius  r,  draw  a  circle  that  will 
tangent  the  given  line  A  B  and  the  given  circle 
C  D. 

Add  the  given  radius  r  to  the  radius  R  of  the 
circle,  and  draw  the  arc  c  d.  Draw  the  line  c  e 
parallel  with  and  at  a  distance  r  from  the  line 
A  B.  Then  the  crossing  c  is  the  center  of  the 
required  circle  that  will  tangent  the  given  line 
and  circle. 

20. 

To  find  the  center  and  radius  of  a  circle  that 
will  tangent  the  given  circle  A  B  at  C,  and  the 
line  D  E. 

Through  the  given  point  C,  draw  the  tangent 
G  F;  bisect  the  angle  F  G  E;  then  o  is  the 
center  of  the  required  circle  that  will  tangent 
A  B  at  C,  and  the  line  D  E. 


21. 


To  find  the  center  and  radius  of  a  circle  that 


404 


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will  tangent  the  given  line  A  B  at  C,  and  the 
circle  D  E. 

Through  the  point  C,  draw  the  line  E  F  at 
right  angles  to  A  B;  set  off  from  C  the  radius  r 
of  the  given  circle.  Join  G  and  F.  With  G 
and  F  as  centers  draw  the  arc  crosses  m  and  n. 
Join  m  n,  and  where  it  crosses  the  line  E  F  is 
the  center  for  the  required  circles. 

22. 

To  find  the  center  and  radius  of  a  circle  that 
will  tangent  the  given  line  A  B  at  C,  and  the 
circle  D  E. 

From  C,  erect  the  perpendicular  C  G;  set 
off  the  given  radius  r  from  C  to  H.  With  H 
as  a  center  and  r  as  radius,  draw  the  cross 
arcs  on  the  circle.  Through  the  cross  arcs 
draw  the  line  /  G;  then  G  is  the  center  of  the 
circle  arc  F  I  C,  which  tangents  the  line  at  C 
and  the  circle  at  F. 

23. 

Between  two  given  lines,  draw  two  circles 
that  will  tangent  themselves  and  the  lines. 

Draw  the  center  line  A  B  between  the  given 
lines;  assume  D  to  be  the  tangenting  point  of 
the  circles;  draw  D  C  at  right  angles  to  A  B. 
With  C  as  center  and  C  D  as  radius,  draw  the 
circle  E  D  F.  From  E,  draw  E  m  at  right 
angles  to  E  F;  and  from  F  draw  F  m  at  right 
angles  to  F  E ;  then  m  and  n  are  the  centers  for 
the  required  circles. 

24. 

Draw  a  circle  that,  will  tangent  two  given 
lines  A  B  and  C  D  inclined  to  one  another 
and  the  one  tangenting  point  E  being  given. 

Draw  the  center  line  G  F.  From  E,  draw 
E  F  at  right  angles  to  A  B;  then  F  is  the  center 
of  the  circle  required. 

25. 

Draw  a  circle  that  will  tangent  two  lines  and 
go  through  a  given  point  C  on  the  line  F  C, 
which  bisects  the  angle  of  the  lines. 

Through  C  draw  A  B  at  right  angles  to  C  F; 
bisect  the  angles  DAB  and  E  B  A,  and  the 
crossing  on  C  F  is  the  center  of  the  required 
circle. 

26. 

To  draw  a  cyma,  or  two  circle  arcs  that  will 
tangent  themselves,  and  two  parallel  lines  at 
given  points  A  and  B. 

Join  A  and  B;  divide  A  B  into  four  equal 
parts  and  erect  perpendiculars.  Draw  A  m 
at  right  angles  from  A,  and  B  n  at  right  angles 
from  B;  then  m  and  n  are  the  centers  of  the 
circle  arcs  of  the  required  cyma. 

27. 

To  draw  a  talon,  or  two  circle  arcs,  that  will 
tangent  themselves,  and  meet  two  parallel 
lines  at  right  angles  in  the  given  points  A 
and  B. 

Join  A  and  B;  divide  A  B  into  four  equal 
parts  and  erect  perpendiculars;  then  m  and  n 
are  the  centers  of  the  circle  arcs  of  the  required 
talon. 

28. 

To  plot  out  a  circle  arc  without  recourse  to 
its  center,  but  its  chord  A  B  and  height  h  being 
given. 

With  the  chord  as  radius,  and  A  and  B  as 
centers,  draw  the  dotted  circle  arcs  A  C  and 
B  D.  Through  the  point  0  draw  the  lines 


A  Go  and  B  O  o.  Make  the  arcs  C  o  =  A  o  and 
D  o  =  B  o.  Divide  these  a,rcs  into  any  desired 
number  of  equal  parts,  and  number  them  as 
shown  on  the  illustration.  Join  A  and  B  with 
the  divisions,  and  the  crossings  of  equal  num- 
bers are  points  in  the  circle  arc. 

29. 

To  find  the  center  and  radius  of  a  circle  that 
will  tangent  the  three  sides  of  a  triangle. 

Bisect  two  of  the  angles  in  the  triangle,  and 
the  crossing  C  is  the  center  of  the  required 
circle. 

30. 

To  inscribe  an  equilateral  triangle  in  a  circle. 

With  the  radius  of  the  circle  and  center  C 
draw  the  arc  D  F  E;  with  the  same  radius, 
and  D  and  E  as  centers,  set  off  the  points  A 
and  B.  Join  A  and  B,  B  and  C,  C  and  A, 
which  will  be  the  required  triangle. 

31. 

To  inscribe  a  square  in  a  given  circle. 

Draw  the  diameter  A  B,  and  through  the 
center  erect  the  perpendicular  C  D,  and  com- 
plete the  square  as  shown  in  the  illustration. 

32. 

To  describe  a  square  about  a  given  circle. 

Draw  the  diameters  A  B  and  C  D  at  right 
angles  to  one  another;  with  the  radius  of  the 
circle,  and  A,  B,  C,  and  D  as  centers,  draw  the 
four  dotted  half  circles  which  cross  one  another 
in  the  corners  of  the  square,  and  thus  com- 
plete the  problem. 

33. 

To  inscribe  a  pentagon  in  a  given  circle. 

Draw  the  diameter  A  B,  and  from  the  center 
C  erect  the  perpendicular  C  D.  Bisect  the 
radius  A  C  at  E;  with  E  as  center,  and  D  E 
as  radius,  draw  the  arc  D  E,  and  the  straight 
line  D  F  is  the  length  of  the  side  of  the  penta- 
gon. 

34. 

To  construct  a  pentagon  on  a  given  line  A  B. 

From  B  erect  B  C  perpendicular  to  and  half 
the  length  of  A  B;  join  A  and  C  prolonged  to 
D;  with  C  as  a  center  and  C  B  as  radius,  draw 
the  arc  B  D;  then  the  chord  B  B  is  the  radius 
of  the  circle  circumscribing  the  pentagon. 
With  A  and  B  as  centers,  and  B  D  as  radius, 
draw  the  cross  O  in  the  center. 

35. 

To  construct  a  pentagon  on  a  given  line  A  B 
without  resort  to  its  center. 

From  B  erect  B  o  perpendicular  and  equal  to 
A  B;  with  C  as  center  and  C  o  as  radius,  draw 
the  arc  D  o;  then  A  D  is  the  diagonal  of  the 
pentagon.  With  A  D  as  radius  and  A  as  cen- 
ter, draw  the  arc  D  E;  and  with  E  as  center 
and  A  B  as  radius,  finish  the  cross  E,  and  thus 
complete  the  pentagon. 

36. 

To  construct  a  hexagon  in  a  given  circle. 

The  radius  of  the  circle  is  equal  to  the  side 
of  the  hexagon. 

37. 

To  construct  a  Heptagon. 

The  appotem  a  in  a  hexagon  is  the  length  of 
the  side  of  the  heptagon. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


405 


c 


A 


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SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


Set  off  A  B  equal  to  the  radius  of  the  circle; 
draw  a  from  the  center  C  at  right  angles  to 
A  B;  then  a  is  the  required  side  of  the  hep- 
tagon. 

To  construct  an  octagon  on  the  given  line  A  B. 

Prolong  A  B  to  C.  With  B  as  center  and  A 
B  as  radius,  draw  the  circle  A  F  D  E  C;  from 
B,  draw  B  I  at  right  angles  to  A  B;  divide  the 
angles  A  B  D  and  D  B  C  each  into  two  equal 
parts;  then  B  E  is  one  side  of  the  octagon. 
With  A  and  E  as  centers,  draw  the  arcs  H  K  E 
and  A  K  I,  which  determine  the  points  H  aiid 
7,  and  thus  complete  the  octagon  as  shown  in 
the  illustration. 

39. 

To  cut  off  the  corners  of  a  square,  so  as  to 
make  of  it  a  regular  octagon. 

With  the  corners  as  centers,  draw  circle  arcs 
through  the  center  of  the  square  to  the  side, 
which  determines  the  cut-off. 

40. 

The  area  of  a  regular  polygon  is  equal  to  the 
area  of  a  triangle  whose  base  is  equal  to  the 
sum  of  all  the  sides,  and  the  height  a  equal  to 
the  appotem  of  the  polygon. 

The  reason  of  this  is  that  the  area  of  two  or 
more  triangles  ABC  and  ADC  having  a 
common  or  equal  base  b  and  equal  height  h  are 
alike. 

To  construct  any  regular  polygon  on  a  given 
line  A  B  without  resort  to  its  center. 

Extend  A  B  to  C  and,  with  B  as  center, 
draw  the  half  circle  A  D  B.  Divide  the  half 
circle  into  as  many  parts  as  the  number  of 
sides  in  the  polygon,  and  complete  the  con- 
struction as  shown  on  the  illustration. 

42. 

To  construct  an  isometric  ellipse  by  com- 
pasess  and  six  circle  arcs. 

Divide  O  A  and  O  B  each  into  three  equal 
parts;  draw  the  quadrant  A  C.  From  C,  draw 
the  line  C  c  through  the  point  1.  Through  the 
points  2  draw  d  e  at  an  angle  of  45°  with  the 
major  axis.  Then  2  is  the  center  for  the  ends 
of  the  ellipse ;  e  is  the  cen  ter  for  the  arc  d  c;  and 
C  is  the  center  for  the  arc  c  /. 

43. 

To  construct  a  Hyperbola  by  plotting, 
Having  given  the  transverse  axis  B  C,  vertexes 
A  a,  and  foci  /  /'.  Set  off  any  desired  number 
of  parts  on  the  axis  below  the  focus,  and  num- 
ber them  1 ,  2,  3,  4,  5,  etc.  Take  the  distance 
a  1  as  radius,  and,  with  /'  as  center,  strike  the 
cross  1  with  /'  1  =a  1.  With  the  distance  A  1, 
and  the  focus  /  as  center,  strike  the  cross  1 
with  the  radius  F  1  =  A  1 ,  and  the  cross  1  is  a 
point  in  the  hyperbola. 

44. 

To  draw  an  Hyperbola  by  a  pencil  and  a  string, 
Having  given  the  transverse  axis  B  C,  foci  /' 
and  /,  and  the  vertexes  A  and  a.  Take  a  rule 
and  fix  it  to  a  string  at  e;  fix  the  other  end  of 
the  string  at  the  focus  /.  The  length  of  the 
string  should  be  such  that  when  the  rule  R  is 
in  the  position  /'C'.the  loop  of  the  string  should 
reach  to  A;  then  move  the  rule  on  the  focus  /', 


and  a  pencil  at  P,  stretching  string,  will  trace 
the  hyperbola. 

45. 

To  construct  a  Parabola  by  plotting, 
Having  given  the  axis,  vertex,  and  focus  of 
the  parabola.  Divide  the  transverse  axis  into 
any  desired  number  of  parts  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  and 
draw  ordinates  through  the  divisions ;  take  the 
distance  A  1,  and  set  it  off  on  the  1st  ordinate 
from  the  focus  /  to  a,  so  that  A  1  =  /  a.  Repeat 
the  same  operation  with  the  other  ordinates — 
that  is,  set  off  the  distance  A  5  from  /  to  e,  so 
that  .4.  5  =  /  e;  and  so  the  parabola  is  con- 
structed. 

46. 
To  draw  a  Parabola  with  a  pencil  and  a  string, 

Having  given  the  two  axes,  vertex,  and  focus 
of  the  parabola.  Take  a  square  c  d  e,  and  fix  to 
it  a  string  at  c;  fix  the  other  end  of  the  string 
at  the  focus  /.  The  length  of  the  string  should 
be  such  that  when  the  square  is  in  the  position 
of  the  axis  A  /,  the  string  should  reach  to  the 
vertex  A.  Move  the  square  along  B  B,  and 
the  pencil  P  will  describe  the  parabola. 

47. 

Shield's  anti-friction  curve. 
R  represents  the  radius  of  the  shaft,  and 
C  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  is  the  center  line  of  the  shaft. 
From  o,  set  off  the  small  distance  o  a;  and  set 
off  a  l=jR.  Set  off  the  same  small  distance 
from  a  to  b,  and  make  b  2  =  R.  Continue  in 
the  same  way  with  the  other  points,  and  the 
anti-friction  curve  is  thus  constructed. 

48. 

Isometric  Perspective. 

This  kind  of  perspective  admits  of  scale 
measurements  the  same  as  any  ordinary  draw- 
ing, and  gives  a  clear  representation  of  the 
object.  It  is  easily  learned.  All  horizontal 
rectangular  lines  are  drawn  at  an  angle  of  30°. 

All  circles  are  ellipses  of  proportion,  as 
shown  in  No.  42,  on  the  following  page. 

49. 

To  construct  an  ellipse. 

With  a  as  a  center,  draw  two  concentric  cir- 
cles with  diameters  equal  to  the  long  and  short 
axes  of  the  desired  ellipse.  Draw  from  o  any 
number  of  radii,  A,  B,  etc.  Draw  a  line  B  b' 
parallel  to  n  and  b  b'  parallel  to  m,  then  b  is  a 
point  in  the  desired  ellipse. 

50. 

To  draw  an  ellipse  with  a  string. 
Having  given  the  two  axes,  set  off  from  c 
half  the  great  axis  at  a  and  b,  which  are  the 
two  focuses  of  the  ellipse.  Take  an  endless 
string  as  long  as  the  three  sides  in  the  tri- 
angle a  b  c,  fix  two  pins  or  nails  in  the  focuses, 
one  in  a  and  one  in  b,  lay  the  string  around  a 
and  b,  stretch  it  with  a  pencil  d,  which  then 
will  describe  the  desired  ellipse. 

51. 

To  draw  an  ellipse  by  circle  arcs. 
Divide  the  long  axis  into  three  equal  parts, 
draw  the  two  circles,  and  where  they  intersect 
one  another  are  the  centers  for  the  tangent 
arcs  of  the  ellipse  as  shown  by  the  figure. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


407 


A      C 


408 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


52. 

To  draw  an  ellipse  by  circle  arcs. 
Given  the  two  axes,  set  off  the  short  axis 
from  A  to  b,  divide  6  into  three  equal  parts, 
set  off  two  of  these  parts  from  o  towards  c 
and  c  which  are  the  centers  for  the  ends  of  the 
ellipse.  Make  equilateral  triangles  on  c  c,  when 
e  e  will  be  the  centers  for  the  sides  of  the  ellipse. 
If  the  long  axis  is  more  than  twice  the  short 
one,  this  construction  will  not  make  a  good 
ellipse. 

53. 

To  construct  an  ellipse. 

Given  the  two  axes,  set  off  half  the  long  axis 
from  c  to  /  /,  which  will  be  the  two  focuses  in 
the  ellipse.  Divide  the  long  axis  into  any 
mimber  of  parts,  say  a  to  be  a  division  point. 
Take  A  a  as  radius  and  /  as  center  and  describe 
a  circle  arc  about  b,  take  a  B  as  radius  and  /  as 
center  describe  another  circle  arc  about  fc.then 
the  intersection  b  is  a  point  in  the  ellipse,  and 
so  the  whole  ellipse  can  be  constructed. 

54. 

To  draw  on  ellipse  that  -trill  tangent  two  parallel 

lines  in  A  and  B. 

Draw  a  semicircle  on  A  B,  draw  ordinates 
in  the  circle  at  right  angle  to  A  B,  the  corre- 
sponding and  equal  ordinates  for  the  ellipse 
to  be  drawn  parallel  to  the  lines,  and  thus  the 
elliptic  curve  is  obtained  as  shown  by  the 
figure. 


To  construct  a  cycloid. 

The  circumference  C  =  3.14  D.  Divide  the 
rolling  circle  and  base  line  C  into  a  number  of 
equal  parts,  draw  through  the  division  point 
the  ordinates  and  abscissas,  make  a  a'  =  l  d, 
b  b'  =  2'e,  c  c  =  3  /,  then  a  b'  and  c'  are  points 
in  the  cycloid.  In  the  Epicycloid  and  Hypo- 
cycloid  the  abscissas  are  circles  and  the  ordi- 
nates are  radii  to  one  common  center. 


56. 


Evolute  of  a  circle. 


Given  the  pitch  p,  the  angle  v,  and  radius  r. 
Divide  the  angle  v  into  a  number  of  equal  parts, 
draw  the  radii  and  tangents  for  each  part, 
divide  the  pitch  p  into  an  equal  number  of 
equal  parts,  then  the  first  tangent  will  be  one 
part,  second  two  parts,  third  three  parts,  etc., 
and  so  the  Evolute  is  traced. 


To  construct  a  spiral  with  compasses  and  four 

centers. 

Given  the  pitch  of  the  spiral,  construct  a 
square  about  the  center,  with  the  four  sides 
together  equal  to  the  pitch.  Prolong  the 
sides  in  one  direction  as  shown  by  the  figure, 
the  corners  are  the  centers  for  each  arc  of  the 
external  angles. 


58. 


To  construct  a  Parabola. 


Given  the  vertex  A,  axis  x,  and  a  point  P. 
Draw  A  B  at  right  angle  to  x,  and  B  P  parallel 
to  x,  divide  A  B  and  B  P  into  an  equal  num- 
ber of  equal  parts.  From  the  vertex  A  draw 
lines  to  the  divisions  on  B  P,  from  the  divi- 


sions on  A  B  draw  the  ordinates  parallel  to  x, 
the  corresponding  intersections  are  points  in 
the  parabola. 

59. 

To  construct  a  Parabola. 

Given  the  axis  of  ordinate  B,  and  vertex  A  . 
Take  A  as  a  center  and  describe  a  semicircie 
from  B  which  gives  the  focus  of  the  parabola  at 
/.  Draw  any  ordinate  y  at  right  angle  to  the 
abscissa  A  r,  take  a  as  radius  and  the  focus  / 
as  a  center,  then  intersect  the  ordinate  y,  by 
a  circle-arc  in  P  which  will  be  a  point  in  the 
parabola.  In  the  same  manner  the  whole 
Parabola  is  constructed. 

60. 

To  draw  an  arithmetic  spiral. 
Given  the  pitch  p  and  angle  v,  divide  them 
into  an  equal  number  of  equal  parts,  say  6; 
make  01=0  1,02=  02,  03  =  03,  04  =  04,  05 
=  05,  and  0  6  =  the  pitch  p;  then  join  the 
points  1,  2,  3,  4,  5  and  6,  which  will  form  the 
spiral  required. 

THE  CIRCLE. 

Notation  of  Letters. 
rf  =  diameter  of  the  circle. 
r  =  radius  of  the  circle. 
p  =  periphery  or  circumference. 
a  =  area  of  a  circle  or  part  thereof. 
b  =  length  of  a  circle  arc. 
c  =  chord  of  a  segment,  length  of. 
h  =  height  of  a  segment. 
*  =  side  of  a  rectangular  polygon 
v  =  center  angle. 
w  =  polygon  angle. 

All  measures  must  be  expressed  by  the  same 
unit. 

FORMULAS  FOR  THE  CIRCLE. 
Periphery  or  Circumference. 


=  2x  r  =  6.28r. 
=  2  V  IT  a  =  3.54  \' 
2a         4a 


Diameter  and  Radius. 

d-  '-  -  -"-. 

x         3.14 

p  p 

2n          6.28 


•/ 


—  =1.128  V  a 


•  =  i/  —  =  0.564  Va. 

•K 

Area  of  the  Circle, 
red* 

a  = =  0.785<*2 

4 

a  =  Jrr2=3.14r2. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK.  409 


410 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


4*  12.56 
pr  pd 


•K  =  3. 141 59265358979323846264338327950288 

4197169399 
2^  =  6.283185 
3*  =  9. 424778 
4*  =12. 566370 
5*  =15.707963 
6*  =  18.849556 
7*  =  21.991 148 
8^  =  25.132741 
9^  =  28.274334 
^  =  0.785398 
is  •- 1.047197 
^  =  1.570796 
1^  =  0.392699 
i*  =  0.523599 
TV  =  0.261799 
§*  =  2.094394 
3|57r  =  0.008726 
1 
-  =  0.318310 


-  =  0.636619 


-  =  0.954929 


-=1.273239 

6 
-=1.909859 

TC 

8 
-=2.546478 

12 

—  =  3.819718 

360 

=114.5915 

^2=9.869650 
4/jr  =  1.772453 


/I 
- 


=  0.564189 


I 


61. 


-=1.253314 
2 

|/  -  =  0.797884 
Log.  *  =  0.497 14987 


The  periphery  of  a  Circle  is  commonly  ex- 
pressed by  the  Greek  letter  »r  =  3.14  when  the 
diameter  rf=l  or  the  unit.  For  any  other 
value  of  the  diameter  d,  we  will  denote  the 
periphery  by  the  letter  p,  r  —  radius,  and  a  — 
area  of  the  circle.  The  periphery  of  a  circle 
is  equal  to  3  14-100  times  its  diameter. 
c  =  chord. 


62. 


180 


0.0175rv, 


1806  6 

'  = =  57.296-. 

;rr  r 


w  =180 , 

2 

v  =  2(180°—  w). 


64. 


65. 


66. 


J|/a2- 


26 


a  +  6  +  c 


67. 


68. 


69. 


70. 


71. 
72. 
73. 
74. 


B*=D—C,  A  +B  +C  =  180°, 


A'=A, 


(a— 6)2= 

(a +  6)   (a— 6)=a2— 62. 

a  :  6  =  c  :  d, 
ad*=bc, 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


411 


A  / 


88 


\93 


412 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


75. 


77. 


78. 


a  :  6  =  e  :  d, 
ad  =  bc. 

a  :  c  =  c  :  b, 


A  :  B  =  a  :  b. 

a  •  x  =  x  :  a — x, 
—7^i 


80. 


81. 


82. 


02—  d2. 


26 


62 


d  =  — 


83. 


84. 


85. 


86. 


26 

a  :  6  =  /i  :  c, 

ac     a/i 
A  =  —  =  —  , 

6       c 

c2     eft 
<*=—  =  —. 
6       a 

a  :  c  =  d  :  (6  —  d), 


a  :  r  =  6  :  d, 
ad  =  bc. 

a  :  t  =  t  :  b, 


(a—  6), 


87. 


88. 


89. 


90. 


aR 


—  r)2, 


/         52 
4/  r2  -- 
4 


Z  =  2r—  r 


772 

P=4/    --  7:2  ^2 
r       2 


91. 


92. 


To  ^nrf  <Ae  length  of  a  Spiral. 

nr2  I         r 

1  =  xrn  =  --  ,  n  =  —  =  —  , 

P  XT            P 

xr2        r 

P  =  --  =  -.  P  =  Pitch. 
I       n 


To  find  the  length  of  a  Spiral. 


93. 


94. 


95. 


96. 


Periphery  of  an  Ellipse. 


To  construct,  a  screw  Helix. 

To  square  a  Circumference. 
R.  =  0.555355  d  =1.1  107  r  =  0.7071  S. 
•S  =  0.785398  d  =  1  .57079  r  =  1.4142  R 
d  =  1.27322  S  =  1.79740  72  =  2r. 

To  square  a  Circleplane. 
R  =  0.626657  rf=  1.253314  r  =  0.7071  - 
5  =  0.886226  d=  1.77245  r  =  1.4142  R 
d=l.  12838  5  =  1.5367  «  =  2r. 


CHAPTER    II. 


MACHINE    ELEMENTS 


The  Machine  Elements  or  Powers  are  the 
Lever  and  the  Inclined  Plane.  Every  ma- 
chine when  analyzed  is  found  to  be  made  up 
of  these  elements,  either  singly  or  in  com- 
bination; for  example,  pulleys,  gear  wheels, 
etc.,  are  forms  of  levers,  while  screws,  cams, 
etc.,  are  forms  of  inclined  planes. 

There  are  four  distinct  types  of  levers,  as 
shown  in  our  illustration. 

1st.  The  Common  Lever,  consisting  of  a 
straight  inflexible  bar  movable  on  a  fulcrum. 
The  section  of  the  bar  extending  from  the 
fulcrum  to  the  point  where  the  power  is  ap- 
plied is  called  the  Power  Arm,  and  the  section 
extending  from  the  fulcrum  to  the  point 
where  the  weight  is  applied  is  called  the 
Weight  Arm. 

2d.  The  Angular  or  Bell  Crank  Lever.  This 
is  distinguished  from  the  Common  Lever  in 
having  its  power  arms  disposed  at  an  angle 
to  the  weight  arms. 

3d.  The  Wheel  and  Axle,  or  Revolving 
Lever.  A  wheel  and  axle  or  two  concentric 
wheels  take  the  place  of  the  power  and  weight 
arms.  The  weight  is  attached  to  a  rope  coiled 
on  one  of  the  wheels,  and  the  power  is  at- 
tached to  a  rope  coiled  on  tKe  other  wheel. 
The  relation  of  this  lever  to  the  common  lever 
is  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines,  and  it  will  be 
evident  that  this  relation  remains  constant 
even  when  the  wheels  are  revolving. 

4th.  The  Pulley.  Another  type  of  revolv- 
ing lever,  but  differing  from  the  wheel  and 
axle  type  in  that  a  single  wheel  is  used  and 
the  fulcrum  is  not  necessarily  always  at  the 
center  of  the  wheel. 

Each  of  these  types  of  the  simple  lever  is 
capable  of  three  different  arrangements  usu- 
ally termed  "Orders."  In  the  First  Order 
the  fulcrum  lies  between  the  weight  and  the 
power.  In  the  Second  Order  the  weight  lies 
between  the  fulcrum  and  the  power.  In  the 
Third  Order  the  power  lies  between  the  ful- 
crum and  the  weight.  The  second  order  gives 
the  longest  power  arm  relative  to  the  weight 
arm,  and  consequently  is  the  most  powerful 
lever  of  the  three.  The  formulae  for  deter- 
mining the  amount  of  power  required  to  bal- 
ance a  given  weight,  are  given  at  the  bottom 
of  the  illustration.  In  measuring  the  arms 
of  the  angular  levers  the  measurements 
should  not  be  taken  along  the  length  of  the 
arms,  but  in  the  horizontal  plane  as  shown, 
because  this  measurement  represents  the  true 
theoretical  length  of  the  lever  arm.  As  the 
lever  is  moved  about  the  fulcrum,  the  ratio 
of  the  power  arm  to  the  weight  arm  changes 
as  indicated  by  dotted  lines  in  the  first  order 
of  angular  levers,  because  the  arm  that  is  ap- 
proaching the  horizontal  plane  is  increasing 
in  length,  while  the  other  which  is  moving 
toward  the  vertical  plane  is  decreasing  in 


length.  The  same  is  true  in  a  modified  form 
of  the  second  and  third  orders  of  angular 
levers. 

In  the  case  of  the  pulleys  the  power  and 
weight  arms  bear  a  definite  relation  to  each 
other.  No  matter  what  their  size  may  be, 
the  power  arm  will  always  be  of  the  same  length 
as  the  weight  arm  in  pulleys  of  the  first  order, 
consequently  the  power  must  be  equal  to  the 
weight  in  order  to  keep  the  lever  in  equilib- 
rium. In  pulleys  of  the  second  order  the 
power  arm  will  be  twice  the  length  of  the 
weight  arm,  consequently  the  power  must  be 
equal  to  half  of  the  weight  in  order  to  keep 
the  lever  in  equilibrium;  and  in  pulleys  of 
the  third  order  the  power  arm  will  be  half  the 
length  of  the  weight  arm,  consequently  the 
power  must  equal  twice  the  weight  in  order 
to  maintain  the  equilibrium  of  the  lever. 

The  compound  levers  consist  of  two  or  more 
simple  levers  of  the  same  or  different  orders 
coupled  together,  either  for  the  purposes  of 
convenience  or  to  increase  the  power. 

Of  the  two  compound  common  levers  illus- 
trated, Figure  1  shows  two  common  levers 
of  the  first  order  coupled  together,  and  Fig- 
ure 2  represents  a  common  lever  of  the  first 
order  coupled  to  a  common  lever  of  the  sec- 
ond order. 

The  compound  revolving  lever  illustrated 
is  a  combination  of  a  wheel  and  axle  of  the 
second  order,  operating  a  pulley  of  the  second 
order.  This  compound  lever  is  also  called  a 
"Chinese  windlass,"  owing  to  its  early  use 
by  the  Chinese  for  lifting  heavy  weights,  such 
as  draw-bridges,  etc. 

The  compound  pulleys  or  tackle  shown  are 
various  combinations  of  pulleys  of  the  same 
or  different  orders.  As  in  the  case  of  the  sim- 
ple pulleys,  the  weight  and  power  arms  bear 
a  constant  relation  to  each  other,  and  it  is 
therefore  possible  to  give  the  numerical  value 
of  the  power  in  terms  of  the  weight,  or  vice 
versa,  afforded  by  the  different  types  of  tackle, 
regardless  of  the  size  of  the  individual  pulleys 
they  comprise.  The  following  simple  formula 
is  applicable  to  all  tackle  in  which  a  continu- 
ous length  of  rope  is  used,  as  in  Figures  1,  2, 
and  3:  Power  equals  weight  divided  by  the 
number  of  rope  parts  supporting  the  weight. 
In  Figure  3,  for  instance,  there  are  five  such 
parts,  not  counting  of  course  the  part  on 
which  the  power  is  applied.  Figures  4  to  9 
are  all  rather  complex,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  power  is  transmitted  to  the  weight  through 
one  or  more  movable  pulley  blocks  connected 
by  separate  ropes.  Figures  4  and  5  show 
tackle  arrangements  called  Spanish  burtons. 
A  general  formula,  applicable  to  any  number 

W 
of  pulleys  arranged  as  in  Fig.  6,  is  P  =  -r : 


413 


414 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


0)2 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


415 


i... 


416 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


in  which  P  represents  the  power,  W  the 
weight,  and  n  the  number  of  ropes  used.  The 
general  formula  for  the  arrangement  shown 

W 
in  Figure  7  is  P  =  — — .      The  general  formula 

for  the  arrangement  shown  in  Figure  8  is 
P=  — .  The  general  formula  for  the  arrange- 


ment shown  in  Figure  9  is  P  = 


W 

3» 


There  are  three  general  classes  of  inclined 
planes,  the  simple  inclined  plane,  the  wedge 
or  movable  inclined  plane,  and  the  screw  or 
revolving  inclined  plane.  There  are  three 
general  types  of  simple  inclined  planes,  as 
illustrated.  1st.  That  in  which  the  power 
acts  in  a  direction  parallel  with  the  inclined 
face  of  the  inclined  plane.  2d.  That  in 


which  the  power  acts  parallel  with  the  base 
of  the  inclined  plane.  3d.  That  in  which  the 
power  acts  at  an  angle  both  to  the  face  and  to 
the  base  of  the  inclined  plane.  The  formulae 
for  determining  the  mechanical  advantage 
secured  by  the  different  forms  of  inclined 
planes  are  given  in  the  illustration.  In  the 
third  type  of  inclined  plane  the  relation  of 
power  to  weight  changes  as  the  weight  is 
drawn  up  the  plane,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  angle  B  becomes  gradually  larger. 

There  are  two  types  of  wedges,  the  single 
wedge  and  the  double  wedge.  The  latter  is 
the  more  common  type. 

Under  revolving  inclined  planes  we  have 
the  screw  together  with  the  cam  (not  illus- 
trated here),  which  are  more  commonly  used 
in  machinery  than  any  other  type  of  inclined 
plane. 


CHAPTER    III. 


MECHANICAL,     MOVEMENTS. 


TOOTHED     GEAR. 

1.  SPUR    GEARS. — The    ordinary    form    of 
toothed-wheel.     The    smaller    of    two    inter- 
meshing  gear-wheels  whether  a  spur-  or  bevel- 
wheel  is  called  a  Pinion. 

2.  GEAR  WITH  MORTISED  TEETH. — This  is 
what    is    ordinarily    known    as    a    Cog-wheel 
among  machinists.     The  wheel  is  ordinarily 
made  of  iron  and  the  teeth  of  wood. 

3.  STEP  GEAR. — The    face    of  this  gear  is 
divided  into  sections  with  the  teeth  of  the 
different  sections  arranged  in  steps;  that  is, 
one  '  in    advance    of    the    other.     Step    gear- 
wheels   are    useful    in    heavy   machinery,    as 
they   give  a   practically    continuous   bearing 
between  the  intermeshing  teeth  of  the  gear- 
wheels. 

4.  OBLIQUE     TOOTHED    GEAR. — The    teeth 
are  cut  diagonally  across  the  working  face  of 
the  wheel  so  as  to  give  the  gear-wheel  a  side 
thrust.     In  a  double  oblique  toothed-gear,  usu- 
ally called  a  V-toothed   gear,   the  thrust  in 
one    direction    is    neutralized    by    an    equal 
thrust  in  the  opposite  direction.     As  in  the 
stepped-gear  it   gives   a   continuous  bearing 
of  the  teeth. 

5.  INTERNAL    OR     ANNULAR    GEAR. — The 
teeth  are  formed  on  the  inner  periphery  of  a 
ring.     This   type   of   gear  is   used  in   heavy 
machinery,  because  it  offers  a  greater  hold 
for  the  teeth  of  the  driving  pinion.     There  is 
less  sliding  friction  between  the  teeth  than  in 
the  usual  outside  spur-gear  and  pinion. 

0.  STAR  WHEEL  GEARS.— The  teeth  are  so 
formed  as  to  permit  an  appreciable  separation 
of  the  gear-wheels  without  preventing  them 
from  properly  meshing  one  with  the  other. 
These  gears  are  used  on  wringing  machines,  etc. 
•  7.  ELLIPTICAL  GEARS. — Due  to  their  ellip- 
tical form,  while  the  driving-gear  rotates  at 
constant  speed,  the  other  gear  will  be  rotated 
at  a  variable  speed.  That  is,  its  motion  will 
first  be  accelerated  and  then  retarded.  They 
are  used  in  some  machines  to  produce  a  slow 
powerful  stroke  followed  by  a  quick  return. 

8.  ANGULAR  GEARS. — These  gears  have  a 
rectangular    form    and,    as    in    the    elliptical 
gears,  they  serve  to  transform  uniform  rotary 
movement    into    variable   rotary   movement. 
However,  this  movement  is  more  jerky  than 
that   produced  by  elliptical  gears.     Angular 
gears  are  very  seldom  used. 

9.  LANTERN  GEAR. — The  teeth  consist  of 
pins  which  lie  parallel  with  the  axis  of  the 
gear-wheel,  and  are  secured  at  their  ends  in 
two  disks  or  gear  heads.     The  pins  are  so 
spaced  as  to  mesh  with  the  teeth  of  a  spur- 
gear.     The  lantern-gear  permits  limited  slid- 
ing movement  of  the  spur-gear  along  its  axis. 
It  can  be  very  cheaply  made,  but  is  used  chiefly 
for  light  work,  such  as  clock  mechanism,  etc. 


10.  CROWN  GEAR. — The  teeth  project  per- 
pendicularly from  a  side  face  of  the  wheel 
instead  of  lying  in  the  plane  of  the  wheel. 
When  in  mesh  with  the  teeth  of  a  spur-gear 
or  a  lantern-gear,  it  forms  a  cheap  method  of 
transmitting  power  from  one  shaft  to  another 
lying  at  right  angles  thereto.     Crown  gears 
are  useful  for  light  work,  and  were  common 
in  old  clock  mechanisms.     They  used  to  be 
known  as  Contrate  wheels. 

11.  BEVEL  GEARS. — The  ordinary  gear  for 
transmrtting   power   from    one   shaft   to   an- 
other at  an  angle  thereto.     When  the  wheels 
are  of  the  same  size  and  operate  on  shafts, 
lying  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees,  one  with  the 
other,  they  are  called  Miter  gears. 

12.  WORM   OR  SCREW  GEAR. — An  endless 
screw    engages    a    spur-gear     with     spirally 
disposed  teeth.     The  screw  is  called  a  worm, 
and  the  spur-gear  a  worm-wheel.     A  much 
diminished  but  very  powerful  motion  is  com- 
municated from  the  worm  to  the  worm-wheel. 
It  is  used  in  heavy  machinery. 

13.  CURVED  WORM    GEAR. — The    working 
face  of  the  worm  is  curved  so  that  a  number 
of   teeth   will   be   in   mesh   with   the   worm- 
wheel,  thus  giving  greater  strength.     It  is  a 
difficult   matter    to   cut    the   thread   of   this 
worm   correctly  owing  to  its  varying  pitch. 
The  gear  is  called  the  saw-tooth  gear  when 
the  teeth  and  thread  are  V-shaped,  as  illus- 
trated. 

14.  SPIRAL     OR      HELICAL     GEARS. — The 
teeth   are   spirally  disposed   on    the  working 
faces  of  the  wheels  so  that  they  will  transmit 
motion  to  shafts  lying  at  right  angles  one 
with  the  other. 

15.  SKEW    GEARS. — The    gears    rotate    on 
shafts  which  lie  in  different  planes  and  at  an 
angle  with  each  other.     The  drawing  shows 
a  skew  spur-gear  meshing  with  a  bevel-gear. 
The  same   term   would    apply  to  two  bevel 
gears  lying  in  different  planes  and  at  angles 
to  each  other. 

16.  RACK    AND    PINION. — A  spur-gear  en- 
gages a  toothed  bar.     Rectilinear  motion  is 
by    this    mechanism    transformed    to    rotary 
motion  or  vice  versa.      It  is  quite  common 
in  heavy  machinery  to  find  a  worm  meshing 
with  and  driving  a  rack. 

17.  SPHERICAL    OR     GLOBOID    GEAR.  —  A 
spiral  thread  is  cut  on  a  spherical  body  and 
meshes    with    the    spiral    teeth    of   the   spur 
pinion.     The  latter  is  so  mounted  that  it  may 
be  swung  to  different  positions  on  the  spher- 
ical gear,  thus  varying  its  speed  of  rotation. 

18.  GEAR     WITH      ROLLER     TEETH. — The 
teeth  project  from  the  flat  face  of  the  wheel, 
and  consist   of  pins    carrying   rollers.      This 
construction  is  used  to  reduce  friction. 

19.  PIN  WHEEL. — The  flat  face  of  the  gear 

adapted  to 


is  studded  with  pins  which  are 


417 


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SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


mesh  with  slots  formed  in  the  edge  of  a 
pinion.  The  pinion  is  so  mounted  that  it  can 
be  moved  toward  or  from  the  center  of  the 
pin  wheel  to  vary  its  speed  of  rotation.  When 
the  pinion  is  moved  past  the  center  of  the 
pin  wheel  its  direction  of  rotation  is  reversed. 

20.  SPIRAL  HOOP  GEAR. — A  spiral  thread  is 
formed  on  the  flat  face  of  the  wheel  and  this 
meshes   with   a   worm-wheel.     The   latter   is 
moved  forward  one  tooth  at  each  complete 
rotation   of   the   spiral   hoop.     This   gives   a 
powerful  drive,  though,  of  course,  at  a  greatly 
diminished  speed. 

21.  INTERMITTENT  GEAR  OR  GENEVA  STOP. 
— The  driving-wheel  is  provided  with  a  single 
tooth  adapted  to  engage  one  of  a  series  of 
notches  in  the  other  wheel.     At  each  com- 
plete rotation  of  the  driving-wheel  the  other 
wheel  is  moved  forward  one  notch  but  no 
more,  due  to  the  concave  space  between  the 
notches  which  fits  closely  against  the  circum- 
ference of  the  other  wheel.     In  the  Geneva 
stop  one  of  these  spaces  is  formed  with  a 
convex    outline,    as    illustrated.     When    this 
space  is  reached  both  wheels  are  prevented 
from  further  rotation  forward.     The  Geneva 
stop  is  used  on  watches  to  prevent  winding 
up  the  main  spring  too  tightly. 

22.  INTERMITTENT   BEVEL  GEAR  OR  MUTI- 
LATED GEAR. — The  teeth  are  formed  only  at 
intervals    on    the    face    of    the    gears.     The 
space  between  the  teeth  in  the  driving-gear  is 
convex,  and  that  between  the  teeth  in  the 
other  gear  is  concave,  so  that  when  the  teeth 
are    not    in    mesh    with    each    other    these 
convex  and  concave  portions  fit  into  each 
other  and  prevent  the  driven  gear  from  mov- 
ing forward  under  its  own  momentum. 

23.  VARIABLE    GEARS. — The    gear    wheels 
are  made  up  of  gear  sectors  of  different  radial 
length,  which  produce  suddenly  varying  mo- 
tions of  the  driven  gear  due  to  the  varying 
leverage  between  the  wheels.     The  segments 
are  arranged  on  different  planes  so  as  not  to 
interfere  one  with  the  other. 

24.  SCROLL    GEARS. — The    gears    have    a 
scroll  form  which  produces  a  gradually  in- 
creasing   or    decreasing    speed    during    each 
rotation.     These  gears   are  also   called   cam 
gears. 

25.  ELLIPTICAL  BEVEL  GEARS. — They  pro- 
duce variable  motion  of  a  shaft  lying  at  right 
angles   to    the    driving   shaft.     This   gear   is 
used  on  bicycles  to  give  increased  power  on 
the   downstroke   of   the   pedal  and   a   quick 
movement  on  the  return. 

26.  VARIABLE  PIN  WHEEL. — A  cone  is  pro- 
vided with  pins  arranged  spirally  thereon,  and 
these  mesh  with  teeth  formed  on  the  other 
cone.     When  one  cone  is  rotated  at  a  con- 
stant speed  the  other  moves  with  a  gradually 
increasing  or  decreasing  speed   during  each 
rotation. 

27.  CAM-TOOTHED      PINION. — The      pinion 
consists    of    two  oppositely   disposed   heart- 
shaped   teeth,   mounted   side   by   side,   on   a 
shaft.     The     gear-wheel     with     which     they 
mesh  has  teeth  alternately  arranged  on  oppo- 
site   side    faces.     Due    to    the    form    of    the 
pinion  teeth,  the  gear-wheel  is  locked  after 
being  moved  forward  by  one  tooth  until  the 
other    tooth   comes    into  mesh  with  a  tooth 
on  the  other  face  of  the  wheel. 

28.  BEVEL  SCROLL  GEAR. — The  gear-wheel 
consists  of  a  bevel  spiral  scroll  which  meshes 
with  a   bevel   pinion.      As   the   spiral   scroll 


rotates  it  causes  the  pinion  to  slide  forward 
on  its  shaft,  and  thus  varies  its  speed. 

FRICTION   GEAR. 

29.  FLAT-FACED  FRICTION  GEAR. — A  com- 
mon type  of  friction  gear.     The  wheels  are 
usually  faced  with  rubber  or  leather  to  in- 
crease the  frictional  hold  between  the  wheels. 
One  of  the  wheels  is  journaled  in  bearings 
which    can    be    adjusted    toward    the    other 
wheel  so  as  to  increase  the  frictional  engage- 
ment. 

30.  GROOVED  FRICTION  GEAR.- — The  faces 
of  the  wheels  are  grooved  so  as  to  increase  the 
bearing   surface.     The    best    results   are   ob- 
tained by  pressing  the  wheels  but  slightly  into 
engagement  with  each  other,  as  this  produces 
little  loss  of  power  by  friction. 

31.  ADJUSTABLE    FRICTION    PINION. — The 

Einion  is  formed  of  a  disk  of  rubber  or  other 
exible  material  held  between  two  washers. 
When  these  washers  are  tightened  together 
they  press  out  the  rubber  between  them, 
crowding  it  into  closer  contact  with  the  V- 
groove  of  the  gear  with  which  it  engages. 

32.  BEVELED    FRICTION    GEAR. — Two  cone 
frustums  are  used  to  convey  motion  from'  one 
shaft  to  another  at  right  angles  thereto. 

33.  FRICTION    DRUMS. — The    drums    have 
concave  faces  which  permit  them  to  transmit 
motion  one  to  the  other  while  lying  at  an 
acute  angle  with  each  other. 

34  to  40.  VARIABLE  SPEED  FRICTION 
GEAR. — 34,  a  pinion,  engages  the  flat  face  of 
the  friction  disk.  Variable  motion  is  pro- 
duced by  moving  the  pinion  across  the  face 
of  the  disk.  When  the  center  of  the  disk  is 
reached  no  motion  is  transmitted.  Beyond 
the  center  the  direction  of  motion  transmitted 
is  reversed.  35.  Motion  is  transmitted  from 
one  friction  disk  to  another  lying  parallel,  but 
not  in  alignment  therewith,  through  an  inter- 
mediary pinion.  This  pinion  can  be  moved 
vertically  to  engage  different  points  on  the 
friction  disks,  and  thus  produce  any  desired 
variation  in  the  speed  transmitted.  36.  Two 
convex  friction  disks  are  so  arranged  that  one 
may  be  swung  through  an  angle  bringing  dif- 
ferent points  on  its  surface  into  contact  with 
the  face  of  the  other  disk.  In  this  manner 
the  speed  of  the  motion  transmitted  is  varied. 
This  gear  is  used  on  sewing-machines.  37. 
Two  parallel  friction  disks  are  each  provided 
with  an  annular  concavity.  Motion  is  trans- 
mitted from  one  disk  to  the  other  by  a  friction 
pinion  mounted  between  the  disks,  and  so  ar- 
ranged that  it  can  be  rotated  to  engage  differ- 
ent points  on  the  surfaces  of  the  concavities, 
thereby  varying  the  speed  transmitted. 
38.  A  cone  with  concave  face  is  engaged  by  a 
pinion  which  may  be  swung  about  a  center 
to  engage  different  points  on  the  face  of  the 
cone.  39.  Two  cones  with  concave  faces  are 
mounted  on  shafts  running  at  right  angles  to 
each  other.  Motion  is  transmitted  from  one 
cone  to  the  other  through  a  friction  pinion 
mounted  to  swivel  so  as  to  engage  different 
points  on  the  faces  of  the  cones.  40.  Two 
friction  cones  are  mounted  on  parallel  shafts, 
and  between  them  runs  a  friction  pinion  hav- 
ing two  faces,  one  engaging  the  upper  cone 
and  the  other  engaging  the  lower  cone.  This 
provides  a  broad  bearing  surface.  The 
pinion  may  be  moved  to  different  positions 
along  the  faces  of  the  cones,  and  thereby  pro- 
duce changes  in  the  speed. 


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419 


15 


19. 


Copyright,  19(M,  by  Munn  &  Co. 


420 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


CHAIN    GEAR. 

41.  SPROCKET  WHEEL. — The  wheel  is  pro- 
vided with  teeth  adapted  to  fit  in  between  the 
links  of  a  chain.      The  chain  may  be  of  the 
ordinary  oval  welded  link  type  or  of  the  flat 
riveted  type  used  on  bicycles. 

42.  LINK-BELT      WHEEL. — The     chain      is 
made  up  of  square  links  which  are  engaged 
by  ratchet-shaped  teeth  on  the  chain  wheel. 

43.  POCKET  WHEEL. — The  wheel  is  formed 
with  pockets  into  which  the  links  of  the  chain 
are  adapted  to  fit. 

44.  SIDE-TOOTHED   WHEEL. — The  wheel   is 
formed  with  two  sets  of  teeth  between  which 
the  chain   travels.     The   teeth   bear  against 
the  ends  of  the  outer  links  of  the  chain. 

45.  SIDE     AND     CENTER    TOOTHED    CHAIN 
WHEEL.— This  wheel  is  similar  to  that  shown 
in  Fig.  44,  but  has  in  addition  a  row  of  teeth 
along  the  center  which  bear  against  the  cen- 
ter link  of  the  chain. 

46.  TOOTHED-LINK   CHAIN   AND   WHEEL. — 
The  links  are  formed  with  projecting  teeth 
which  fit  into  notches  on  the  rim  of  the  chain 
wheel. 

47.  "SILENT"  CHAIN  AND  WHEEL. — This  is 
a  special  type  of  chain  in  which  each  link  is 
formed  with  a  tooth  at  each  end.     The  teeth 
of  adjacent  links  coact  to  completely  fill  the 
spaces  between  the  teeth  of  the  chain  wheel. 
The   construction   is   such   as   to   produce   a 
noiseless  operation  of  the  chain  gear  even  at 
high  speeds. 

48.  DETACHABLE  TOOTHED-LINK  BELT  AND 
WHEEL. — Each  link  is  formed  with  a  tooth, 
which  meshes  with  the  teeth  of  the  chain 
wheel.     The  construction  of  each  link  is  such 
that  it  may  be  readily  slipped  into  or  out  of 
engagement  with  the  next  link  of  the  chain. 

ROPE    GEAR. 

49.  V-PuLLEY. — The  ordinary  type  of  pul- 
ley for  round  ropes  or  cables.     Owing  to  the 
V-shaped  construction  of  the  pulley  groove, 
the    rope    wedges    tightly    into    engagement 
with  the  pulley. 

50.  PULLEY  WITH  FLEXIBLE  FILLING. — In 
order  to  secure  frictional  engagement -of  the 
cable  with  this  pulley,  the  pulley  groove  is 
provided   with   rubber,   leather,   wooden,    or 
other  filling. 

51.  PULLEY    WITH    RIBBED    GROOVE. —  In 
this  construction  of  pulley  the  required  grip 
is  produced  by  forming  ribs  in  the  bottom  of 
a  pulley  groove. 

52.  PULLEY    WITH    GRIPPING    LUGS. — The 
flanges  of  this  pulley  are  formed  with  lugs 
which  kink  the  rope  or  cable  as  shown,  thus 
producing  the  required  grip. 

53.  ROPE  SPROCKET-WHEEL. — An  old  form 
of  rope  gear  used  in  hoists  and  the  like. 

54  and  55.  GRIPPING  PULLEYS. — Gripping 
arms  are  provided  which  grip  the  cable  at  the 
point  where  the  cable  presses  into  the  pulley. 
In  54  the  gripping  arms  are  wedged  inward 
by  the  side  walls  of  the  pulley  groove  when 
pressed  downward  by  the  cable.  These  arms 
are  normally  h  Id  up  by  coil  springs.  In  55 
the  cable  is  gripped  by  the  toggle  movement 
of  hinged  clips  placed  at  intervals  along  the 
periphery  of  the  pulley. 

56.  CABLE  SPROCKET-WHEEL. — The  cable 
is  provided  with  clamps  which  enter  sockets 
formed  in  the  cable  wheel.  This  is  a  form  of 
cable  gear  commonly  used  at  present  in  ele- 
vating and  conveying  machinery. 


CLUTCHES. 

57.  COMMON   JAW   CLUTCH. — One   member 
of  the  clutch  is  mounted  to  slide  on  a  feathered 
shaft,  and  the  other  member  which  is  con- 
nected with  the  machinery  is  normally  sta- 
tionary  on    this    shaft.     When    the    slidable 
member  is  moved  forward  the  teeth  on  its 
forward  edge  intermesh  with  the  teeth  of  the 
other  member,  setting  the  machinery  in  mo- 
tion.    The  slidable  member  is  moved  forward 
by  means  of  a  forked  lever  which  is  hinged  to 
a  split  collar  mounted  loosely  between  flanges 
on  the  clutch  member. 

58.  CLAW  CLUTCH. — The  slidable  member 
of  the  clutch  consists  of  a  body  portion  with 
two  claw  arms  which,  when  moved  forward, 
are  adapted  to  engage  opposite  sides  of  a  bar 
on  the  other  member  of  the  clutch. 

59.  LEVER  CLUTCH. — The  slidable  member 
is  provided  with  a  lever  loosely  hinged  to  its 
forward    end.     The    other    member    of    the 
clutch  consists  of  a  disk  formed  with  ratchet 
teeth  on  its  face.     These  are  engaged  by  the 
hinged  arm   when   the  shaft   rotates  in  one 
direction,    but    the    arm    moves    freely    over 
them  when  rotated  in  the  .opposite  direction. 

60.  KNEE    AND    ROSE    CLUTCH. — A    crank 
arm  is  attached  to  the  slidable  member  of  the 
clutch,  and  engages  a  pin  on  an  arm  loosely 
hinged  to  the  opposite  member  of  the  clutch. 

61.  RATCHET  CLUTCH. — The   clutch  mem- 
bers are  formed  with  ratchet  teeth,  so  that 
when  the  motion  of  the  driving  shaft  is  re- 
versed,   the  members    will   be   disengaged. 

62.  PIN  CLUTCH. — The  slidable  member  is 
provided  with  radial  arms  formed  with  pins 
at  their  outer  ends  which  are  adapted  to  enter 
sockets  formed  along  the  periphery  of  a  disk 
on  the  opposite  member  of  the  clutch. 

63.  FRICTION     DISK     CLUTCH. — The     two 
clutch  members  are  each  formed  with  disks 
preferably  faced  with  rubber  6r  leather,  so 
that   when   pressed   together   their   frictional 
engagement  will  cause  a  transmission  of  mo- 
tion from  the  rotating  disk  to  the  other. 

64.  FRICTION    GROOVE    CLUTCH. — One    of 
the  clutch  members  is  formed  with  a  groove 
in  its  face  to  receive  the  lip  of  the  other  mem- 
ber which  is  cup-shaped.     Both  the  lip  and 
the    side    walls    of    the    groove    are    slightly 
tapered  to  insure  a  close  fit,  even  after  the 
parts  have  been  partly  worn  away  by  friction. 

65.  STUD   CLUTCH. — Engagement    between 
the  two  members  of  the  clutch  is  effected  by 
means  of  a  stud    on    each  disk   adapted    to 
enter  a  notch  formed  in  the  periphery  of  the 
opposing  disk. 

66.  FRICTION    BAND    CLUTCH. — One   mem- 
ber of  the  clutch  consists  of  a  pulley  provided 
with  a  steel   band   which   encircles  and   fits 
tightly  on  its  periphery.     The  other  member 
of  the  clutch  consists  of  a  lever  provided  with 
pins  at  its  outer  ends,  which  are  adapted  to 
engage  the  steel  band.      Since  this  band  is  not 
fastened   to    the    pulley,  any  shock    due    to 
suddenly  throwing   the  clutch  members  into 
engagement  will  be  taken  up  by  the  steel  band 
slipping  on  the  face  of  the  pulley. 

67.  FRICTION   CONE    CLUTCH. — The   clutch 
is  made  up  of  two  cones,  one  adapted  to  fit 
into   the   other.      The   frictional   engagement 
causes  one  to  drive  the  other. 

68.  SELF-RELEASING    CLUTCH. — The   clutch 
disks  are  provided  with  inclined  teeth,  so  that 
in  case  the  resistance  to  the  driven  shaft  in- 


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creases  beyond  a  certain  degree,  the  clutch 
members  will  automatically  move  apart. 

69.  CAM  CLUTCH. — One  of  the  members  is 
cup  shaped,  and  within  this  the  other  mem- 
ber operates.     The  latter  comprises  a  number 
of  cam-shaped  arms  hinged  to  a  body  portion, 
and   so  arranged   that   when   moved   in   one 
direction   they   will   bind    against   the   inner 
wall  of  the  drum,  but  when  moved  in  the  op- 
posite direction  they  will   be  automatically 
disengaged  therefrom. 

70.  V-GROOVED  CLUTCH. — The  clutch  disks 
are  formed  with  annular  V-grooyes  adapted 
to  fit  into  each  other,  and  thus  increase  the 
friction  surface  of  the  clutch  members. 

71.  EXPANSION     CLUTCH.  —  The     slidable 
member  is  provided  with  a  number  of  mov- 
able ring  segments  connected  by  radial  arms 
to  the  main  body  of  the  clutch  and  adapted 
to  bear  against  the  inner  surface  of  the  drum 
or  cup  which  constitutes  the  other  member  of 
the  clutch.     When   the   slidable  member   is 
moved  forward,  by  reason  of  the  toggle  ac- 
tion   of   the   radial   arms,  the   segments    are 
brought  into  frictional  engagement  with  the 
other  member  of  the  clutch. 

72.  COIL-GRIP     CLUTCH.  —  The     movable 
member  of  the  clutch  is  formed  with  a  num- 
ber of  coils  of  steel  in  which  there  is  a  central 
conical    opening.     This    is    moved    over    the 
cone  which  constitutes  the  opposite  member 
of    the  clutch,  producing  the  required  fric- 
tional engagement  of  the  two  members. 

ANGLE    SHAFT    COUPLINGS    AND 
UNIVERSAL  JOINTS. 

73.  CRANK   AND  HINGED-PIN  COUPLING. — 
A  coupling  for  shafts  which  lie  at  an  angle  to 
each  other.     One  shaft  carries  a  hinged  pin 
which  fits  into  an  opening  in  the  outer  end 
of  a  crank  arm  carried  by  the  other  shaft. 

74.  DOUBLE-SLEEVE     ANGLE    COUPLING. — 
Each  shaft  carries  a  crank  arm  provided  with 
a  pin  at  its  outer  end,  which  lies  parallel  with 
its  respective  shaft.     The  two  pins  enter  a 
coupling  device  consisting  of  two  sleeves  in- 
tegrally formed,  but  lying  at  an  angle  with 
each  other  which    corresponds  to  the  angle 
formed  by  the  shafts.      Through  this  double- 
sleeve  coupling,  motion  is  transmitted  from 
one  shaft  to  the  other,  the  pins  sliding  back 
and  forth  in  the  sleeve  openings. 

75.  CROSS-BAR  ANGLE  COUPLING. — This  is 
used    for    coupling    two    parallel    but    offset 
shafts.     Each  shaft  carries  a  yoke  piece  pro- 
vided with  sleeves   at   its  outer  ends.     The 
coupling  member  is  a  cross-shaped  piece,  its 
arms    fitting   into    the    sleeves   of   the   yoke 
pieces,  and  permitting  the  necessary  lateral 
play    as    the    shaft    rotates.     This    form    of 
coupling  is  also  applicable  to  shafts  which  lie 
at  an  angle  with  each  other. 

76.  PIN    AND    SLOT    COUPLING. — A    crank 
pin  carried  by  one  shaft  engages  a  slot  in  a 
crank  arm  carried  by  the  other  shaft.     The 
motion   transmitted   is  variable,  due  to   the 
fact  that  the  leverage  varies  as  the  pin  moves 
up  and  down  in  the  slot. 

77.  RING-GIMBAL  UNIVERSAL  JOINT. — The 
ends   of   the   shafts   are   provided  with  yoke 
members  whose  arms  are  pivoted  to  a  ring- 
gimbal,  the  pivot  pins  of  the  two  yoke  pieces 
lying  at   right   angles   to  each  other.     This 
coupling   will    communicate   motion   at   any 
angle  under  45  degs.     For  angles  of  over  45 
degs.  a  double-link  universal  joint  is  used, 


78.  DOUBLE-LINK     UNIVERSAL,    JOINT. — A 
link  forked  at  each  end  is  hinged  to  two  rings, 
which  are  mounted  in  the  yoke  pieces  on  the 
ends  of  the  shafts.     In  place  of  rings  cross 
pieces  such  as  shown  in  the  illustration  are 
often  used. 

79.  HOOKE'S     ANGULAR     COUPLING. — The 
shafts   are    connected    by   two    double   links 
which  are  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  parallelo- 
gram.      Intermediate  of  the  shafts  the  links 
are  connected  with  ball-and-socket  joints. 

80.  BALL-AND-SOCKET  UNIVERSAL  JOINT. — 
Socket  pieces  are  secured  to  the  ends  of  the 
shafts,    and   these   are   provided   with  metal 
bands  which  encircle  the  ball  that  constitutes 
the    coupling    member.     The    bands    enter 
grooves  in  the  ball  which  lie  at  right  angles  to 
each  other. 

81.  "ALMOND"     ANGULAR    COUPLING. — A 
side  view  of  the  coupling  is  shown  at  1  and  a 
plan  view  at  2.     Between  the  shafts  to  be 
coupled  is  a  fixed  stud  on  which  a  bell  crank 
is  mounted  to  turn.     The  bell  crank  is  per- 
mitted  to   slide   axially   on    the   stud.     The 
bell  crank  is  connected  at  the  ends  by  ball- 
and-socket  joints  with  links  attached  to  the 
ends  of  the  shafts.     Now,  as  the  power  shaft 
rotates,  rotary  motion  will  be  communicated 
to  the  other  shaft  through  the  bell  crank, 
which  will  rock  and  also  slide  axially  on  the 
stud. 

82.  FLEXIBLE  SHAFT. — Two  shafts  are  con- 
nected by  a  flexible  shaft  consisting  of  a  coil 
spring,  or  a  metal  tube  in  which  a  helical  saw- 
slot  has  been  cut.     This  flexible  shaft  will 
permit    transmission    of    motion    through    a 
wide  angular  range. 

83.  LINKED    FLEXIBLE    SHAFT. — The   flex- 
ible shaft  is   made  up   of  a  series   of  links 
coupled   together   with   universal   joints.     A 
coil  spring  fits  loosely  over  the  links  and  pre- 
vents   them    from    kinking.     This    spring   in 
turn  is  covered   with  a  flexible  tube.     The 
shaft  will  transmit  motion  about  almost  any 
curve  or  angle.      It  can  be  used  for  heavy 
work. 

84.  RIGHT-ANGLE  COUPLING. — The  ends  of 
the  shafts  are  formed  with  heads  in  which  are 
drilled  a  number  of  sockets.     A  series  of  rods, 
each  bent  to  form  a  right  angle,  enter  these 
slots  and  form  the  coupling  links  between  the 
shafts.     As  the  shafts  rotate  these  rods  slide 
in  and  out  of  their  sockets. 

RATCHET     MOVEMENTS. 

85.  The  teeth  of  a  ratchet  wheel  are  en- 
gaged by  a  pawl  hinged  to  a  rocking  arm. 
The   ratchet   wheel   is   rotated   only   on   the 
forward  stroke  of  the  arm. 

86.  A  rocking  lever  carries  two  pawls,  one 
on   each  side  of  its  fulcrum.      The  wheel  is 
rotated  both  by  the  downward  and  the  return 
stroke  of  the  lever;    for  while  one  pawl  is 
rotating  the  wheel,  the  other  swings  to  posi- 
tion to  take  a  new  hold  on  the  ratchet  wheel. 
The  rotation   of  the   ratchet  wheel  is  thus 
kept  nearly  constant. 

87.  A   ratchet    crown-wheel   or  rag-wheel 
b    engaged   by    pawls    depending  from   two 
arms   loosely    pivoted    on    the   axle   of   the 
ratchet-wheel.     These    two    arms    are    con- 
nected by  links  to  a  common  power  arm. 
Rectilinear  reciprocating  movement  of  the 
latter  in  the  line  of  the  arrow  produces  an 
almost    constant    rotation    of    the    ratchet- 
wheel. 


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88.  The  action  of  this  ratchet  mechanism 
is   very  similar  to  that  shown   in   Fig.    86, 
except    that    the    pawls    are    hooked    and 
ratchet-wheel  is  rotated  by  an  alternating 
pulling  rather  than  pushing  action   of  the 
pawls. 

89.  This  is  a  modification  of  the  principle 
pictured   in   Fig.    88,   and   shows   a  rocking 
lever   with   two    pawls    hinged    thereon    en- 
gaging a  ratchet  rack. 

90.  Another  modification  of  the  principle 
shown  in  88.     The  rocking  lever  is  mounted 
on  a  fixed  stud  and  is  provided  at  the  center 
with  a  pin  which  enters  a  slot  in  a  ratchet 
bar.     The    latter    is    formed    with    ratchet 
teeth  on  its  opposite   edges  which  are  en- 
gaged   by    hooked    pawls    pivoted    on    the 
rocking  lever.     These  pawls  are  crossed,  as 
shown,  so  that  they  will  be  kept  by  grav- 
ity in  constant  engagement  with  the  ratchet 
teeth.     Now,  when  the  lever  is  rocked  the 
pawls  will  alternately  act  to  lift  the  ratchet 
bar. 

91.  A     common     construction     used     for 
rotating   a   ratchet-wheel    against    a   spring 
resistance.     A    dog    mounted    on    a    fixed 
pivot  drops  by  gravity  or  by  spring  pressure 
against    the    ratchet    teeth    and    holds    the 
wheel  from  turning  while  the  pawl  is  being 
swung  back  for  a  fresh  hold  on  the  ratchet- 
wheel. 

92.  This  shows  the  method  of  rotating  an 
ordinary    spur    gear-wheel   by   means    of   a 
pawl.     The  pawl  is  provided  with  a  tooth 
at   its    outer   end   which    fits    between   the 
teeth  of  the  gear.     The  pawl  is  hinged  to 
the    lower    arm     of    the    bell-crank     lever 
mounted  on  the  gear  shaft.     The  operating 
lever  also  mounted  on  this  shaft  is  permitted 
a  certain  amount  of  play  between  two  pins 
on  the  shorter  arm  of  the  bell  crank-lever. 
A  rod  connects  the  operating  lever  with  the 
pawl.     When  the  lever  is  raised  it  first  lifts 
the  pawl  out  of  engagement  with  the  gear, 
then,  coming  in  contact  with  the  upper  pin 
on  the  bell  crank-lever,  it  moves  the  pawl 
and  bell  crank  back  to  the  desired  position. 
On  lowering  the  operating  lever  the  pawl  is 
first  brought  into  engagement  with  the  gear 
and  then  the  lower  pin  on  the  bell  crank  is 
encountered,  and  the  gear  is  caused  to  ro- 
tate.    This    arrangement   prevents   wearing 
away  of  the  teeth — a  common  defect  in  the 
ordinary  type  of  ratchet  mechanism. 

93.  The  pawl  is  kept  in  contact  with  the 
ratchet-wheel  by  the  weight  of  the  lever  on 
which   it   is   formed.      By    pulling   the   rope 
attached  to  the  end  of  the  lever  the  pawl 
will  be  drawn  out  of  engagement  with  the 
ratchet-wheel,  and  the  latter  will  be  turned 
by  friction  of  the  rope  on  the  wheel  hub. 

94.  A    reversible     spur-gear     rrtchet    me- 
chanism.    Mounted    on     the     shaft     which 
carries    the  spur-gear  is  a  bell  crank-lever. 
This   at   one   end    carries    a   double-toothed 
pawl,  one  of  which  teeth  meshes   with  the 
teeth  of  the  gear.     The  pawl  is  so  shaped 
that  it  will  withdraw  the  tooth  from  engage- 
ment   with    the    gear    teeth    on    the    return 
stroke  of  the  lever.     When  it  is  desired  to 
reverse  the  direction  of  rotation,  the  pawl  is 
moved  over  to  the  position  shown  in  dotted 
lines,  bringing  its  other  tooth  into  engage- 
ment with  the  gear  teeth. 

95.  The    ratchet-wheel    is    intermittently 
rotated  by  the  oscillation  of  a  lever  which 
carries  a  spring-pressed  pawl.     On  the  up- 


ward stroke  the  ratchet  is  turned  by  the 
pawl  which  is  backed  by  a  shoulder  on  the 
lever.  On  the  return  stroke  a  dog  holds  the 
ratchet-wheel  from  turning  while  the  pawl 
snaps  past. 

96.  Ratchet   teeth  are  formed   on   a  ball 
which  rests  in  a  socket  formed  at  the  end  of 
a  lever.       A   spring   pawl   on   this  lever  en- 
gages  the  ratchet  teeth  at  any  position  of 
the  lever.     This   construction   is   useful   for 
ratchet  braces  which  have  to  be  operated  in 
inconvenient  places. 

97.  A  device  for  converting  rotary  motion 
into  vibratory  motion.     A  spring-pressed  pin 
engages   the   teeth  of    a   revolving     crown- 
wheel    ratchet,    and    is   thereby   caused  to 
vibrate. 

98.  A     device      for      converting     recipro- 
cating    motion      into     intermittent     rotary 
motion.     The  crown-wheel  ratchet  is  inter- 
mittently rotated  by  a  reciprocating  lever 
carrying  a  pawl  which  engages  the  ratchet 
teeth. 

99.  Internal     ratchet     used     on     ratchet 
braces,    etc.     The    drill    spindle     carries    a 
number  of  spring-pressed  pawls  which  bear 
against  the  internal  ratchet  teeth  formed  in 
the  handle  of  the  brace. 

100.  Ball  ratchet  device    for    lawn   mow- 
ers, etc.     In  the  hub  of  a  wheel  is  a  groove  in 
which  a  ball  is  carried.     A  spring  presses  this 
ball  down  against  a  shaft  on  which  the  wheel 
turns.     When  the  wheel  rotates  forward,  the 
ball  wedges  in  between  the   shaft  and   th? 
groove,  causing  the  shaft  to  turn  with  the 
wheel.     When  the    direction    of   rotation  is 
reversed,  the  ball   is  forced   up  against  the 
spring,  releasing  the  shaft.' 

ESCAPEMENTS. 

101.  RECOIL  ESCAPEMENT. — This  is  a  com- 
mon form  of  escapement  used  on  clocks.     The 
pallets    carried    by    the    pendulum    are    so 
mounted  that  when  a   tooth  of  the  escape 
wheel,  which  is  driven  by  the  clock-train,  is  just 
escaping  from  one  of  the  pallets,  another  tooth 
falls  on  the  other  pallet  near  its  point.     As  the 
pendulum  swings  on,  however,  the  taper  face 
of  the  pallet  bearing  against  the  tooth  causes 
the  escape  wheel  to  turn  slightly  backward. 
As  the  pendulum  swings  back,  it  receives  an 
impulse  from  the  escape  wheel  which  is  greater 
by  reason  of  this  recoil.     The  principal  value 
of  the  recoil,  however,  is  to  overcome  any  un- 
evenness  in  the  pressure  exerted  by  the  train, 
which  might  otherwise  stop  the  clock. 

102.  DEAD-BEAT  ESCAPEMENT. — A  form  of 
escapement  used  on  the  best  clocks.    The  teeth 
of  the  escape  wheel  fall  "dead ' '  upon  the  pal- 
lets, that  is,  the  pallets  are  so  cut  that  as  the 
pendulum  continues  to  swing  they  slide  on 
the  teeth  without   turning  the  escape  wheel 
backward.      The  ends  of  the  pallets  are  formed 
with  inclined  faces,  termed  "impulse  faces," 
against  which  the  teeth  of  the  escape  wheel 
bear  when  giving  impulse  to  the  pendulum. 
The  value  of  this  escapement  lies  in  the  fact 
that  it  gives  a  very  even  beat  of  the  pendulum 
even  when  there  is  a  slight  variation  in  the 
force  exerted  by  the  clock  train. 

103.  LEVER  ESCAPEMENT. — This  is  an  es- 
capement used  on  watches.     The  anchor  on 
which  the  pallets  are  carried  is  secured  to  a 
lever,  formed  with  a  notch  in  one  end.     This 
notch  is  engaged  by  a  pin  on  the  arbor  of  the 
balance  wheel.     The  teeth  of  the  escape  wheel 
alternately  bear  against  the  inclined  faces  of 


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the  pallets  and  oscillate  the  lever,  which  turns 
the  balance  wheel  alternately  in  opposite 
directions. 

104.  VEKGE  ESCAPEMENT. — A  form  of  es- 
capement used  in  old-fashioned  watches.    The 
escape  wheel  is  a  crown  wheel,  and  its  teeth, 
on  opposite  sides,  are  engaged  by  two  pallets, 
carried  on  the  shaft  of  the  balance  wheel.    The 
escapement  teeth,  acting  alternately  on  the 
pallets,  lift  and  clear  them,  thus  rocking  the 
shaft  and  balance  wheel,  which  governs  the 
frequency  of  the  escape. 

105.  STAR  WHEEL  ESCAPEMENT. — The  es- 
cape has  but  few  teeth  and  is,  therefore,  called 
a  star  wheel.     The  pallets  act  on  teeth  that 
lie  diametrically  opposite  each  other.     This 
escapement  has  a  dead-beat  action. 

106.  CROWN  TOOTH  ESCAPEMENT. — An  old 
form  of  recoil  escapement,  in  which  a  crown 
escape  wheel  is  used.     The  pallets  are  mount- 
ed to  engage  opposite  sides  of  the  wheel.    This 
type  is  objectionable,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  pendulum  must  oscillate  through  a  very 
wide  angle  in  order  to  permit  the  teeth  to 
escape   from   the    pallets,    which   requires   a 
greater  pressure  in  the  clock-train  and  heavier 
parts  and  produces  greater  friction  on  the 
pallets. 

107.  LANTERN   WHEEL,   ESCAPEMENT. — An 
old-fashioned  type  of  escapement,  in  which 
the  escape  wheel  is  a  lantern  wheel,  and  the 
pallets  are  two  plates  set  at  angles  on  a  rock- 
ing arm. 

108.  PIN-WHEEL    ESCAPEMENT. — A    dead- 
beat  escapement  used  in  many  of  the  best 
turret  clocks.     The  escape  wheel  is  formed 
with  pins  which  drop  on  to  the  ' '  dead ' '  faces 
of  the  pallets,  but  give  impulses  to  the  pen- 
dulum by  sliding  off  the  inclined  "impulse" 
faces  of  the  pallets.     It  is  found  best  in  prac- 
tice to  cut  the  "dead"  faces  so  as  to  give  a 
very  slight  recoil. 

109.  OLD-FASHIONED   CROWN   WHEEL   ES- 
CAPEMENT.— This,  in  appearance,  is  quite  sim- 
ilar to  the  escapement  shown  in  Figure  106, 
but  is  different  in  action.     The  inclined  faces 
of  the  teeth,  which  are  very  long,  act  to  lift 
the  pallets. 

110.  RING  ESCAPEMENT. — A  form  of  "dead- 
beat"  escapement.     The  pallets  are  formed 
on  the  inside  of  the  ring,  within  which  the 
escape  wheel  turns. 

Ill  and  112.  GRAVITY  ESCAPEMENTS. — A 
type  of  escapement  in  which  the  impulse  from 
the  escape  wheel  is  not  given  directly  to  the 
pendulum,  but  through  the  medium  of  two 
weights,  usually  the  arms  on  which  the  pallets 
are  carried  and  which  are  alternately  lifted  by 
the  escape  wheel  and  dropped  against  the  pen- 
dulum. Figure  111  shows  the  four-legged 
gravity  escapement  used  on  turret  clocks. 
The  escape  wheel  is  formed  with  four  legs  or 
teeth,  and  carries  eight  pins,  four  on  one  face 
of  the  hub  and  four  on  the  other.  The  pal- 
let arms  are  pivoted  as  near  as  possible  to  the 
point  from  which  the  pendulum  swings.  The 
pallets  which  are  formed  on  these  arms  are 
arranged  to  lie  one  on  one  side  and  the  other 
on  the  other  side  of  the  escape  wheel.  The 
pallet  arms  are  each  provided  with  a  stop 
piece  against  which  the  teeth  of  the  escape- 
ment will  alternately  rest.  In  the  illustra- 
tion, a  tooth  of  the  escape  wheel  is  resting 
against  the  stop  on  the  right-hand  arm.  As 
the  pendulum  swings  toward  the  right,  the 
tooth  will  escape  from  the  stop,  permitting 
the  wheel  to  rotate  until  it  encounters  the 


stop  on  the  left-hand  arm,  at  the  same  time 
a  pin  on  the  wheel  engages  the  end  of  the 
pallet  at  the  left,  and  lifts  the  pallet  arm.  In 
the  meantime  the  right-hand  pallet  arm  swings 
with  the  pendulum  to  the  end  of  its  stroke 
but  falls  with  it  on  the  return  stroke  until 
stopped  by  a  pin  on  the  escape  wheel.  It 
will  be  evident  that  the  angle  through  which 
the  pallet  arm  falls  with  the  pendulum  is 
greater  than  that  through  which  it  is  lifted  by 
the  pendulum,  and  it  is  this  difference  in 
travel  which  gives  impulse  to  the  pendulum. 
Figure  112  shows  a  double,  three-legged  es- 
capement which  is  used  for  very  large  clocks. 
Two  three-legged  escape  wheels  are  used  with 
three  lifting  pins  held  between  them  like  the 
pins  of  a  lantern  wheel.  The  pallets  operate 
between  the  wheels.  A  stop  piece  is  placed  on 
one  of  the  pallet  arms  for  the  forward  wheel, 
and  the  other  arm  carries  a  stop  for  the  rear 
wheel.  The  teeth  of  one  wheel  are  set  60 
degrees  in  advance  of  the  other.  The  action 
is  similar  to  that  of  the  four-legged  escape- 
ment. A  tooth  of  the  forward  wheel  is  shown 
resting  on  its  stop.  When  this  is  released  by 
the  swinging  pendulum,  the  wheels  rotate, 
lifting  the  left-hand  pallet  until  a  tooth  of  the 
rear  wheel  engages  its  stop.  The  right  pallet 
arm,  however,  continues  to  be  lifted  by  the 
pendulum,  and  then  falls  with  it,  giving  it 
impulse  until  arrested  by  a  lifting  pin,  only 
to  be  lifted  again  when  the  pendulum  releases 
the  rear  wheel  from  its  stop. 

GEARING. 

113.  A  means  for  changing  rectilinear  recip- 
rocating motion  to  rotary  reciprocating  motion 
and  vice  versa.     Two  intermeshing  pinions 
engage  internal  racks  formed  on  opposite  sides 
of  a  frame. 

114.  Means  for  changing  rotary  motion  to 
rectilinear  reciprocating  motion.     A  rotating 
sector  or  pinion  formed  with  teeth  on  only  a 
portion  of  its  periphery  imparts  reciprocating 
motion  to  a  rack  frame  by  first  engaging  the 
teeth  at  one  side  of  the  rack,  and  then  the 
teeth  on  the  other  side  of  the  rack.     See  Fig- 
ure 1 15  for  gravity  return. 

115.  Another  method  of  converting  rotary 
motion  into  rectilinear  reciprocating  motion. 
A  rotating  sector  engages  the  teeth  of  a  rack 
during  a  part  of  its  rotation  and  thereby  lifts 
the  rack,  but  as  soon  as  the  rack  clears  the 
sector  teeth,  it  drops  by  gravity,  ready  to  be 
lifted  up  when  it  again  encounters  the  teeth 
of  the  sector.     See  Figure  114  for  power  re- 
turn. 

116  A  movement  designed  as  a  substitute 
for  a  crank.  The  rack  frame  is  formed  with 
internal  racks  on  opposite  sides,  but  these 
racks  lie  in  different  planes.  Two  separate 
pinions  are  employed  which  mesh  respectively 
with  these  racks.  The  pinions  are  mounted 
loosely  on  a  shaft,  but  carry  pawls  which  en- 
gage with  ratchet  wheels  secured  to  the  shaft. 
On  the  forward  stroke  of  the  rack  frame  the 
pinions  will  both  be  rotated  but  in  opposite 
directions.  However,  due  to  their  ratchet 
and  pawl  connection  with  the  shaft,  only  one 
pinion  turns  the  shaft.  On  the  return  stroke 
the  rotation  of  the  pinions  will  be  reversed 
but  the  shaft  will  continue  to  rotate  in  the 
same  direction,  driven  this  time  by  the  other 
pinion  of  the  pair. 

117.  Sun  and  Planet  gearing.  A  gear 
wheel,  called  the  "sun"  wheel,  rotating  on  a 
fixed  center,  is  engaged  by  a  gear  wheel  called 


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the  planet  wheel,  which  revolves  about  the 
sun  wheel.  This  construction  was  used  by 
James  Watt  in  one  of  his  steam  engines  as  a 
substitute  for  a  crank.  The  planet  wheel  was 
rigidly  secured  to  the  connecting  rod  and  con- 
nected by  an  arm  to  the  center  of  the  sun  wheel. 
At  each  complete  revolution  of  the  planet 
wheel  about  the  sun  wheel,  the  latter  was 
caused  to  rotate  twice. 

118  and  119.  Means  for  converting  rotary 
motion  into  irregular  reciprocal  motion.  In 
118  two  intermeshing  spur  gears  are  provided 
with  crank  arms  connected  by  a  working 
beam.  If  the  gears  are  of  equal  size  the  mo- 
tion transmitted  to  the  rod  secured  to  the 
working  beam  will  be  uniform.  If,  however, 
the  gears  are  of  different  sizes,  the  motion  of 
this  rod  will  vary  greatly.  In  119  a  still  more 
complex  movement  is  produced,  since  there 
are  three  intermeshing  gear  wheels  of  unequal 
sizes  and  two  connected  working  beams. 

120.  Irregular  oscillatory  motion  is  given 
to  a  hinged  arm  by  pivoting  at  its  outer  end 
a  cam -shaped  gear  wheel  which  is  rotated  by 
a  continuously  driven  pinion.     Any  desired 
motion  of  the  arm  may  be  produced  by  vary- 
ing the  shape  of  the  cam  gear. 

121.  Means  for  converting  uniform  rotary 
motion    into    variable    rotarv    motion.     An 
elliptical  gear  rotates  at  uniform  speed  and 
drives  a  spur  pinion.     The  latter  is  secured  to 
a  shaft  which  slides  between  the  arms  of  two 
forked  levers.     A  spring  keeps  the  pinion  in 
mesh  with  the  elliptical  gear. 

122.  Means  for  converting  constant  rotary 
motion  into  intermittent  rotary  motion.     The 
driving  wheel  is  formed  with  teeth  through  a 
portion  of  its  periphery  equal  to  the  toothed 
periphery  of  the  pinion.     The  latter  is  cut 
away  at  one  place  to  fit  the  plane  porti9n  of 
the  driving  wheel.     This  prevents  the  pinion 
from  rotating  until  a  pin  on  the  wheel  strikes 
a  projecting  arm  on  the  pinion  and  guides  the 
teeth  of  the  gears  into  mesh  with  each  other. 

123.  Means  for  converting  uniform  rotary 
motion  into  variable  rotary  motion.     A  crown 
wheel  eccentrically  mounted  is  driven  by  a 
pinion  rotating  at  uniform  speed.     The  point 
of  engagement  of  the  crown  wheel  with  the 
pinion  varies  radially,  causing  the  wheel  to 
rotate  at  a  variable  speed. 

124.  The  mechanism  is  so  arranged  as  to  im- 
part planetary  movement  to  a  pinion.     An 
internal    gear   wheel   formed   with   a   pulley 
groove  in  its  periphery  is  mounted  to  rotate 
on  a  sleeve  which  carries  a  spur  gear  at  one 
end   and   a   pulley  at   the   other.     The  gear 
wheels  are  belted  to  a  driving  pulley  in  such 
manner  as  to  rotate  in  opposite  directions. 
A  spur  pinion  which  fits  in  between  the  teeth  of 
the  two  gears  is  rotated  thereby  on  its  own 
axis  and  revolves  about  the  center  of  the  two 
gears  at  a  speed  which  is  the  differential  of 
the  speeds  of  the  two  gears. 

125.  The  construction  here  shown  is  adapted 
to  produce  a  slow  forward  movement  of  a  rack 
with  a  quick  return.     The  rack  is  mounted  to 
slide  longitudinally  and  is  driven  by  a  toothed 
sector.     The  latter  is  provided  with  a  slotted 
arm  which  is  engaged  by  a  pin  on  a  rotating 
disk.     The  forward  movement  will  take  place 
while  the  pin  is  passing  through  the  larger 
arc  subtended  by  the  two  dotted  radial  lines 
shown,  and  there  turn  while  the  pin  is  pass- 
ing through  the  smaller  arc. 

126.  A  means  for  converting  reciprocating 
motion  into  continuous  rotary  motion.     A 


double-faced  reciprocating  rack  engages  first 
one  and  then  the  other  of  a  pair  of  toothed 
sectors.  The  sectors  are  mounted  on  a  pair 
of  shafts,  disposed  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
rack.  The  shafts  carry  pinions  which  engage 
opposite  sides  of  the  central  gear  wheel.  The 
rotary  motion  alternately  imparted  to  the 
sectors,  is  conveyed  through  these  pinions  to 
the  gear  wheel,  each  pinion  alternately  acting 
to  drive  the  wheel  when  its  respective  sector 
is  in  mesh  with  the  rack,  and  then  to  be 
driven  by  the  gear  wheel  until  its  sector  is 
brought  again  in  mesh  with  the  rack.  Thus 
a  continuous  rotary  motion  is  produced. 

127  Mechanism  for  converting  unif9rm 
rotary  motion  into  irregular  rotary  motion. 
Mounted  eccentrically  on  the  driving  shaft  is 
a  gear  wheel  which  transmits  motion  to  an- 
other gear  wheel  through  an  intermediate 
pinion.  Pivoted  to  the  centers  of  the  two 
gear  wheels  are  two  links  whose  outer  ends 
are  connected  by  a  hinge  pin  on  which  the 
pinion  rotates.  These  links  serve  to  hold  the 
pinion  constantly  in  mesh  with  the  gears,  no 
matter  what  the  position  of  the  eccentric  is. 

128.  Means  for  converting  uniform  rotary 
motion  into  variable  reciprocating  motion.  A 
rack  frame  mounted  to  slide  longitudinally  is 
driven  by  an  eccentric-toothed  sector.  The 
racks  are  placed  at  an  angle  with  the  line  of 
movement  and  are  provided  with  jaws  at  each 
end  adapted  to  mesh  with  pins  projecting 
above  the  face  of  the  sector.  As  the  sector 
rotates  it  transmits  a  gradually  accelerated 
longitudinal  movement  to  the  rack  frame 
until  the  outer  pin  engages  the  jaw  at  the  end 
of  the  rack.  The  rack  frame  is  then  driven 
by  this  pin  until  the  opposite  rack  is  engaged 
by  the  sector  teeth. 

129  to  132.  MANGLE  GEAKS. — So-called  be- 
cause of  their  use  on  mangle  machines.  129. 
The  larger  wheel  is  formed  with  a  cam  groove 
which  guides  the  pinion.  The  shaft  of  the 
latter  is  ordinarily  provided  with  a  universal 
joint,  which  permits  it  to  move  vertically  and 
thus  keep  in  mesh  with  the  crown  teeth 
formed  on  the  large  wheel.  The  pinion 
meshes  first  with  the  outer  and  then  with  the 
inner  ends  of  the  teeth  on  the  larger  gear, 
driving  the  latter  first  in  one  direction  and 
then  in  the  other.  130  shows  another  form 
of  the  same  movement.  The  pinion  moves 
radially  in  the  slot  shown  in  dotted  lines,  and 
engages  first  the  outer  and  then  the  inner  line 
of  teeth  on  the  mangle  wheel,  causing  the 
latter  to  rotate  first  in  one  direction  and  then 
in  the  other.  131.  The  mangle  wheel  is 
formed  with  an  internal  gear,  and  the  pinion 
is  guided  by  a  cam  groove.  This  construc- 
tion and  that  shown  in  Figure  130  produce 
uniform  motion  through  an  almost  complete 
rotation,  and  this  is  followed  by  a  quick  re- 
turn due  to  ihe  smaller  radius  of  the  inner 
circle  of  teeth.  132.  In  this  construction,  as  in 
that  of  Figure  129,  the  same  speed  is  main- 
tained in  both  directions  of  rotation.  The 
mangle  wheel  in  Figure  132  is  formed  with 
teeth  on  both  faces;  the  pinion  first  engages 
the  teech  on  one  face  of  the  wheel,  and  then 
passing  through  the  opening  engages  the 
teeth  on  the  opposite  face,  thus  reversing  the 
direction  of  rotation. 

133  tO  137.    DlFFEKENTIAL  GEAR.  —133.  Two 

worm  wheels,  one  of  which  has  more  teeth 
than  the  other,  engage  a  single  worm.  Sup- 
pose that  one  wheel  has  100  teeth  and  the 
other  has  101;  then  at  every  complete  rota- 


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tion  of  the  latter  wheel  it  will  be  one  tooth 
behind  the  former  wheel,  and  at  the  end  of 
100  rotations  the  former  would  have  made  a 
complete  rotation  relative  to  the  latter.  If  the 
worm  be  cut  with  a  single  thread  it  would  have 
to  make  100  times  101,  or  10,100  rotations  in 
order  to  produce  this  result.  This  construc- 
tion is  used  on  certain  counting  devices. 
134.  Two  bevel  gears  are  connected  by  a  pair 
of  small  bevel  pinions  mounted  in  a  frame,  as 
shown  in  the  side  elevation  1.  If  the  gear 
wheels  should  be  rotated  at  different  veloci- 
ties the  frame  would  rotate  at  the  mean  veloc- 
ity. 135.  A  rapidly  rotating  shaft  carries  a 
gear  wheel  eccentrically  mounted  thereon. 
The  latter  is  carried  along  into  engagement 
with  a  fixed  internal  gear  or  rack,  and  is  there- 
by rotated  at  a  slow  speed.  136.  Two  con- 
centrically mounted  bevel  gears  of  different 
diameters  engage  with  a  third  bevel  gear. 
The  latter  rotates  at  the  mean  of  the  velocities 
of  the  other  two.  1 37.  A  hollow  screw  threaded 
into  a  frame  is  formed  with  an  internal  thread, 
of  slightly  different  pitch,  adapted  to  receive  a 
smaller  screw,  which  is  so  mounted  in  the 
frame  that  it  may  slide  longitudinally,  but 
cannot  rotate.  If  the  larger  screw  should 
have  ten  threads  to  the  inch,  and  the  smaller 
screw  eleven,  the  latter  would  move  outward 
one-eleventh  part  of  an  inch  while  the  former 
was  fed  inward  an  inch. 

138.  Uniform  rotary  motion  converted  into 
reciprocating  rectilinear  motion.  A  rack 
frame  arranged  to  slide  longitudinally  is  en- 
gaged by  a  toothed  sector  which  meshes  with 
the  teeth  on  one  side  of  the  rack  to  drive  the 
frame  forward,  and  then  with  the  teeth  on 
the  other  side  to  drive  the  frame  back. 

J39.  Variable  speed  gear  for  producing  fast 
and  slow  motion.  It  comprises  two  pairs  of 
toothed  sectors  so  arranged  as  to  properly 
mesh  with  each  other.  The  driving  gear 
shown  at  the  right  is  provided  with  two  arms 
which  carry  studs  at  their  outer  ends.  These 
studs  lie  below  the  lower  face  of  the  gears  and 
engage  studs  formed  on  the  lower  face  of  the 
driven  gear,  as  shown  in  dotted  lines,  thus 
guiding  the  wheels  after  one  pair  of  sectors 
have  moved  out  of  mesh  and  before  the  other 
pair  have  come  into  mesh  with  each  other. 

140.  Mechanism  for  producing  increased  or 
decreased  speed  on  the  same  line  of  shafting. 
A  fixed  bevel  gear  wheel,  A,  meshes  with  two 
bevel  gear  wheels,  B,  which  in  turn  mesh 
with  a  pinion,  E,  carried  on  the  right-hand 
shaft.  The  bevel  wheels,  B,  are  mounted  in 
a  bracket  which  turns  freely  on  the  shaft  of 
pinion,  E.  Each  wheel,  B,  carries  a  pinion, 
C,  which  meshes  with  a  bevel  gear  wheel,  D, 
carried  by  the  left-hand  shaft.  The  change 
of  speed  from  one  shaft  to  the  other  is  due 
to  the  planetary  movement  of  the  wheels,  B 
and  C.  When  the  multiple  of  the  teeth  in  A 
and  C  exceeds  that  of  B  and  D  the  shafts 
will  rotate  in  opposite  directions. 

CAMS  AND  CAM  MOVEMENTS. 
141  and  142.  CYLINDER  OR  DRUM  CAMS. — 
In  Figure  141  a  groove  is  formed  in  the  curved 
face  of  a  cylinder  or  drum.  A  roller  on  the 
end  of  a  pivoted  arm  fits  into  this  groove. 
As  the  drum  rotates  the  arm  will  be  swung  to 
various  positions,  guided  by  the  groove  in  .the 
cam.  In  Figure  142  the  roller  bears  against 
the  rim  of  the  cylinder,  which  is  made  of  such 
shape  as  to  give  the  desired  motion  to  the 
*ever.  In  this  form  of  cam,  while  the  roller 


is  positively  moved  down  by  the  cam  rim,  it 
is  raised  up  by  a  spring  on  the  lever,  which 
tends  to  hold  it  constantly  against  the  cam. 
In  the  first  type  of  cam  the  motion  is  positive 
in  both  directions. 

143.  BEVELED  CAM. — This  form  of  cam  is 
used  to  give  motion  to  a  lever  whose  axis  lies 
at  an  angle  with  the  cam-shaft.     The  cam  is 
of  conical  form  with  curved  edges   against 
which  the  lever  bears.     In  our  illustration  we 
have  shown  a  sliding  rod  in  place  of  a  rocking 
lever.     The  conical  face,   it  will  readily  be 
seen,  must  lie  parallel  with  the  plane  of  the 
rod.    . 

144.  FACE  CAM. — The  cam  groove  is  cut  in 
the  face  of  a  disk,  and  this  on  being  rotated 
guides  the  movement  of  the    rocking    lever 
which  carries  a  roller  that  enters  this  groove. 

145.  CLOVER-LEAF  CAM. — This  is  a  form  of 
disk  cam  which  gives  a  positive  drive  to  a 
sliding   lever.     The   cam    acts   between   two 
rollers  on  the  lever,  and  is  so  cut  as  to  exactly 
fill  the  space  between  these  rollers  at  all  times. 

146.  HEART  CAM. — Another   form   of  disk 
cam.     This  is  so  cut  as  to  give  uniform  recti- 
linear motion  to  a  sliding  rod  which  bears 
against  its  edge.     To  lay  out  this  cam,  divide 
the  desired  line  of  travel  of  the  rod  into  any 
convenient  number  of  equal  spaces,  starting 
from  the  center  of  the  roller,  and  from  the 
center  of  the  cam  describe  arcs  passing  through 
the  dividing  points.     Twice  the  number  of 
radial  lines  should  be  laid  off  from  the  center 
of  the  cam,  the  lines  being  equally  spaced  an- 
gularly.    The  successive  points  of  intersec- 
tion of  the  radial  lines  and  the  arcs  will  then 
mark  the  centers  for  a  series  of  arcs  with  radii 
equivalent  to  the  radius  of  the  roller.     The 
curve  drawn  tangent  to  these  arcs  will  then 
mark  the  outline  of  the  cam. 

147.  Means  are  here  shown  for  converting 
rotary  motion  into  alternating  reciprocating 
motion  of  two  rods.     The  rods  are  attached 
to  pivoted  levers  carrying  rollers  v/hich  bear 
against    the   edges    of   two    oval    disk    cams 
mounted  on  a  rotating  shaft. 

148.  Rotary  motion  is  here  converted  into 
variable  rectilinear  motion.     The  end   of  a 
sliding  lever  rests  on  the  irregular  edge  of  a 
disk  cam,  and  is  there  by  caused  to  move  up 
and  down  following  the  irregularities  of  the 
cam.     The  cam  shown  gives  three  recipro- 
cations of  the  rod  for  each  rotation  of  the  cam 
shaft. 

149.  Means  for  converting  rotary  motion  of 
a  shaft  into  rocking  motion  of  a  lever.     The 
lever  is  caused  to  rock  by  a  cam  with  an  ob- 
lique face  on  which  the  roller  of  the  lever 
bears.     This  is  a  modification  of  the  motion 
shown  in  Figure  142. 

150.  Means  for  converting  rocking  motion 
of  a  shaft  into  uniform  rectilinear  motion  of  a 
rod.     The  rod,  which  is  mounted  to  slide  in 
bearings,  carries  a  pin  which  engages  a  slot  in 
the  cam  on  the  rocking  shaft.     The  cam  slot 
is  so  cut  as  to  give  uniform  motion  to  the  rod. 

151.  Continuous  rotary  motion  of  a  shaft  is 
here  converted  into  intermittent  reciprocating 
motion  of  a  slide.     A  cam  lever  hinged  at  its 
lower  end  to  a  fixed  point  is  connected  by  a 
rod  at  its  upper  end,  to  the  slide.     A  crank 
arm  on  the  rotating  shaft  carries  a  pin  which 
enters  a  curved  slot  in  the  cam  lever.     The 
crank  arm  causes  the  lever  to  rock,  carrying 
the  slide  with  it.     The  cam  slot  should  form 
an  arc  with  a  radius  equal  to  that  of  the  crank 
arm,  so  that  while  the  crank  pin  is  passing 


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through  this  arc  the  slide  will  remain  station- 
ary. This  motion  is  used  on  certain  types  of 
sewing  machines  and  printing  presses. 

152.  The  type  of  cam  used  on  the  needle 
bars  of  some  sewing  machines.     A  pin  on  a 
rotating  disk  engages  a  slot  in  a  cam  yoke  on 
the  needle  bar.     This  slot  is  formed  with  a 
curve  at  one  place,  which  holds  the  bar  sta- 
tionary, while  the  pin  is  passing  through  it. 
This  causes  the  needle  to  stop  while  the  shut- 
tle passes. 

153.  This  cam  motion  differs  from  that  of 
Figure  152,  in  that  it  causes  the  sliding  bar  to 
stop  midway  of  its  upward  stroke  and  midway 
of  its  downward  stroke.     The  cam  slot  com- 
prises two  parallel  sections  connected  by  two 
curved  sections.     While  the  pin  on  the  rotat- 
ing disk  passes  through  the  curved  sections 
the  bar  is  held  stationary. 

154.  The  cam  here  shown  causes  the  sliding 
bar  to  stop  at  the  end  of  each  stroke.     The 
cam   is   triangular,   with   curved   faces,    and 
rotates    between    the    two    parallel    working 
faces  of  a  cam  frame  on  the  sliding  bar.    While 
the  outer  face  of  the  cam  engages  the  frame 
the  bar  is  held  stationary.     This  is  a  form  of 
cam  motion  used  in  place  of  an  eccentric  for 
operating  the  valve  of  a  certain  French  engine. 

155.  A  peculiar  variable  intermittent  mo- 
tion of  the  sliding  rod  is  given  by  the  planetary 
action  of  a  cam  mounted  on  a  rotating  disk. 
The  cam  shaft  passes  through  the  disk  and 
carries  a  pinion  which  meshes  with  a  station- 
ary internal  gear  wheel. 

156.  A  rectangular  motion  is  imparted  to 
the  cam  frame  by  two  triangular  curved  cams 
mounted  on  a  rotating  shaft.     The  frame  is 
mounted  to  slide  laterally  in  bearings,  which 
in   turn   a" re  permitted  to  slide  vertically  in 
grooves    on    two    stationary    supports.     The 
frame  is  made  up  of  two  horizontal  rails  on 
which  one  of  the  cams  acts,  and  two  vertical 
rails  on  which  the  other  cam  acts      The  illus- 
tration shows  the  frame  about  to  be  moved 
downward  by  the  forward  cam  acting  on  the 
1  ower  rail  while  the  rear  cam  prevents  any 
lateral  movement.     On  the  next  quarter  rota- 
tion of  the  cam  shafts  a  lateral  movement  will 
ensue,  due  to  the  rear  cam  acting  on  the  right- 
hand  vertical  rail.     At  the  same  time  the  for- 
ward cam  will  hold  the  frame  against  vertical 
movement.     During  the  third  quarter  of  the 
rotation  the  frame  will  be  lifted,  and  during 
the  last  quarter  it  will  be  moved  back  laterally 
to  the  position  illustrated.     If  the  cams  are 
both  of  the  same  size,  the  motion  of  the  frame 
will  trace  a  perfect  square. 

157.  Means   for  converting  rotary  motion 
into  vibrating  motion.     A  forked  lever  en- 
gages opposite  edges  of  a  disk  cam,  and  is 
thereby  caused  to  vibrate.     This  cam,  as  that 
in  Figure  145,  is  so  cut  that  its  opposite  edges 
are  everywhere  equidistant  when  measured 
through  the  center.     For  this  reason  it  is  ob- 
vious that  such  a  cam  must  always  be  cut 
with  an  odd  number  of  projections. 

158.  A   recently   patented   mechanism    for 
imparting  power   to   the   dasher  shaft   of  a 
churn.     A  rocking  movement  is  imparted  to 
the  shaft  from  a  rotating  cam.     At  the  upper 
end  of  the  shaft  is  a  forked  piece  or  follower 
mounted  to  turn  in  a  socket  at  right  angles  to 
the  axis  of  the  shaft.     The  follower  engages 
a  spline  on  the  cam  and  is  thereby  guided 
first  to  one  side,  and  then  to  the  other  of  the 
cam,  rocking  the  shaft  on  its  axis. 


159.  Trammel  Gear. — A  reciprocating  move- 
ment of  the  rod  is  produced  by  the  rotation  of 
a  shaft,  and  vice  versa.     Pivoted  to  the  rod 
are  two  blocks  which  slide  respectively  in  two 
slots    in    the   face   of   the   disk   which   cross 
each  other  at  right  angles.     This  movement 
was  patented  seventy  years  ago,  but  is  con- 
stantly being  reinvented  as  a  substitute  for 
the  crank. 

160.  Mechanism  for  converting  rotary  mo- 
tion into  reciprocating  motion.     This  is  a  com- 
mon form  of  eccentric  used  on  steam  engines, 
etc.,  for  communicating  a  reciprocating  mo- 
tion to  the  valves  from  the  crank  shaft.     The 
rod  is  provided  with  a  circular  strap  which  is 
bolted    over    a    disk    or    ring    eccentrically 
mounted  9n  the  crank  shaft- 

161.  This  form  of  eccentric  is  similar  to  that 
shown  in  Figure  160,  but  an  oval  cam  frame 
or  yoke  is  used  in  place  of  a  circular  strap,  so 
as  to  produce  a  rectilinear  reciprocating  move- 
ment of  the  rod.     This  form  of  eccentric  acts 
directly  on  the  valve  rod  which  travels  be- 
tween fixed  guides. 

162.  Spiral  Cam  for  converting  rotary  mo- 
tion into  reciprocating  motion.     The  cam  is 
formed  with  a  flange  or  spline,  disposed  spi- 
rally on  the  curved  face  of  the  wheel.     The 
spline  engages  a  notch  in  a  rod  and  gives  the 
latter  a  reciprocating  movement   when   the 
cam  is  rotated. 

163.  Elliptical     Crank. — Two    cranks     are 
connected  with  a  single  pitman,  the  outer  one, 
through    a    connecting    link.     The    circular 
movement  of  the  inner  crank  causes  the  outer 
end  of  the  pitman  to  move  in  an  elliptical 
orbit,  thereby  increasing  its  leverage  at  cer- 
tain points. 

164.  A  device  for  gripping  a  bar  or  cable. 
The  bar  travels  between  a  fixed  guide  and  the 
cam-shaped  head  of  a  lever.     When  the  lever 
is  thrown  up,  friction  of  the  bar  on  the  cam 
tends  to  rotate  the  latter  until  it  becomes 
wedged  between  the  cam  and  the  fixed  guide 

165.  Lever   Toggle-joint. — A    device    com- 
monly used  on  letter-presses.     One  of  the  two 
connected  arms  is  pivoted  to  the  platen  of 
the  press  and  the  other  is  hinged  to  a  fixed 
standard.     By  lifting  the  lever  on  one  of  the 
toggle  arms  the  arms  will  be  brought  into  ver- 
tical alignment  with  each  other,  producing  a 
powerful  pressure  on  the  platen. 

166.  Screw  Toggle  Press.— Two  toggle  arms 
are  hinged  to  the  letter-press  and  at    their 
outer  ends  are  hinged  to  nuts  on   the  feed 
screw.     The  screw  is  cut  with  right-  and  left- 
hand  threads,  so  that  when  turned  in  opera- 
tive direction  it  will  draw  the  arms  toward 
each  other  and  press  the  platen  downward. 

167.  Bell    Crank    Toe    Levers.— Two    bell 
crank  levers  are  provided  with  projecting  toes 
which  bear  against  each  other      When  one  of 
these  levers  is  swung  on  a  center  it  causes  the 
other  to  swing  also,  but  at  a  variable  speed, 
due  to  the  varying  leverage.       This  mecha- 
nism is  used  for  a  type  of  valve  gear. 

168.  Wiper  Cam. — A  type  of  cam  used  on 
certain  stamp  mills  to  lift  the  hammer.     The 
cam  bears  against  a  flanged  collar  on  the  ham- 
mer spindle,  which  permits  the  latter  to  rotate. 

MISCELLANEOUS  MOVEMENTS. 

169.  Device  for  transmitting  reciprocating 
motion  from  one  pair  of  rods  to  another  pair 
lying  at  right  angles  thereto.     The  rods  are 
all  connected  by  links  so  that  when  two  op- 
posed rods  are  moved  inward  or  toward  each 


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other,  the  other  two  rods  will  be  moved  out- 
ward, and  vice  versa.  Also  if  two  adjacent 
rods  be  moved  the  one  outward,  and  the 
other  inward.the  opposite  rods  will  be  moved 
one  outward  and  the  other  inward  respec- 
tively. 

170.  Means  for  converting  rotary  into  recip- 
rocating motion.     A  bent  shaft  carries  at  its 
outer  end  an  arm  which  is  loosely  mounted 
thereon.     The  lower  end  of  this  arm  engages 
a  slot  in  a  bar  which  is  mounted  to  slide  in 
suitable  guides.     As  the  bent  shaft  rotates, 
the  arm   which  is  prevented   from   rotating 
with  the  shaft  is  given  a  rocking  movement 
in  the  direction  of  its  axis,  and  thus  imparts 
a  reciprocating  movement  to  the  bar. 

171.  Movement  used  on  hand  stamps.    The 
plate  which  carries  the  type  normally  lies  face 
upward  against  an  ink  pad,  and  is  formed  with 
a  flange  at  each  end  in  which  cam  slots  are 
cut.     The  type  plate  is  pivoted  in  a  yoke 
piece   to   which   the   handle  is   secured,    the 
pivot  pins  passing  through  slots  in  the  up- 
rights  of  the   frame.     When   the   handle   is 
depressed,   the  type  plate  is   carried  down- 
ward and  at  the  same  time  rotated  by  engage- 
ment with  two  pins  which  operate  in  the  cam 
slots  so  that  the  type  will  face  downward 
when  brought  into  contact  with  the  paper. 
The  parts  are  returned  to  normal  position  by 
a  spring  on  release  of  the  handle. 

172.  A  peculiar  device  for  alternately  rock- 
ing a  pair  of  levers  by  means  of  a  reciprocating 
rod.     The  rod  carries  a  bell  crank  lever,  A. 
This  lever  is  normally  held  in  the  position 
illustrated  by  two  pins  against  which  it  is 
pressed  by  the  spring-pressed  rod.     Two  bell 
crank  levers,  B  and  C,  connected  by  a  bar, 
are  hinged  adjacent  to  the  rod.     With  the 
parts  in  the  position  illustrated,   when   the 
rod  is  drawn  forward,  one  arm  of  the  bell 
crank,  A,  will  engage  a  pin  at  the  end  of 
lever,  B,  and  will  be  thereby  turned  until  it 
engages  a  stop  piece,  D,  on  the  rod,  after 
which  it  will  operate  to  swing  bell  crank,  B, 
on  its   axis.     Owing   to   the  connection   be- 
tween the  levers  B  and  C,  the  latter  will  also 
be  swung  but  in  the  opposite  direction.     On 
return  of  the  rod  the  bell  crank  lever,  A,  is 
brought  to  normal  position  by  the  two  posi- 
tion pins,  and  when  next  the  rod  is  drawn 
forward,  the  other  arm  of  lever  A  will  engage 
a  pin  on  lever  C,  returning  both  levers  B  and 
C  to  their  original  positions. 

173.  Mechanism    for    transmitting    rotary 
motion  at  increased  speed  from  one  shaft  to 
another  in  alignment  therewith.     The  lower 
or  driving  shaft  carries  a  crown  wheel  at  ita 
upper  end  which  is  engaged  by  a  second  crown 
wheel  having  universal  joint  connection  with 
a  stationary  central  post.     The  latter  is  sup- 
ported from  the  frame  by  cross  arms,  which 
are  adapted  to  engage  slots  cut  in  the  second 
crown   wheel,   and  thus   prevent   the   wheel 
from  rotating.   The  upwardly  projecting  frame 
of  the  second  crown  wheel  is  connected  to  a 
wheel  on  the  upper  shaft,  but  eccentric  there- 
to, by  means  of  a  ball-and-socket  joint.     The 
driven  crown  wheel  is  thus  tilted  so  as  to 
engage  the  teeth  of  the  driving  wheel.     As 
the  latter  rotates  the  driven  wheel  is  given  a 
rocking  or  wobbling  movement,  which  rotates 
the  upper  shaft.     A  slight  movement  of  the 
lower  shaft  thus  produces  a  complete  rota- 
tion of  the  upper  shaft. 

174.  A  device  for  converting  reciprocating 
into  rotary  motion  and  vice  versa.     Two  inter- 


meshing  gear  wheels  are  provided  with  spring 
pawls  oppositely  disposed  on  the  gears,  and 
adapted  alternately  to  snap  into  engagement 
with  a  lug  on  a  reciprocating  rod  and  thereby 
impart  rotary  motion  to  the  gears. 

175.  A  device  for  spacing  apart  a  number 
of  bars.     The  bars  are  arranged  to  slide  with 
a  certain  amount  of  friction  between  guide 
pieces.     Normally  they  are  crowded  together 
in  a  group  by  a  pair  of  coil  springs.     A  pair 
of  rotating  spur  wheels  whose  teeth  engage 
the  pointed  ends  of  the  bars  are  mounted  on 
either  side  to  slide  vertically  in  suitable  guide- 
ways.     The  vertical  movement  of  the  gears 
carries  the  bars  downward  against  the  springs 
and  the  slow  rotary  movement  of  the  gears 
successively  releases  the  bars  at  regular  inter- 
vals.    The  bars  remain  where  released,  being 
held  by  frictional  engagement  with  the  guide 
pieces. 

176.  An  early  form  of  flexible  shaft  coup- 
ling.    One  of  the  shafts  is  pointed  and  fits 
into  a  socket  in  the  other  shaft.     Each  shaft 
carries  a  collar  and  these  are  connected  by  a 
flat  spiral  spring. 

177.  Centrifugal     hammer.         Two    ham- 
mers are  hinged  on  a  rapidly  revolving  disk. 
As  the  disk  revolves,  these  hammers  are  al- 
ternately swung  by  the  added  force  of  gravity 
and  of  centrifugal  action,  on  to  the  anvil.    A 
very  powerful  stroke  is  thus  given. 

178.  A  device  for  communicating  recipro- 
cating motion  of  an  engine  to  a  rotating  crank 
in  such  manner  that  the  crank  will  have  a 
greater  throw  than  the  stroke  of  the  engine 
crosshead.     The  connecting  rod  acts  on  the 
crank  shaft  through  a  "lazy  tongs"  which 
multiplies   the   stroke  and   affords   a  better 
leverage  upon  the  same. 

179.  A  device  for  producing  two  rotations 
of  the  crank  shaft  of  an  engine  at  each  com- 
plete (forward  and  return)  stroke  of  the  cross- 
head.     The  crosshead  of  the  engine  is  con- 
nected by  a  rod  to  a  pair  of  connected  levers, 
one  of  which  is  pivoted  on  a  fixed  pin  and  the 
other  to  the  working  beam.     Owing  to  the 
toggle  action  of  the  levers  the  working  beam 
will  rise  and  fall  twice  while  the  crosshead 
moves  to  its  outer  position  and  returns. 

180.  A  device  for  converting  rocking  move- 
ment into  rectilinear  reciprocating  movement, 
usually  called  '  'parallel ' '  motion.      Two  links 
pivoted  on  the  fixed  pin  A  connect  at  their 
outer  ends  with  two  links  pivoted  on  a  rod  at  D. 
The  latter  links  are  also  connected  to  a  pair  of 
links  pivoted  to  a  rock  arm   C.      The  dis- 
tance between  A  and  B,  the  fixed  pivot  of 
the  rock  arm,  is  equal  to  the  distance  be- 
tween B  and  C.     Owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
double  link-quadrangle  swings  on  two  pivots, 
it  will  be  lengthened  when  swung  out  of  the 
vertical    position,    thus    giving   a    rectilinear 
motion   to   the   rod    D.     This   movement   is 
called  "Peaucellier's"  parallel  motion.     It  is 
used  to  give  rectilinear  movement  to  a  pump 
rod  or  to  the  piston  rod  of  an  engine. 

181.  Another   device   for   producing   recti- 
linear movement  of  a  pump  rod.     The  rod, 
instead  of  being  directly  connected  to  the 
working   beam    of   an    engine,    is    connected 
thereto  by  cross  links.     This  motion,   how- 
ever, is  not  a  true   "parallel  motion,"  but 
the  rod  is  strained  by  cross  connection. 

182  to  184.  Devices  for  overcoming  '  'dead ' ' 
centers  of  cranks.  In  Figure  182  the  pitman 
is  connected  to  one  end  of  a  leaf  spring,  whose 
other  end  is  connected  to  the  crank  disk.  The 


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pitman  is  thus  permitted  to  play  between  two 
socket  lugs  projecting  from  the  face  of  the 
disk.  Just  before  the  back  center  is  reached, 
the  pitman  slips  out  of  engagement  with 
the  lower  socket,  by  reason  of  the  tensile 
strain  on  the  spring,  then  on  the  return  stroke, 
the  connection  of  the  spring  being  above  the 
line  of  centers,  the  spring  yields  and  throws 
the  pitman  back  into  the  lower  socket,  and 
acts  upon  it  to  rotate  the  disk,  until  the 
forward  center  is  reached,  when  the  action 
will  be  the  reverse  of  that  just  described.  In 
183  the  pitman  is  attached  to  a  plate  secured 
to  the  flywheel  at  two  points  by  screws  pass- 
ing through  slots  cut  diagonally  in  the  plate. 
In  starting  the  wheel  from  either  of  its  dead 
centers,  the  pitman  will  cause  the  plate  to 
slide  on  its  diagonal  slots  and  the  pitman  will 
thus  carry  itself  out  of  the  dead  center.  The 
plate  will  then  be  returned  to  normal  position 
by  a  spring.  The  device  shown  in  184  is 
specially  applicable  to  machines  operated  by 
treadles.  Attached  to  the  pitman  is  a  piston 
acting  in  a  cylinder  pivoted  to  the  rod  on 
which  the  treadle  is  hinged.  Within  the 
cylinder  are  two  coil  springs  which  alter- 
nately act  on  the  piston  to  carry  the  crank 
over  the  two  dead  centers. 

185.  A  device  for  transmitting  motion  from 
one  shaft  to  another  lying  at  right  angles 
thereto.     The  driving  shaft  is  formed  with  a 
spiral  ribbon  which  acts  between  rollers  ra- 
dially mounted  on  a  wheel,  carried  by  the 
driven  shaft.     The  wheel  is  formed  with  a 
double  series  of  rollers,  one  on  each  side  of 
the  spiral  shaft,  but  the  forward  series  has 
been  cut  away  in  the  illustration  to  show 
detail.     The  action  is  similar  to  that  of  a 
worm  and  worm  wheel,  but  friction  is  reduced 
by  the  use  of  the  rollers. 

186.  An  internal  worm  gear  is  here  shown 
which  offers  the  same  advantages  as  the  inter- 
nal spur  gear,  namely,  that  of  greater  strength 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  area  of  contact  be- 
tween the  worm  and  the  worm  wheel  is  in- 
creased.    The  worm  wheel  is  made  up  of  two 
hollow   sections,    clamped    together,    but    so 
spaced  as  to  form  a  slot  in  the  rim  through 
which  the  worm  shaft  passes. 

187.  Means  for  converting  rotary  motion 
into  rocking  motion.     The  power  shaft  car- 
ries two  cams  formed  with  corrugated  peri- 
pheries.    On  opposite  sides  of  the  rock  shaft 
are  two  rollers,  one  for  each  cam.     The  cams 
are  so  spaced  that  when  one  roller  is  being 
lifted,  the  other  will  fall.     Thus,  a  rocking 
motion  is  imparted  to  the  rock  shaft.     The 
same  effect  may  be  produced  by  using  a  sin- 
gle broad  cam  for  the  two  rollers,  but  spacing 
one  roller  a  little  in  advance  of  the  other  on 
the  rock  shaft. 

188.  Another  form  of  internal  worm  gear. 
A  worm  wheel  is  mounted  on  a  stationary 
bracket  and  engages  the  spiral  thread  formed 
in  a  ring.     As  the  ring  revolves  about  the 
gear,  the  latter  is  caused  to  slowly  rotate.     As 
in  Figure  186,  a  very  strong  construction  and 
powerful    transmission    is    afforded    by    this 
arrangement 

189.  A   sliding   toggle    movement    is    here 
shown  for  producing  great  pressure  in  a  direc- 
tion at  right  angles  to  that  of  the  impelling 
force.     The  toggle  members  are  so  mounted 
and  are  of  such  shape  that  they  combine  the 
action  of  the  inclined  plane  with  the  ordinary 
toggle  action. 


190.  Means  for  giving  parallel  movement  to 
the  paddles  of  steamboats,  etc.     The  power 
shaft  carries  a  disk  which  is  connected  by  a 
series  of  hinged  links  with  a  ring  held  eccen- 
trically to  the  shaft,  between  pairs  of  rollers. 
The  paddles  are  attached  to  the  links  and  are 
thereby  kept  parallel,  while  the  di&k  and  ring 
rotate.     This  same  arrangement  can  be  used 
to  communicate  motion  to  shafts  lying  out  of 
alignment  with  each  other,  one  of  the  shafts 
being  attached  to  the  ring. 

191.  Device  for  transmitting  motion  from 
one  shaft  to  another  at  decreased  velocity. 
The  device  is  here  shown  diagrammatically. 
The  driving  shaft  carries  an  eccentric  A,  upon 
which  spur  gears  B  and  C  are  fitted  to  turn 
freely.     The  latter  are  permanently  secured 
together.     Wheel  B  meshes  with  internal  gear 

D,  on  the  driven  shaft,  and  wheel  C  meshes 
with  the  stationary  internal  gear  E.     In  oper- 
ation the  eccentric  carries  gear  C  about  gear 

E,  thereby  causing  it  to  rotate  on  its  own 
center.      The    gear    B   will    be    revolved    by 
the  eccentric  in  one  direction  and  be  rotated 
in  the   opposite  direction  by  the  gear  C  to 
which  it  is  attached,  thus  causing  the  gear  D 
to  move  at  a  reduced  speed, 

192  to  196.  BALL-BEARING  DEVICES. — In 
192  is  shown  a  ball-bearing  knuckle  joint  con- 
sisting of  a  flanged  socket  member  having 
sockets  for  the  reception  of  steel  friction  balls, 
and  a  second  member  formed  with  flanges 
which  bear  against  the  friction  balls.  When 
the  device  is  in  operation,  the  balls  will  roll 
back  and  forth  in  their  sockets  at  each  rota- 
tion of  the  knuckle  joint.  In  193  a  common 
form  of  ball-bearing  is  shown.  The  balls  are 
held  in  stationary  cups  and  bear  against  cones 
on  the  rotating  shaft.  194  shows  an  end- 
thrust  ball  bearing  of  common  form.  195 
shows  a  ball-bearing  wheel  or  caster.  The 
balls  are  arranged  to  travel  over  an  endless 
path,  being  guided  from  the  forward  end  of 
the  wheel  bearing,  through  a  passageway  in 
the  body  of  the  caster,  to  the  rear  of  the 
wheel  bearing  surface.  196  shows  the  same 
principle  applied  to  a  worm  and  worm  wheel. 
The  thread  of  the  worm  does  not  engage  the 
teeth  of  the  worm  wheel,  but  communicates 
motion  thereto  through  a  series  of  balls.  The 
latter,  when  they  reach  the  end  of  the  worm 
thread,  are  guided  back  through  a  passage- 
way in  the  worm  body  to  the  beginning  of  the 
thread. 

197.  Means    for    converting    reciprocating 
rectilinear     movement      into     reciprocating 
rotary  movement.     A  primitive  form  of  turn- 
ing lathe.     The  wooden  shaft  or  other  objec  t 
to  be  turned,  is  mounted  to  rotate  freely  be- 
tween pivot  pins.     A  rope  coiled  about    the 
shaft  has  its  free  ends  secured  to  a  spring 
bow.     In  operation,  the  handle  of  the  bow 
is  seized  in  one  hand,   and  the  other  hand 
holds   the  tool   against    the  work,   which   is 
rotated  first  in  one  direction,  and  then  in  the 
other,  by  moving  the  bow  back  and  forth. 

198.  This  is  another  form  of  primitive  lathe 
which,  however,  is  adapted  t9  be  driven  by 
foot    power.     The    rope,    which    is    wound 
around  the  shaft  is  secured  at  its  upper  end 
to  a  spring,  usu  lly  th*e  end  of  a  thin  board, 
and  at  its  lower  end  to  a  pedal.     When  the 
1  atter  is  depressed,  the  shaft  will  rotate  toward 
the  cutting  to&l  and  on  its  release  the  spring 
will  cause  it  to  rotate  back,  ready  tor  the  next 
downward  stroke  of  the  pedal.     This  type  of 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


437 


lathe  is  still  commonly  used  in  some  Eastern 
countries. 

199.  An  ancient  form  of  drill,  but  one  which 
is  still  used  by  jewelers.     Coiled  about  the 
spindle  of  the  drill  are  two  cords  whose  lower 
ends  are  secured  to  a  cross  piece  mounted  to 
slide  up  and  down  on  the  spindle.     When  the 
cross  piece  is  pressed  downward,  it  causes  the 
cords  to  uncoil,  rotating  the  spindle.     When 
the  cross  piece  reaches  the  bottom  of  its  stroke 
the  pressure  on  it  is  relieved,  and  due  to  the 
momentum  of  a  heavy  flywheel  on  the  spin- 
dle, the  latter  continues  to  rotate,  recoiling  the 
cords  and  lifting  up  the  cross  piece.     On  the 
next  downward  stroke  of  the  cross  piece,  the 
spindle  will  rotate  in  the  opposite  direction. 

200.  Trip  hammer.      A    rotating    disk    is 
formed   with  a  series  of  pins  adapted  con- 
secutively to  depress  one  arm  of  a  bell  crank 
to  the  opposite  arm  of  which  a  hammer  weight 
is  connected  by  a  cord.     When  the  bell  crank 
clears  a  pin  on  the  disk,  the  weight  drops,  de- 
livering the  blow,  and  is  then  lifted  again  by 
the  next  pin  acting  on  the  bell  crank. 

201.  Means    for    converting    reciprocating 
motion  into  rotary  motion.     A  rope  attached 
at  one  end  to  a  foot  pedal  passes  over  an  inter- 
mediate pulley,  and  is  attached  at  the  other 
end  to  the  weighted  crank  arm  of  a  shaft. 
The  arrangement  is  such  that  on  the  down- 
ward or  power  stroke  of  the  pedal.the  weighted 
arm  will   be  lifted  to  the  vertical   position, 
when  it  will  be  assisted  by  gravity  and  its  own 
momentum  to  continue  its  rotation  and  lift 
the  pedal  for  the  next  downward  stroke. 

202  to  205.  Means  for  converting  rotary 
motion  into  rectilinear  motion.  In  202,  se- 
cured to  a  rotating  shaft  is  a  cam  formed  with 
projecting  horns,  which  are  adapted  to  suc- 
cessively engage  a  lug  on  a  sliding  rod.  The 
rod  is  thereby  given  a  trip-hammer  move- 
ment, dropping  by  gravity  as  the  lug  clears 
the  horns.  In  203,  a  disk  mounted  eccen- 
trically on  a  rotating  shaft  is  engaged  on 
opposite  sides  by  a  pair  of  rollers,  pivoted  to 
a  rod.  As  the  shaft  rotates,  the  rod  will  be 
moved  up  and  down,  following  the  eccentric 
movement  of  the  disk.  This  movement  is 
used  on  windmills  to  transmit  motion  from  the 
rotating  windmill  shaft  to  the  pump  rod.  In 
204  a  shaft  is  provided  with  radial  arms  bearing 
rollers  at  their  outer  ends.  These  are  adapted 
to  operate  within  a  frame  mounted  to  slide, 
and  formed  with  two  lugs  diagonally  disposed 
on  opposite  sides  of  the  frame.  When  the 
shaft  is  rotated,  by  means  of  the  crank  arm 
shown,  the  frame  will  be  moved  first  to  one 
side  by  one  of  the  rollers  engaging  one  of  the 
lugs,  and  then  in  the  opposite  direction  by 
another  of  the  rollers  moving  into  engage- 
ment with  the  other  lug.  In  205,  a  sliding 
carriage  is  formed  with  a  lug  adapted  to  be 
engaged  successively  by  a  series  of  pins  on  a 
revolving  disk.  The  carriage  will  be  moved 
forward  by  one  of  the  pins  until  the  latter 
clears  the  lug,  when  the  carriage  will  be 
moved  back  again  by  another  pin  engaging 
an  arm  of  a  bell  crank  whose  other  arm  en- 
gages the  carriage. 

206.  Automatic  release  for  a  winding  drum. 
A  winding  drum  is  mounted  to  turn  freely  on 
a  shaft.  A  hook  is  pivoted  on  the  face  of  the 
drum,  and  when  it  is  desired  to  rotate  the 
drum  the  hook  is  brought  into  engagement 
with  a  taopet  on  the  shaft.  When,  however, 
the  weight  has  been  raised  to  a  predetermined 
position  by  the  winding  drum,  a  pin  strikes  the 


hook,  releasing  it  from  engagement  with  the 
tappet  and  permitting  the  weight  to  drop. 

207.  An  amusement  device  called  the  "Fly- 
ing Horse"  used  in  parks  and  fairs.     A  frarr.e 
mounted  to  rotate  on  a  vertical  spindle,  is 
provided  with  a  simple  gear  wheel,  which 
meshes    with    a    driving    pinion.     By   alter- 
nately pulling  the  cords,   radiating  from  a 
crank  on  the  shaft  which  carries  the  pinion, 
the  persons  occupying  the  seats  or  horses  at 
the  corners  of  the  frame,  are  enabled  to  keep 
the  apparatus  in  motion. 

208.  This  figure  shows  a  single  pulley  driv- 
ing four  other  pulleys  by  means  of  a  cross- 
shaped  connecting  rod.     This  form  of  drive 
is  occasionally  used  for  rotating  wheels  or 
cylinders  which  lie  so  close  to  each  other  that 
no  gearing  or  other  mechanism  for  transmit- 
ting motion  can  be  used. 

209.  This  figure  illustrates   the   rather  cu- 
rious fact  that  if  two  wheels  are  coupled  to- 
gether by  a  connecting  rod,  whose  crank  pins 
are    respectively    equally    distant    from    the 
centers  of  the  wheels,  then  while  one  wheel 
is   constantly   rotated   in   one   direction   the 
other  may  be  rotated  in  the  same  direction, 
or  in  the  opposite  direction,  as  desired. 

210.  A  stop  motion  used  in  brick  machines 
for  drawing  the  mold  back  and  forth,  and 
bringing  it  to  rest  at  each  stroke  to  permit 
of  depositing  the  clay  and  removing  the  brick. 
A  rotating  wheel  carries  a  crank  pin  which 
engages  a  slot  in  a  connecting  rod.     At  the 
end  of  its  forward  stroke,  and  at  the  end  of 
its  return  stroke  the  connecting  rod  will  re- 
main stationary,  while  the  crank  pin  moves 
from  one  end  of  the  slot  to  the  other. 

211.  A  device  used  in  sewing  machines  for 
feeding   the   goods    under   the   needle.     The 
feed  bar  is  formed  with  teeth  at  one  end  and 
the  opposite  end  is  pivoted  between  the  arms 
of  a  forked  lever.     The  feed  bar  is  lifted  by 
a  peripheral  projection  on  a  cam,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  forked  lever  is  moved  forward 
by  a  projection  on  the  side  face  of  the  cam, 
which  bears  against  a  lug  carried  on  the  lever. 
A  spring  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  lever  nor- 
mally holds  the  lug  in  contact  with  the  face 
of  the  cam. 

212.  Elevator    safety    device.      Secured   to 
the   side  of    the    elevator   shaft    is    a    plate 
formed  with  one  or  more  studs.     To  the  wind- 
ing drum  of  the  elevator  a  number  of  hooks 
are   pivoted.     When   the   drum    rotates    the 
hooks  are  thrown  out  by  centrifugal  action, 
and  if  dangerous  speed  is  acquired,  they  swing 
out  far  enough  to  catch  hold  of  one  or  more 
of  the  studs,  bringing  the  drum  to  a  stop. 
The  shock  of  the  sudden  stoppage  is  usually 
taken  up  by  a  coil  spring  on  the  drum. 

213.  A    device    for    converting    oscillating 
motion  of  a  lever  into  intermittent  rotary 
motion.     A  crank  arm  which  is  provided  with 
two  pawls  hinged  to  its  upper  end,  is  oscil- 
lated within  the  rim  of  a  wheel.     The  pawls 
are  connected  by  a  cord  to  a  small  crank, 
which  may  be  turned  so  as  to  bring  one  pawl 
into  frictional  engagement  with  the  rim  of 
the  wheel,  and  thereby  cause  the  wheel  to 
rotate  intermittently.     When  it  is  desired  to 
reverse  the  direction  of  rotation,  the  crank 
is  turned,  raising  the  first  pawl  and  bringing 
the  other  one  into  engagement  with  the  wheel. 

214.  Means  for  converting  rectilinear  mo- 
tion   into   rotary   motion.     This   is   used   on 
certain  forms  of  drill  stocks.     The  drill  stock 
is  cut  with  two  spiral  grooves,  one  of  which 


438 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


is  left-handed  and  the  other  right-handed.  A 
ring  on  the  drill  stock  is  provided  with  a  fol- 
lower which  follows  one  of  the  grooves  on  the 
forward  stroke,  and  the  other  groove  on  the 
return  stroke,  thus  causing  the  drill  to  turn 
always  in  the  same  direction. 

215.  An  automatic  bench  clamp,  used  by 
carpenters  for  holding  the  work  while  planing, 
etc.     Pivoted  to  the  work  bench  are  two  cam 
levers,  formed  with  curved  ends,  which  are 
moved  apart  by  the  work  as  it  is  pressed  in 
between   them,    thus   causing   the   clamping 
ends  of  the  levers  to  tightly  grip  the  work. 

216.  Gripping  tongs  for  lifting  stones  and 
the  like.     The  upper  arms  are  connected  to 
a  shackle  by  a  pair  of  links  so  that  when  a 
pull  is  exerted  on  the  shackle,  the  arms  are 
drawn  together,  pressing  the  points  into  the 
stone ;  the  heavier  the  stone  lifted  the  more 
tightly  will  the  arms  be  drawn  together,  thus 
increasing  the  grip  on  the  stone. 

217.  A  series  of  cross  cpnnected  levers  used 
for  multiplying  or  reducing  motion.     In  the 
illustration,  the  lowest  pair  of  levers  is  pivoted 
to  a  fixed  pin  A,  and  the  arrangement  is  such 
that  if  one  pair  of  the  crossed  levers  be  folded 
together,  the  entire  series  will  fold,  giving  the 
rod  attached  to  the  upper  pair  of  levers  a 
greatly  multiplied  longitudinal  movement,  and 
conversely  if  the  rod  be  moved,  a  greatly 
reduced  motion  will  be  given  to  the  lower 
pair  of  links.     The  extent  to  which  the  mo- 
tion is  multiplied  or  reduced  is  directly  pro- 
portional to  the  number  of  pairs  of  levers  in 
the   series.     This    device   is    called   a    "lazy 
tongs. ' '      The  figure  also  shows  a  means  for 
multiplying  motion  imparted  from  one  recti- 
linear reciprocating  rod  to  another.     If  the 
fixed  pivot  of  the  lazy  tongs  be  at  B,  on  giving 
reciprocating  motion  to  the   lower  rod,  the 
reciprocating  motion  will  be  imparted  to  the 
upper  rod,  but  the  travel  of  the  upper  rod  will 
be  twice  that  of  the  lower  rod. 

DRAFTING    DEVICES. 

218.  A  pantograph,  or  an  instrument  for 
reproducing  a  drawing  on  a  larger  or  smaller 
scale.     It   comprises   two   levers   hinged   to- 
gether and  connected  by  a  pair  of  hinged 
links.     One  of  the  levers  carries  a  slide,  A, 
in  which  a  pencil  is  secured.     The  other  lever 
carries  a  pivot  pin,  and  the  tracing  point  is 
located  at  C.     In  use  the  device  is  made  to 
turn  on  the  fixed  point  at  B,  then  on  moving 
the  tracing  point  C  over  a  drawing,  the  same 
will  be  reproduced  by  the  pencil  at  A.     By 
varying  the  positions  of  the  pencil  and  the 
pivot  pin  on  their  respective  levers,  the  re- 
production may  be  made  larger  or  smaller 
than  the  original  as  desired. 

219.  This  figure  shows  the  "parallel  ruler, 

a  device  used  for  drawing  parallel  lines.  Two 
parallel  rulers  are  connected  by  a  pair  of  par- 
allel links  of  equal  length.  The  rulers  will  then 
always  lie  parallel  to  each  other,  whether 
swung  apart  or  moved  together. 

220.  A  device  for  drawing  a  conchoid  curve. 
A  conchoid  curve  may  be  described  as  a  curve 
of  such  form  that  when  measured  along  lines 
drawn  from  a  fixed  point  called  the  pole,  it 
will,  at    all    points,  be    equidistant    from    a 
straight  line,  called  the  asymptote.     The  de- 
vice shown  comprises  a  T-square  with  grooved 
head-piece  adapted  to  receive  a  slide  pivoted 
to  a  bar.     A  slot  in  the  lower  end  of  this  bar 
engages  a  pin  on  the  blade  of  the  T-square 
and  the  opposite  end  of  the  bar  carries  the 


scribing  pencil.  The  pin  represents  the  pole 
and  the  grooved  head  of  the  T-square  repre- 
sents the  asymptote.  The  curve  traced  by 
the  pencil  when  measured  along  the  bar  lies 
everywhere  equidistant  from  the  asymptote. 

221.  An  ellipsograph  or  a  device  for  draw- 
ing ellipses.     This  is   similar   to   the  panto- 
graph shown  in  Figure-  218.     The  fixed  pivot, 
however,  is  at  B,  the  tracing  point  at  A,  and 
the  pencil  at   C.     When   A   is  moved   in  a 
straight  line  toward    or   away   from   B,  the 
pencil  C  will  trace  an  elliptical  curve. 

222.  A  device  for  drawing  a  helical  curve. 
A  rod  provided  with  a  pivot  point  is  threaded 
to  receive  a  nut  with  a  milled  flange.     As  the 
rod  is  moved  about    ts  center,  the  nut  is  ro- 
tated by  a  frictional    contact  of  the  flange 
with  the  drawing  paper,  and  is  thus  slowly 
fed  toward  or  away  from  the  center.     A  pen- 
cil carried  by  a  sleeve  on  this  nut  will  then 
trace  a  helical  curve. 

223.  A  device  for  describing  parabolas.     A 
pin  is  placed  at  the  focus  of  the  desired  parab- 
ola and  a  straight-edge  is  placed  on  the  line 
of  the  directrix.     A  slack  cord  is  secured  at 
one  end  to  the  pin,  and  at  the  other  to  the 
blade  of  a  square  whose  stock  bears  against 
the  straight  edge.     The  slack  of  the  cord  is 
taken  up  by  the  pencil,  which  bears  against 
the  blade  of  the  square.      Sufficient  slack  is 
provided  to  make  the  distance  of  the  pencil 
from  the  focus  equal  to  its  distance  from  the 
straight-edge  or  directrix.     The  curve  then 
described  by  the  pencil  while  keeping  the  cord 
taut  against  the  square,  as  the  square  is  moved 
along  the  straight-edge,  will  be  a  parabola. 

224.  A   device   for    describing   hyperbolas. 
The  two  pins  shown  represent  the  foci  of  two 
opposite  hyperbolas.     A  ruler  turns  on  one  of 
these  pins  as  a  center,  and  its  opposite  end  is 
connected  with  the  other  pin  by  a  slack  cord. 
The  slack  of  the   cord  is   taken   up  by  the 
pencil  which  bears   against   the  ruler.     The 
curve  described  will  then  fulfil  the  conditions 
of  a  hyperbolic  curve,  which  requires  that  the 
distance  from  any  point  in  the  curve  to  its 
focus,  minus  the  distance  from  that  point  to 
any  other  fixed  point  or  focus,  should  always 
be  a  constant  quantity. 

GOVERNORS. 

A  governor  of  a  steam  engine  is  a  device 
for  automatically  operating  the  throttle,  or 
for  shortening  the  stroke  of  the  slide  valve 
when  the  engine  attains  a  dangerous  speed. 

225.  WATT'S  GOVERNOR. — When  a  danger- 
ous speed  is  acquired,  the  centrifugal  force 
acting  upon  a  pair  of  balls  tends  to  lift  a 
sleeve  which,  through  a  bell  crank,  operates 
the  throttle. 

226.  PORTER'S  GOVERNOR. — The  operation 
is  very  similar  to  that  of  Watt,  but  the  balls 
are  required  to  lift  a  weight  which  may  be 
adjusted  as  desired. 

227.  KLEY'S  CROSS  ARM  GOVERNOR. — The 
degree  of  sensitiveness   is   governed  by  the 
length  of  the  cross  arms,  and  al^o  by  an  ad- 
justable weight,  which  is  lifted  by  the  balls. 

228.  Buss'  GOVERNOR. — Two  pairs  of  balls 
are  used,  one  pair  acting  to  counterbalance 
the  other. 

229.  TANGYE'S      GOVERNOR. — The      balls 
when  thrown  out  by  centrifugal  action  de- 
press a  rod  in  the  hollow  central  shaft  and 
this  rod  acts  directly  on  the  block  in  the  link 
thus  shortening  the  stroke  of  the  slide  valve, 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


439 


230  and  231.  PROELL'S  GOVERNOR.— In  230 
the  balls,  aside  from  lifting  a  weight,  act  to 
compress  a  spiral  spring.  In  231  the  outward 
movement  of  the  balls  is  controlled  by  an  air 
dashpot. 

232.  COSINE  GOVERNOR. — A  cross  arm  gov- 
ernor which  acts  to  raise  a  weight. 

233.  PARABOLIC      GOVERNOR. — The     balls 
move  on  parabolic  guide  arms,  which  modify 
the  effect  of  the  centrifugal  force,  and  produce 
equal  valve  movement,  which  is  exactly  pro- 
portional to  the  speed  of  the  engine. 

234.  OSCILLATING      LEVER      GOVERNOR.— 
The  balls  are  secured  to  the  ends  of  a  lever, 
which  assumes  a  more  horizontal  position  as 
the  speed  of  the  engine  increases.     A  spring 
normally  holds  the  arm  in  the  tilted  position 
illustrated. 

235.  SWEET'S  FLYWHEEL  GOVERNOR. — The 
centrifugal  action  of  the  ball  moves  the  eccen- 
tric  toward   the    center,    thus    reducing   the 
stroke  of  the  slide  valve.     A  leaf  spring  re- 
sists the  centrifugal  action  of  the  ball. 

236.  HARTNELL'S  EXPANSION  GOVERNOR. — 
The  balls  are  thrown  out  by  centrifugal  force 
against  the  action  of  a  spring  raising  the  block 
in  the  link  and  thus  varying  the  stroke  of  the 
valve. 

237.  HARTNELL'S  CRANK  SHAFT  GOVERNOR. 
— The  weights  operate  against  the  spring  to 
move  a  toothed  sector,  which  moves  the  eccen- 
tric toward  the  center  of  the  crank  shaft,  thus 
varying  the  stroke  of  the  slide  valve. 

238.  TURNER'S  CRANK  SHAFT  GOVERNOR. — 
The  weights  have  bearings  in  the  side  plates 
of  the   governor.      They   also   carry  pins   by 
which  they  are  connected  to  the  eccentric. 
When  the  weights  are  thrown  out  by  cen- 
trifugal   action,    they    move    the    eccentric 
toward  the  center  of  the  crank  shaft. 

239  and  240.  VANE  GOVERNORS. — The  shaft 
is  prevented  from  rotating  too  rapidly  by  the 
atmospheric  resistance  acting  on  a  pair  of 
vanes.  This  resistance  may  be  varied  by  ad- 
justing the  vanes  to  different  angles.  In 
some  types  of  vane  governors  the  inclined 
vanes  serve  to  lift  a  sleeve,  cutting  off  the 
supply  of  power. 


SPRINGS. 

241  and  242.  LAMINATED  or  CARRIAGE 
SPRINGS,  used  on  carriages  to  take  up  the 
jolts  of  the  wheels  in  passing  over  uneven 
roads.  241  shows  the  elliptical  form,  and 
242  the  semi-elliptical  form.  They  are  built 
up  of  flat  spring  metal  strips. 

243.  WATCH    or    CLOCK    SPRING,    used    to 
drive  a  watch  or  clock  train.     The  spring  is 
formed  of  a  flat   spring  metal  strip,  wound 
into  a  flat  coil. 

244.  RIBBON  SPRING. — A  strip  of  flat  spring 
metal  mounted  to  exert  a  torsional  pressure. 

245.  SPIRAL  SPRING. — A    length   of   round 
spring   wire   wound    into    spiral   form.     This 
spring  could  be  used  either  as  a  tension  or  as  a 
compression  spring,  though  usually  it  has  the 
form  shown  in   Figure    247  when  used  as  a 
tension  spring.     A  spiral  spring  should  never 
be  extended  or  compressed  more  than  one- 
third  of  its  length. 

246.  SEAR    SPRING. — This    spring   gets    its 
name  from  its  use  in  gun  locks  for  causing  the 
sear  to  catch  in  the   notch  of  the  tumbler. 
However,  the  spring  is  here  shown  as  holding 
apart  the  arms  of  a  compass. 

247.  TENSION    SPIRAL    SPRING. — A    spiral 
spring  which  tapers  toward  the  ends  so  that 
the  pull  will  come   centrally 'on  the  spring, 
thus  giving  an  even  tension  and  avoiding  side 
strains. 

248.  FLAT  or  LEAF  SPRING. — A  strip  of  flat 
spring  metal  used  chiefly  as  a  compression 
spring.    A  spring  of  this  type  is  apt  to  lose  its 
resiliency  after  continued  use. 

249.  DISK    SPRING. — A  compression  spring 
made  up  of  a  series  of  dished  disks  or  plates. 

250.  HELICAL  SPRING. — This  spring  differs 
from  the  spiral  spring,  Figure  245,  in  that  it 
is  formed  by  being  wrapped  around  a  cone, 
whereas  a  spiral  spring  is  formed  by  being 
wrapped    around    a    cylinder.     The    helical 
spring  may  safely  be  compressed  until  it  lies 
flat  like  a  clock  spring. 

251.  VOLUTE  SPRING. — A  compression  spring 
formed  by  coiling  a  flat  spring  ribbon  into  a 
helix. 

252.  FURNITURE    SPRING. — A    compression 
spring  comprising  a  double  helical  spring  used 
in  furniture  to  support  the  cushioned  backs 
or  seats  of  chairs.     This  spring  is  also  used  in 
bed  springs. 


TRANSMISSION     OF     POWER     BY     BELTING. 


THE  TENACITY  OF  GOOD  NEW  BELT  LEATH- 
ER varies  from  3,000  Ib.  to  5,000  Ib.  per  square 
inch  of  sectional  area. 

THE  COEFFICIENT  OF  FRICTION  between 
ordinary  belting  and  cast-iron  pulleys  is  about 
.423. 

THE  THICKNESS  OF  BELTS  varies  from 
three-sixteenths  to  five-sixteenths  of  an  inch, 
or  an  average  of  one-fourth  of  an  inch. 

TENACITY  OF  RIVETING  AND  LACING. — The 
ultimate  tenacity  of  good  single  leather  belt- 
ing may  be  taken  at  about  1,000  Ib.  per  inch 
in  width;  the  corresponding  strergth  of  a 
riveted  joint  being  about  400  Ib.,  a  butt  laced 
joint  about  250  Ib.,  and  an  ordinary  overlap 
laced  joint  470  Ib.  It  is  not  customary,  how- 
ever, to  allow  an  effective  strain  of  more  than 
one-fourth  these  amounts. 

WORKING  STRESS  OF  BELTS. — The  follow- 
ing are  the  effective  working  stresses  allowed 


for   the   different    kinds    and    thicknesses   of 
belts  referred  to  in  the  table  of  powers. 
Ordinary  single  belts,    50  Ib. 
Light  double  belts,         70  Ib. 
Heavy  double  belts,       90  Ib. 
Link  belts,  |  in.  thick,  42  Ib. 
in.  48  Ib. 

57  Ib. 
66  Ib. 
78  Ib. 
90  Ib. 

SPEED  OF  BELTING. — On  ordinary  shop  line 
shafts  the  velocity  of  the  belts  varies  from 
1,000  ft.  to  1,500  ft.  per  minute.  Lathe  belts 
vary  from  1,500  ft.  to  3,000  ft.  per  minute. 

STRESS  ON  SHAFTING. — The  cross  stress  on 
shafting  arising  from  the  sum  of  the  tension 
on  the  two  sides  of  the  belt  may  be  taken  at 
90  Ib.  per  inch  in  width. — Practical  Electrical 
Engineers'  Pocket  Book  and  Diary. 


440  SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


8. 


/o. 


13. 


—From  Haeder  &  Powles'  Handbook  on  the  Steam  Engine. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


44  i 


14. 


15. 


16. 


K*- 


^ 


18. 


20. 


21. 


3-a- 


—From  Haeder  &  Powles'  Handbook  on  the  Steam  Engine. 


TYPES     OF     ENGINES. 


1.  Trunk  Engine. 

2  and  3    Vertical  Engines. 

4.  Steeple  Engine. 

5.  Inclined  Frame  Engine. 

6.  Oscillating  Engines. 

7.  Corliss  Frame  or  Girder  Engine. 

8.  Horizontal  Engine. 

9.  Radial  Engine. 

10.  Beam  Engine. 

11.  Beam  Engine 

12.  Self  Contained  Horizontal  Engine. 

13.  Inclined  Cylinder  Engine. 

14.  Double  Cylinder  with  Cranks  opposite  or 

at  180°. 


15.  Three   Cylinder   Engine   with   Cranks   at 

120°. 

16.  Compound    Woolf    Engine    with    Cranks 

together. 

17.  Compound    Woolf    Engine    with    Cranks 

opposite  or  at  180°. 

18.  Compound    Tandem     Engine    with    Re- 

ceiver. 

19.  Compound    Engine    with    Cylinders    side 

by  side  and  Cranks  at  90°. 

20.  Triple  Expansion  Engine,  Cylinders  side 

by  side  and  Cranks  at  120°. 

21.  Triple   Expansion    Engine,   semi-tandem: 

Two  Cranks  at  90°. 


PABT  III. 


CHAPTER    I 


CHEMISTRY. 


TABLE  OF  ELEMENTS.* 


Elements.  Discoverer.         Year. 

Antimony Valentine 1450 

Bismuth Valentine 1450 

Zinc Paracelsus 1520 

Phosphorus Brandt 1669 

Arsenic Schroder 1694 

Cobalt Brandt 1733 

Nickel Crondstadt 1751 

Hydrogen Cavendish 1766 

Nitrogen Rutherford 1772 

Manganese Gahn 1774 

Oxygen Priestley 1774 

Tungsten d'Elihujar 1781 

Molybdenum Hjelm 1782 


Tellurium Reichenstein.  .  . 

Uranium Klaproth 

Titanium Klaproth 

Chromium Vauquelin 

Tellurium Klaporth 

Columbium.  ...       .  .  Hatchett. . 


.  . . 1782 
.  .  . 1789 
.  .  . 1795 
. . 1797 
.  .  . 1798 
1801 


Tantalum Hatchett  &  Ekeburg.1802 

Palladium Wollaston 1803 

Osmium Tennant 1803 

Cerium.  ..Berzelius,  Hisinger  &  Klaproth.  1803 

Iridium Tennant 1804 

Rhodium Wollaston 1804 

Potassium Davy. 1807 

Sodium Davy 1807 

Barium.  .  .Davy  and  Berzelius  &  Pontin.  1808 

Strontium Davy 1808 

Magnesium Davy 1808 

Calcium. .  .  Davy  and  Berzelius  &  Pontin .  1808 
Boron.  .Davy  and  Gay-Lussac  &  Thenard.1808 

Chlorine Davy 1810 

Fluorine Ampere 1810 

Iodine Courtois 1811 

Selenium Berzelius 1817 

Cadmium Hermann  &  Stromeyer.1817 

Lithium Arfvedson 1817 

Silicon. Berzelius 1823 

Zirconium Berzelius 1824 

Bromine Balard 1826 

Thorium Berzelius 1828 

Yttrium Wohler 1828 

Glucinum Wohler 1828 

Aluminum Wohler 1828 

Vanadium Sefstroem 1830 

Revised  by  Professor  Charles  Baskerville, 


Elements.  Discoverer.         Year. 

Lanthanum Mosander 1841 

Didymium Mosander    1841 

Erbium Mosander 1843 

Terbium Mosander 1843 

Niobium.  .  (same  as  Columbium,  q.  v.).  .1844 

Ruthenium Glaus 1844 

Rubidium Bunsen 1860 

Caesium Bunsen  &  Kirchhoff .  1860 

Thallium Crookes  and  Lamy.  .  1862 

Indium Reich  &  Richter 1863 

Gallium Boisbaudran 1875 

Ytterbium Marignac 1878 

Samarium Boisbaudran 1879 

Scandium Nilson 1879 

Thulium Cleve 1879 

Neodymium Welsbach 1885 

Praseodymium Welsbach 1885 

Gadolinium Marignac 1886 

Germanium Winkler 1886 

Argon Rayleigh  &  Ramsay .  1894 

Krypton Ramsay  &  Travers .  .  1897 

Neon Ramsay  &  Travers .  .  1898 

Coronium Nasini 1898 

Xenon Ramsay 1898 

Victorium Crookes 1898 

Etherion  (?) Brush 1898 

Polonium Curie"  (Mrs.) 1898 

Radium .  Curie's  (Mrs.  &  Mr. )  and  Be"mont .  1898 
Actinium Debierne 1899 

(Must  not   be  confounded  with  Phipson's 

actinium.) 
Asterium  hydrogen .  Lockyer 1899 

(New)  unknown. 

Thorium  a Brauner 1900 

Thorium  /? Brauner 1900 

Krypton  II Ladenberg  &  Krugel.1900 

Austrium  II.(  ?).  . .  .Pribram 1900 

Carolinium Baskerville 1900 

Radio-active  lead  (  ?)Hoffmann  &  Strauss.  1900 

"I"  Europium.  .  .  .  Demarcay 1901 

Euxenium  earth  (  ?). Hoffmann  &  Prandtl  1901 

I.  &  II. 

Amarillium  (?) Courtis .  .  1902 

Tellurium  X Pellini 1903 

Berzelium Baskerville 1903 

Ph.D.,  of  the  University  of  North  Carolina. 


*  Gold,    silver,  tin,  copper,  iron,  lead,  mercury,  and  carbon    have  been  known  from  the 
earliest  times. 

443 


444 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


INTERNATIONAL     ATOMIC     WEIGHTS. 


Elements. 

Sym- 
bol. 

0  =  16-. 

H-l. 

Elements. 

Sym- 
bol. 

O  =  16. 

H  =  l. 

Aluminum  

Al 
Sb 

27.1 
120  2 

26.9 
119  3 

Neodymium  
Neon 

Nd 

Ne 

143.6 
20 

142.5 
19  9 

Argon.  .  .          .... 

A 

39  9 

39.6 

Nickel  

Ni 

58.7 

58.3 

As 

75  0 

74  4 

Nitrogen 

N 

14  04 

13  93 

Barium  
Bismuth 

Ba 
Ri 

137.4 
208  5 

136.4 
206  9 

Osmium  
Oxygen.  .  . 

Os 

o 

191 
16  00 

189.6 
15  88 

Boron  
Bromine 

B 

Rr 

11 
79  96 

10.9 
79  36 

Palladium  
Phosphorus.  .  .  . 

Pd 
p 

106.5 
31  0 

105.7 

30  77 

Cadmium  

Cd 

112.4 

111.6 

Platinum  

Pt 

194.8 

193.3 

Caesium.  .  . 

Cs 

132  9 

131  9 

Potassium 

K 

39.15 

38  86 

Calcium  

Ca 

40  1 

39.8 

Praseodymium  

Pr 

140.5 

139.4 

Carbon  
Cerium 

C 
Ce 

12.00 
140  25 

11.91 
139  2 

Radium  
Rhodium   .  . 

Ra 
Rh 

225 
103  0 

223.3 
102  2 

Chlorine  
Chromium   .  . 

Cl 
Cr 

35.45 
52  1 

35.18 
51  7 

Rubidium  
Ruthenium. 

Rb 
P,u 

85.4 
101  7 

84.8 
100  9 

Cobalt  
Columbium. 

Co 
Cb 

59.0 
94 

58.56 
93  3 

Samarium  
Scandium  

Sm 

Rr 

150 
44   1 

148.9 
43  8 

Cu 

63  6 

63  1 

Se 

79  2 

78  6 

Erbium  
Fluorine  

Er 
F 

166 
19 

164.8 
18.9 

Silicon  
Silver  

Si 

AfT 

28.4 
107.93 

28.2 
107.12 

Gadolinium  

Gd 

156 

155 

Sodium  

Ni 

23.05 

22.88 

Gallium  

Ga 

70 

69.5 

Strontium  

Sr 

87.6 

86.94 

Germanium  
Glucinum 

Ge 
Gl 

72.5 
9   1 

71.9 
9  03 

Sulphur  
Tantalum   .  .  . 

S 
Ta 

32.06 
183 

31.83 
181  6 

Gold  
Helium 

Au 
HP 

197.2 
4 

195.7 
4 

Tellurium  
Terbium. 

Te 
Tb 

127.6 
160 

126.6 
158  8 

Hydrogen  

H 

1.008 

1.000 

Thallium  

Tl 

204.1 

202.6 

Indium   .  .  . 

Tn 

114 

113  1 

Thorium.  .  .  . 

Th 

232.5 

230  8 

Iodine  

I 

126.85 

125.90 

Thulium.  .  . 

Tm 

171 

169.7 

Iridium. 

Tr 

193  0 

191  5 

Tin 

Sn 

119.0 

118.1 

Iron  
>-Krypton      .  . 

Fe 
Kr 

55.9 
81  8 

55.5 

81   2 

Titanium  
Tungsten  

Ti 
W 

48.1 
184 

47.7 
182.6 

La 

138  9 

137  9 

Uranium 

TT 

238  5 

236  7 

Lead  

Pb 
Ti 

206.9 
7  03 

205.35 
6  98 

Vanadium  
Xenon.  . 

V 
XP 

51.2 

128 

50.8 
127 

Magnesium  

Mg 
Mn 

24.36 
55  0 

24.18 
54  6 

Ytterbium  
Yttrium.  .  . 

Yb 

Yt 

173.0 
89.0 

171.7 

88.3 

Mercury  

Hff 

200.0 

198.5 

Zinc  

7,n 

65.4 

64.9 

Molybdenum  

Mo 

96.0 

95.3 

Zirconium  

Zr 

90.6 

89.9 

REPORT    OF    THE    INTERNATIONAL    COMMITTEE    ON    ATOMIC 

WEIGHTS. 


The  International  Committee  on 
Atomic  Weights  has  the  honor  to  of- 
fer the  following  report : 

In  the  table  of  atomic  weights  for 
1904  only  two  changes  from  1903  are 
recommended.  The  atomic  weight  of 
caesium  has  been  slightly  modified  to 
accord  with  the  recent  determinations 
by  Richards  and  Archibald,  and  that 
of  cerium  in  conformity  with  the  meas- 
urements by  Brainier.  The  value  for 
lanthanum  is  still  in  controversy,  and 
any  change  here  would  therefore  be 
premature.  The  same  consideration 
may  also  be  urged  with  regard  to 
iodine.  Ladenburg  has  shown  that  the 
accepted  number  for  iodine  is  probably 
too  low,  but  other  investigations  upon 


the  subject  are  known  to  be  in  prog- 
ress, and  until  they  have  been  com- 
pleted it  would  be  unwise  to  propose 
any  alteration. 

Many  of  the  atomic  weights  given 
in  the  table  are  well  known  to  be  more 
or  less  uncertain.  This  is  especially 
true  with  respect  to  the  rarer  elements, 
such  as  gallium,  indium,  columbium, 
tantalum,  etc.  But  some  of  the  com- 
moner elements  also  stand  in  need  of 
revision,  and  we  venture  to  call  atten- 
tion to  a  few  of  these.  Among  the 
metals,  the  atomic  weights  of  mercury, 
tin,  bismuth  and  antimony  should  be 
redetermined,  for  the  reason  that  the 
existing  data  are  not  sufficiently  con- 
cordant. Palladium  also,  on  account 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


445 


of  discrepancies  between  different  ob- 
servers, and  possibly  vanadium,  for 
which  the  data  are  too  few,  deserve  at- 
tention. Among  the  non-metals,  phos- 
phorus has  been  peculiarly  neglected  ; 
and  our  knowledge  of  the  atomic 
weight  of  silicon  rests  upon  a  single 
ratio.  In  the  latter  case,  confirmatory 
data  are  much  to  be  desired.  Upon 
any  of  these  elements  new  investiga- 
tions would  be  most  serviceable. 

There  is  one  other  point  to  which 
we  may  properly  call  attention.  Many 
of  the  ratios  from  which  atomic 
weights,  'have  been  calculated,  were 
measured  in  vessels  of  glass,  by  pro- 
cesses involving  the  use  of  strong  acids. 
In  such  cases  the  solubility  of  the  glass 
becomes  an  important  consideration, 
even  when  no  transfer  of  material 


from  one  vessel  to  another  has  oc- 
curred. A  slight  conversion  of  sili- 
cate into  chloride  would  cause  an  in- 
crease of  weight  during  the  operation, 
and  so  introduce  an  error  into  the  de- 
termination. Such  errors  are  doubt- 
less very  small,  and  still  they  ought 
not  to  be  neglected.  Now  that  vessels 
of  pure  silica,  the  so-called  quartz- 
glass,  are  available  for  use,  they  might 
well  replace  ordinary  glass  in  all  pro- 
cesses for  the  determination  of  atomic 
weights.  An  investigation  into  the 
relative  availability  of  the  two  kinds 
of  glass  is  most  desirable. 

(Signed)      F.  W.  CLARKE, 
T.  E.  THORPE, 
KARL  SEUBERT, 
HENRI  MOISSAN, 

Committee. 


CHEMICAL  SUBSTANCES  AND  THEIR  COMMON  NAMES. 


Common  Names. 
Alum 

Aqua  fortis 

Aqua  regia 

Calomel 

Carbolic  acid 

Caustic  potash. 

Caustic  soda 

Chalk 

Copperas 

Corrosive  sublimate 
Cream  of  tartar.  .  . 

Epsom  salts 

.Fire  damp 

Glauber's  salt 

Grape  sugar 

Goulard  water.  .  .  . 

Iron  pyrites 

Jewelers'  putty.  .  . 

Laughing  gas 

Lime 

Lunar  caustic 

Mosaic  gold 

Muriatic  acid 

Plaster  of  Paris.  .  . 


Chemical  Names. 

.Sulphate  of  aluminum 
and  potassium 

.Nitric  acid 

.  Nitro-hydrochloric  acid 

.Mercurous  chloride 

.  Phenol 

.Potassium  hydrate 

.  Sodium  hydrate 

.Calcium  carbonate 

.  Sulphate  of  iron 

.  Mercuric  chloride 

.  Bitartrate  of  potassium 

.  Magnesium  sulphate 

.  Light  carbureted  hy- 
drogen, methane 

.  Sodium  sulphate 

.  Glucose 

.  Basic  acetate  of  lead 

.  Sulphide  of  iron 

.  Oxide  of  tin 

.  Nitrous  oxide 

.Calcium  oxide 

.  Silver  nitrate 

.  Bisulphide  of  tin 

.Hydrochloric  acid 

.Calcium  sulphate 


Realgar Sulphide  of  arsenic 

Red  lead Oxide  of  lead 

Rochelle  salt Sodium    potassium    tar- 

trate 
Sal  ammoniac  ......  Ammonium  chloride 

Salt,  common Sodium  chloride 

Salt  of  tartar  (potash) Potassium  <  arbonate 

Saltpetre Potassium  nitrate 

Salts  of  lemon Oxalic  acid 

Slaked  lime Calcium  hydrate 

Soda,  washing Sodium  carbonate 

Soda,  baking Sodium  bicarbonate 

Soda Sodium  carbonate 

Spirits  of  hartshorn.  .Ammonia,  solution  of 

Spirits  of  salt Hydrochloric  acid 

Sugar  of  lead Lead  acetate 

Tartar  emetic Potaesium  antimony 

tartrate 

Verdigris Basic  acetate  of  copper 

Vermilion Sulphide  of  mercury 

Vinegar Dilute  acetic  acid 

Vitriol,  blue Copper  sulphate 

green Ferrous  sulphate 

oil  of Sulphuric  acid 

white Zinc  sulphate 

Volatile  alkali.  ....  .Ammonia 

— Knowledge  Year  Book. 


SPECIFIC    GRAVITY. 


To  Convert  Degrees  Baume  into 
Specific  Gravity. —  (1)  For  liquids 
heavier  than  water :  Subtract  the  de- 
gree of  Baume  from  145  and  divide 
into  145.  The  quotient  is  the  specific 
gravity. 

(2)  For  liquids  lighter  than  water: 
Add  the  degree  of  Baume  to  130  and 
divide  it  into  140.  The  quotient  is  the 
specific  gravity. 

To  Convert  Specific  Gravity  into  De- 
grees Baume. —  (1)  For  liquids 
heavier  than  water :  Divide  the  speci- 
fic gravity  into  145  and  subtract  from 


145.     The  remainder  is  the  degree  of 
Baume. 

(2)  For  liquids  lighter  than  water: 
Divide  the  specific  gravity  into  140 
and  subtract  130  from  the  quotient. 
The  remainder  will  be  the  degree  of 
Baume. 

COMPARISON      OF      DEGREES      TWADDELL 
AND   SPECIFIC    GRAVITY. 

In  order  to  change  degrees  Twad- 
dell  into  specific  gravity,  multiply  by 
5,  add  1,000  and  divide  by  1,000. 

Example :  Change  168  deg.  Twad- 
dell  into  specific  gravity. 


446 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


168X5 


840 
1,000 


1,000)1,840 


1.84,  specific  gravity. 

To  change  specific  gravity  into  de- 
grees Twaddell,  multiply  by  1,000, 
subtract  1,000  and  divide  by  5. 

Example :  Change  1.84  specific 
gravity  to  degrees  Twaddell. 

1.84X1,000 

1,840 

1,000 

5)840 
168°  Tw. 

SPECIFIC    GRAVITY. 

Determination  of  Specific  Gravity  : 
Solids:  (1)  Solids  heavier  than,  and 
insoluble  in  water: 

a.  By  weighing  in  air  and  water. — 
(weight  in  air) 


Sp.gr.  = 


(loss  of  weight  in  water) 


6.  By  Nicholson's  hydrometer.  Let 
tci  be  the  weight  required  to  sink  the 
instrument  to  the  mark  on  the  stem  ;  to 
take  the  specific  gravity  of  any  solid 
substance,  place  a  portion  of  it  weigh- 
ing less  than  in  in  the  upper  pan, 
with  such  additional  weight,  say  ws, 
as  will  cause  the  instrument  to  sink 
to  the  zero  mark.  The  weight  of  the 
substance  is  then  w\  —  ics.  Next  trans- 
fer the  substance  to  the  lower  pan, 
and  again  adjust  with  weight  w*  to 
the  zero  mark. 


c.  By     the    specific    gravity     bottle 
(applicable  to  powders).     Weigh   the 


flask  filled  to  the  mark  with  water, 
then  place  the  substance,  of  known 
weight,  in  the  flask,  fill  to  the  mark 
with  water,  and  weigh  again. 

g  = weight  of  substance  in  air 

'~wt.  in  air  +  wt.  of  flask  and  water — 
wt.  of  flask  filled  with  substance  and 
water. 

(2)  Solids  lighter  than  and  insolu- 
ble  in   water.      The   solid    is    weighed 
by  a  piece  of  lead  and  weighed  in  wa- 
ter. 

(weight  of  substance  in  air) 
bp.  gr. - (wt    of  iead  jn  water) -(wt.  of  lead 
and  substance  in  water)  +  (wt.  of  sub- 
stance in  air) 

(3)  Solids  heavier  than  and  soluble 
in  water.      Proceed   as   in   1   a,   using 
instead  of  water  some  liquid  without 
action  on  the  solid. 

(weight  of  bulk  of  liquid  equal  to  sub- 
stance)    =     (weight    of    substance    in 
air)     —     (weight     of     substance     in 
liquid). 

(wt.  of  bulk  of  liquid 
( wt.  of  bulk  of  water        equai  to  substance ) 

equal  to  substance  )  = ; j-p r-rs; — - 

(sp.  gr.  of  liquid) 


Sp.  gr.  = 


(weight  of  substance  in  air) 

(weight  of   bulk    of  water  equal  to 

substance) 

Liquids:    (1)   By  the  hydrometer. 

(2)  By  the  specific  gravity  bottle. 

Weigh  the  bottle  filled  to  the  mark 
with  water,  and  again  when  filled  to 
the  mark  with  liquid. 

(weight     of     liquid     and    bottle)  — 


Sp.  gr.  = 


(weight  of  bottle) 


(weight     of    water     and     bottle)  — 
(weight  of  bottle) 

Tables   of   Specific   Gravity  will   be 
found  under  Weights  and  Measures. 


THERMOMETER    SCALES. 


Much  annoyance  is  caused  by  the 
great  difference  of  thermometer  scales 
in  use  in  the  different  civilized  coun- 
tries. The  scale  of  Reaumur  prevails 
in  Germany.  As  is  well  known,  he  di- 
vides the  space  between  the  freezing 
and  boiling  points  into  80  deg.  France 
uses  that  of  Celsius,  who  graduated 
his  scale  on  the  decimal  system.  The 
most  peculiar  scale  of  all,  however,  is 
that  of  Fahrenheit,  a  renowned  Ger- 
man physicist,  who  in  1714  or  1715, 
composed  his  scale,  having  ascertained 
that  water  can  be  cooled  under  the 
freezing  point,  without  congealing.  He 
therefore  did  not  take  the  congealing 
point  of  water,  but  composed  a  mix- 


ture of  equal  parts  of  snow  and  sal 
ammoniac,  about  — 14  deg.  R.  The 
conversion  of  any  one  of  these  scales  to 
another  is  very  simple,  and  easily 
made.  To  change  a  temperature  as 
given  by  Fahrenheit's  scale  into  the 
same  as  given  by  the  centigrade  scale 
subtract  32  deg.  from  Fahrenheit's  de- 
grees, and  multiply  the  remainder  by 
5-9.  The  product  will  be  the  tem- 
perature in  centigrade  degrees. 

To  change  from  Fahrenheit's  to 
Reaumur's  scale,  subtract  32  deg.  from 
Fahrenheit's  degrees,  and  multiply  the 
remainder  by  4-9.  The  product  will 
be  the  temperature  in  Reaumur's  de- 
grees. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


447 


COMPARATIVE   SCALES    OF   THERMOMETER. 


c. 

R.       F.       C. 

R.      F. 

C. 

R.      F. 

-30 

-24.0     -22.0 

14 

11.2 

57.2 

58 

46.4 

136.4 

-29 

-23.2     -20.2 

15 

12.0 

59.0 

59 

47.2 

138.2 

-28 

-22.4     -18.4 

16 

12.8 

60.8 

60 

48.0 

140.0 

-27 

-21.6     -16.6 

17 

13.6 

62.6 

61 

48.8 

141.8 

-26 

-20.8     -14.8 

18 

14.4 

64.4 

62 

49.6 

143.6 

-25 

-20.0     -13.0 

19 

15.2 

66.2 

63 

50.4 

145.4 

-24 

-19.2 

-11.2 

20 

16.0 

68.0 

64 

51.2 

147.2 

-23 

-18.4 

-9.4 

21 

16.8 

69.8 

65 

52.0 

149.0 

-22 

-17.6 

-7.6 

22 

17.6 

71.6 

66 

52.8 

150.8 

-21 

-16.8 

-5.8 

23 

18.4 

73.4 

67 

53.6 

152.6 

-20 

-16.0      -4.0 

24 

19.2 

75.2 

68 

54.4 

154.4 

-19 

-15.2 

-2.2 

25 

20.0 

77.0 

69 

55.2 

156.2 

-18 

-14.4 

-0.4 

26 

20.8 

78.8 

70 

56.0 

158.0 

-17 

-13.6 

1.4 

27 

21.6 

80.6 

71 

56.8 

159.8 

-16 

-12.8 

3.2 

28 

22.4 

82.4 

72 

57.6 

161.6 

-15 

-12.0 

5.0 

29 

23.2 

84.2 

73 

58.4 

163.4 

-14 

-11.2 

6.8 

30 

24.0 

86.0 

74 

59.2 

165.2 

-13 

-10.4 

8.6 

31 

24.8 

87.8 

75 

60.0 

167.0 

-12 

-9.6 

10.4 

32 

25.6 

89.6 

76 

60.8 

168.8 

-11 

-8.8 

12.2 

33 

26.4 

91.4 

77 

61.6 

170.6 

-10 

-8.0 

14.0 

34 

27.2 

93.2 

78 

62.4 

172.4 

-9 

-7.2 

15.8 

35 

28.0 

95.0 

79 

63.2 

174.2 

-8 

-6.4 

17.6 

36 

28.8 

96.8 

80 

64.0 

176.0 

-7 

-5.6 

19.4 

37 

29.6 

98.6 

81 

64.8 

177.8 

-6 

-4.8 

21.2 

38 

30.4 

100.4 

82 

65.6 

179.6 

-4.0 

23.0 

39 

31.2 

102.2 

83 

66.4 

181.4 

A 

-3.2 

24.8 

40 

32.0 

104.0 

84 

67.2 

183.2 

-3      -2.4 

26.6 

41 

32.8 

105.8 

85 

68.0 

185.0 

-2 

-1.6 

28.4 

42 

33.6 

107.6 

86 

68.8 

186.8 

-1 

-0.8 

30.2 

43 

34.4 

109.4 

87 

69.6 

188.6 

0 

0.0 

32.0 

44 

35.2 

111.2 

88 

70.4 

190.4 

1 

0.8 

33.8 

45 

36.0 

113.0 

89 

71.2 

192.2 

2 

1.6 

35.6 

46 

36.8 

114.8 

90 

72.0 

194.0 

3 

'  2.4 

37.4 

47 

37.6 

116.6 

91 

72.8 

195.8 

4 

3.2 

39.2 

48 

38.4 

118.4 

92 

73.6 

197.6 

5 

4.0 

41.0 

49 

39.2 

120.2 

93 

74.4 

199.4 

6 

4.8 

42.8 

50 

40.0 

122.0 

94 

75.2 

201.2 

7 

5.6 

44.6 

51 

40.8 

123.8 

95 

76.0 

203.0 

8 

6.4 

46.4 

52 

41.6 

125.6 

96 

76.8 

204.8 

9 

7.2 

48.2 

53 

42.4 

127.4 

97 

77.6 

206.6 

10 

8.0 

50.0 

54 

43.2 

129.2 

98 

78.4 

208.4 

11 

8.8 

51.8 

55 

44.0 

131.5 

99 

79.2 

210.2 

12 

9.6 

53.6 

56 

44.8 

132.8 

100 

80.0 

212.0 

13 

10.4 

55.4 

57 

45.6 

134.6 

To  change  the  temperature  as  given 
by  the  centigrade  scale  into  the  same 
as  given  by  Fahrenheit,  multiply  the 
centigrade  degrees  by  9-5  and  add  32 
deg.  to  the  product.  The  sum  will  be 
the  temperature  by  Fahrenheit's  scale. 

To  change  from  Reaumur's  to  Fahr- 


enheit's scale,  multiply  the  degrees  on 
Reaumur's  scale  by  9-4  and  add  32 
deg.  to  the  product.  The  sum  will  be 
the  temperature  by  Fahrenheit's  scale. 
For  those  who  wish  to  save  them- 
selves the  trouble  we  have  calculated 
the  preceding  comparative  table. 


VALUE  OF  RARE   ELEMENTS. 


Elements. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Boron  nitrate  (New  York) 

Ib 

$1  50 

Boron,  pure  crystals  (Germany)  
Boron,  amorphous,  pure  (Germany)  
Boron,  powder  (Moissari)  (Germany)  . 

10  grams 
kilo. 

13.09 
119.00 
142  80 

Caesium  nitrate  crystals  (Germany)  
Caesium  oxide  hydrated  (Germany)  
Calcium  metal,  (Germany)  

100  grams 
1  gram 

11.90 
13.09 
4.28 

Cerium  metal,  fused  (Germany)  

»* 

2.02 

448 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


VALUE   OF    RARE    ELEMENTS.— Continued. 


Elements. 


Quantity. 


Value. 


Cerium  metal,  powder  (Germany) I  1  gram               SI .  67 

Cerium  nitrate  (New  York) Ib.                   10 . 00 

Didymium  metal,  fused  (Germany) 1  gram                 5. 47 

Didymium  metal  powder  (Germany) |  4.71 

Didymium  nitrate  (New  York) !  Ib.                   35. 00 

Erbium  metal  (Germany) 1  gram                 3 . 09 

Erbium  nitrate  (New  York) Ib.                   40  00 

Germanium  metal,  fused  (Germany) j  1  gram              59. 50 

Germanium  metal,  powder  (Germany) I  57   12 

Glucinum  metal,  crystals  (Germany) 9 . 04 

Glucinum  metal,  fused  in  balls  (Germany) 35.70 

Glucinum  metal,  powder  (Germany) 5 . 95 

Glucinum  nitrate  (New  York) Ib.                   20 . 00 

Iridium  metal,  fused  (Germany) j  10  grams             10.71 

Iridium  metal,  powder  (Germany .             9. 52 

Lanthanum  metal,  powder  (Germany) 1  gram                 4 . 28 

Lanthanum  metal,  in  balls  (Germany) 9.04 

Lanthanum  nitrate  (New  York) Ib.                   30 . 00 

Lithium  metal,  pure  (Germany) i  1  gram                 0.71 

Lithium  metal,  chem.  pure  (Germany) 2 . 38 

Lithium  carbonate  (New  York) Ib.                     1 . 50 

Lithium  nitrate  (New  York) I  oz.                      .60 

Magnalium  metal,  ingot  (Germany) kilo.                   3 . 57 

Magnalium  metal,  sheet  (Germany) 7.14 

Magnesium  metal,  ingot  (Germany) 4 . 28 

Magnesium  metal,  ribbon,  wire,  sheet  (Germany) 7.62 

Magnesium  metal,  sticks  (Germany) I  5. 47 

Magnesium  metal,  cubes  (Germany) .  5.00 

Magnesium  metal,  powder  (Germany) 3.81  @  5.00 

Manganese  metal,  pure  fused  (Germany) 3.81 

Manganese  metal,  com'l  (94  @,  97#)  (Germany) 1 . 25 

Molybdenum  metal,  pure  (Germany) 17 . 85 

Molybdenum  metal,  com'l,  fused  (Germany) 6.66 

Molybdenum  metal,  pure,  fused  (Germany) 100  grams             9 . 52 

Molybdenum  metal,  powder  (Germany) I  kilo.                   4 .05 

Niobium  metal,  pure  (Germany) I  1  gram                 4.71 

Osmium  metal  (Germany) 10  grams             17 . 14 

Palladium  metal  (Germany) 8 . 57 

Platinum  (New  York) I  oz.                   18 . 50 

Polonium j  j  Speculative.* 

Potassium  metal  in  balls  (Germany) kilo.                 16 . 60 

Radium- See  Kadi    um,  p.  449f 

Rhodium  metal  (Germany) 10  grams   j          26 . 18 

Rubidium  metal  pure  (Germany) j  1  gram                 4.76 

Ruthenium  metal,  powder  (Germany) j 

Ruthenium  metal,  sponge  (Germany) 

Selenium  metal  (Germany) kilo.                 16. 66 

Silicium  metal,  com'l,  fused  (Germany) 9. 52 

Sodium  metal  (New  York) Ib.                     0 . 50 

Strontium  metal  (Germany) 1  gram                 6.19 

Strontium  nitrate  (New  York) Ib.                     0 . 08 

Tantalum  metal,  pure  (Germany) i  1  gram,     j           3 . 57 

Tellurium  metal,  chem.  pure  sticks  (Germany) :  .  kilo.               106. 10 

Tellurium  metal,  chem.  pure  powder  (Germany) ;  107. 10 

Thallium  metal  (Germany) 23 . 80 

Thorium  nitrate  (New  York) Ib                      4 . 50 

Titanium  metal,  pure  (Germany) kilo. 

Uranium  metal  (Germany) 1 90 . 40 

Uranium  nitrate  (New  York) j  oz.                     0 . 25 

Wolfram  metal,  powder  for  s-tefl  makes  (Germany) kilo. 

Yttrium  metal  (Germany) 1  gram                 3 . 33 

Zirconium  metal  (Germany) kilo.                  95. 20 

Zirconium  nitrate  (New  York) Ib.                    8  00 


*The  value  of  polonium  is  purely  speculative.  Minute  quantities  have  been  sold  at  very- 
high  prices.  It  is  worth  75  cents  a  gram  on  bismuth  and  platinum  plates.  The  quantity  of 
polonium  is  of  course  very  minute. 

t  The  supply  is  so  small  that  any  price  can  be  asked.  $3,500,000  is  the  current ' '  newspaper  " 
estimate  per  pound.  See  Radium ,  page  449. 

">le  furnished  by  the  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal.] 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


449 


RADIUM  AND  RADIO-ACTIVITY. 


The  marvels  of  radium  may  be  said 
to  have  been  more  or  less  foreshadowed 
by  the  discovery  of  the  Roentgen  rays. 
It  was  immediately  determined  that 
the  emanations  of  a  Crookes  tube 
were  not  ethereal  undulations  such  as 
ordinary  light,  but  that  they  consisted 
of  actual  material  particles  of  matter 
highly  charged  with  electricity.  Natu- 
rally the  attempt  \vas  made  to  discover 
whether  the  phenomena  of  phosphores- 
cent substances  were  not  akin  to  those 
of  the  Crookes  tube.  The  leading 
spirit  in  this  movement  was  Professor 
Henri  Becquerel,  who  selected  the 
metal  uranium  as  the  subject  of  his 
experiments.  He  accidentally  discov- 
ered that  the  so-called  phosphorescent 
attributes  of  uranium  were  not  due  to 
the  absorption  of  sunlight,  but  that  the 
substance  was  spontaneously  active, 
and  that  the  light  which  came  from 
radium  was  a  new  kind  of  emanation 
entirely  different  from  the  X-rays.  To 
these  new  radiations  the  name  "Bec- 
querel Rays"  was  given. 

Uranium  is  obtained  from  pitch- 
blende, an  .ore  more  or  less  widely  dis- 
tributed about  the  world,  but  found 
chiefly  in  Bohemia  and  in  Cornwall. 
Madame  Curie,  who,  at  the  time  Bec- 
querel was  making  his  investigations, 
was  a  senior  student  at  the  Municipal 
School  of  Physics  and  Technical  Chem- 
istry in  Paris,  had  selected  "Radio- 
Activity" — a  name  which  she  coined — 
as  the  subject  of  her  Doctor's  thesis. 
Naturally  it  wras  necessary  for  her  to 
study  uranium  and  similar  minerals 
with  some  care.  She  found  that,  after 
having  extracted  all  the  uranium  con- 
tained in  her  specimen  of  pitchblende, 
there  still  remained  in  the  residue  a 
substance  far  more  active  than  ura- 
nium. After  isolating  this  unknown 
radiant  substance  and  analyzing  it, 
she  found  that  it  contained  two  new 
elements.  The  one  she  christened  "po- 
lonium," after  Poland,  the  land  of  her 
birth  ;  the  other  she  named  "radium." 

Several  tons  of  pitchblende  must  be 
treated  and  concentrated  before  a  few 
grains  of  radium  are  obtained.  But 
those  few  grains  are  worth  more  than 
any  precious  gem  or  metal  in  the 
world.  Indeed  they  have  almost  any 
value  which  their  fortunate  possessor 
may  choose  to  give  them.  There  are 
probably  not  two  pounds  of  pure  ra- 
dium in  existence;  but  at  the  present 
market  price  they  would  be  worth  each 
about  three  and  one-half  million  dol- 
lars. There  is  more  gold  in  sea  water 


than  radium  in  pitchblende;  and  that 
is  why  its  price  is  so  high. 

The  properties  of  radium  will  prob- 
ably necessitate  a  decided  revision  in 
some  time-honored  chemical  theories ; 
for  radium  refuses  to  conform  to  our 
long-established  atomic  theories,  and 
behaves  in  a  most  inexplicable  fash- 
ion. In  the  first  place  the  radio-activ- 
ity of  the  element  has  been  found  to 
consist  of  three  distinct  sets  of  ema- 
nations, w^hich  have  been  respectively 
christened  the  Alpha,  the  Beta,  and 
the  Gamma  rays,  for  want  of  better 
names. 

The  Alpha  rays  are  not,  like  ordi- 
nary light,  ethereal  pulsations,  but  ac- 
tual material  particles  hurled  off  at  a 
speed  of  about  20,000  miles  per  sec- 
ond from  the  parent  mass.  They  are 
highly  charged  with  positive  electric- 
ity. Their  speed  is  about  40,000  times 
greater  than  that  of  a  rifle  bullet. 

The  Beta  rays,  which  consist  of  par- 
ticles of  matter,  corpuscles  of  elec- 
tricity or  "electrons"  as  the  modern 
physicist  calls  them,  move  still  more 
swiftly.  Each  of  the  Beta  particles 
(very  much  smaller  in  size  than  the 
Alpha  particles)  travels  at  the  rate  of 
about  100,000  miles  a  second.  They 
are  the  fastest  moving  objects  known 
in  the  universe ;  for  their  speed  is 
three  hundred  times  faster  than  that 
of  the  swiftest  star.  Such  is  their  ve- 
locity that  it  takes  a  foot  of  solid  iron 
to  stop  them. 

The  Gamma  rays  are  probably 
Roentgen  rays,  if  one  may  judge  by 
the  similarity  of  the  properties  of  the 
two.  Like  the  Beta  rays,  the  Gamma 
emanations  have  remarkable  penetrat- 
ing properties.  But  of  the  three  kinds 
of  rays  discharged  by  radium,  the 
Gamma  rays  are  the  most  difficult  to 
detect  and  the  least  perfectly  under- 
stood. 

Professor  Curie,  Madame  Curia's 
husband,  has  discovered  that  radium 
constantly  maintains  a  temperature  of 
about  five  or  six  degrees  above  the 
surrounding  atmosphere.  For  some 
time  this  startling  phenomenon  baffled 
physicists.  Here  was  a  substance  con- 
stantly giving  off  heat  wnthout  being 
apparently  consumed,  and  without 
anything  to  make  it  hot.  It  is  now 
thought  that  this  strange  property  can 
be  explained  by  assuming  that  the  par- 
ticles collide  with  one  another,  and 
that  the  heat  generated  by  the  impact 
(a  heat  that  must  be  very  marked 
when  it  is  considered  how  enormous 


450 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


is  the  energy  of  a  particle  moving  at 
the  rate  of  many  thousand  miles  a  sec- 
ond) is  sufficient  to  explain  the  heat 
generated  by  radium. 

The  fact  that  radium  is  a  spontane- 
ous source  of  thermal  energy  is  in  it- 
self a  fact  sufficiently  startling.  Sir 
William  Ramsay,  however,  has  dis- 
covered still  other  startling  properties 
of  this  startling  substance.  He  col- 
lected the  material  particles  which  are 
shot  from  the  substance,  analyzed  them, 
and  found  that  after  a  few  days  they 
changed  into  helium,  a  gas  which  was 
first  discovered  burning  in  the  sun. 
This  seems  dangerously  like  the  trans- 
mutation of  one  element  into  an- 
other, the  problem  on  the  solution  of 
which  the  medieval  alchemist  had 
worked  for  centuries.  After  ages 
of  labor  seventy-odd  bits  of  pri- 
mordial matter  had  been  wrung 
from  the  earth,  so  simple  and  so  un- 
changeable in  their  nature  that  they 
were  deemed  elements.  And  now  one 
of  them  proves  to  be  nothing  but  the 
product  of  another.  Can  we  ever  be 
certain  again  that  the  rest  are  not  also 
likely  to  change?  Is  it  any  wonder 
that  our  chemistry  needs  revision? 

The  atomic  weight  of  radium  has 
been  ascertained  by  Madame  Curi6  to 
be  225  ;  that  of  helium  is  2.2.  In  other 
words,  every  atom  of  radium  breaks 
np  into  about  100  parts  of  helium. 
What  becomes  of  the  old  teaching  that 
atoms  are  indivisible  particles  of  mat- 


ter? Some  of  the  more  advanced 
thinkers  have  abandoned  the  atom  and 
adopted  the  ^"electron"  as  the  ultimate 
unit.  The  atom  is  certainly  quite  in- 
adequate to  account  for  the  properties 
of  radium.  Atoms  may  be  said  to  be 
composed  of  electrons  moving,  like 
miniature  solar  systems,  with  incon- 
ceivable rapidity  in  well-defined  orbits. 
Sometimes  a  little  planet  of  that  sys- 
tem becomes  unstable,  darts  off  with 
terrific  speed  like  a  comet,  and  thus 
gives  rise  to  the  phenomena  of  radium, 
of  uranium,  and  of  every  other  radio- 
active substance. 

Has  radium  any  practical  value?  it 
may  be  asked.  So  far  it  is  more  of  a 
scientific  curiosity  than  anything  else. 
Still,  it  is  not  without  some  use.  It  is 
an  excellent  detector  of  false  dia- 
monds ;  for  it  causes  the  real  gem  to 
glow  with  wonderful  brilliancy,  while 
the  paste  imitation  is  left  compara- 
tively lusterless.  Then,  again,  radium 
kills  bacteria  and  even  very  small  ani- 
mals. The  modern  physician  has  used 
the  substance  with  some  success  in 
treating  certain  diseases,  among  them 
cancer  and  lupus.  Living  tissues  of 
the  body  are  strangely  affected  by 
short  exposures  to  the  substance. 
Sores  are  produced,  like  burns,  which 
heal  only  after  weeks  have  elapsed. 
An  electroscope  has  also  been  invented, 
the  underlying  principle  of  which  is 
dependent  upon  the  properties  of  ra- 
dium. 


PRICES    OF    FRENCH    RADIUM,    JULY,   1904. 


Form. 

Activity. 

Price  per 
Gramme. 

Price  per 
Ounce. 

Price  per 
Milligram. 

Dollars 

Dollars 

Dollars 

50 

4 

125 

.004 

100 

8 

250 

.008 

500 

30 

910 

.040 

1,000 

60 

1,820 

.080 

5,000 

240 

7,280 

.40 

10,000 

500 

15,050 

.80 

20,000 

1,000 

30,100 

1.60 

50,000 

2,000 

60,200 

4.00 

100,000 

4,000 

120,400 

8.00 

500,000 
1,800,000 

20,000 
80,000 

602,000 
2,408  000 

40.00 
144.00 

— Table  furnished  by  Dr.  George  F.  Kunz. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


451 


MELTING    POINTS    OF   CHEMICAL   ELEMENTS. 

The  melting  points  of  chemical  elements  are,  in  many  cases,  somewhat  uncertain,  owing  to  the 
different  results  obtained  by  different  observers.     This  table  gives  the  probable  average  value. 


Substance. 

Melting 
Point, 
Degrees  C. 

Substance. 

Melting 
Point 
Degrees  C. 

Aluminum  
Antimony  
Bismuth 

625 
435 
268  1 

Magnesium  
Manganese  
Mercury 

775 
1900 
-39  04 

Bromine  
Cadmium 

-7.27 
318 

Nickel  
Osmium 

1500 
2500 

Caesium  
Chlorine,  liquid  
Cobalt 

26.5 
-102 
1650 

Nitrogen  
Palladium  
Phosphorus 

-208 
1600 
44  25 

Copper  
Gallium 

1100 
30.15 

Platinum  
Potassium 

1900 
60 

Germanium  
Gold  

900 
1080 

Rhodium  
Rubidium  . 

2000 
38.5 

Indium  
Iodine  
Iridium  
Iron,  pure  
white  pig  .  . 

176 
112 
2225 
1635 
1075 

Ruthenium  
Selenium  
Silver  
Sodium  
Sulphur 

.     1800 
217 
950 
97.6 
115.1 

'  '  gray  pig  
Steel.  .  . 

1200 
1360 

Tellurium  
Thallium. 

470 
289 

cast.  . 

1375 

Tin  

230 

Lead  
Lithium  

326 
180 

Zinc  

415 

BOILING    POINTS    OF    CHEMICAL    ELEMENTS. 


Substance. 

Boiling 
Point, 
Degrees  C. 

Substance. 

Boiling 
Point 
Degrees  C. 

Antimony  
Arsenic. 

1535 
449 

Oxygen  
Ozone.  . 

-183 
—  106 

Bismuth  
Bromine. 

1413 
62  08 

Phosphorus  
Potassium 

288 
695 

Cadmium 

779 

675 

Chlorine  
Iodine.  .  . 

-33.6 
over  200 

Sodium  
Sulphur 

825 
448  1 

Lead.  
Magnesium.  . 

about  1,525 
1100 

Thallium  
Tin 

1700 
about  1,550 

Mercury  . 

357 

Zinc 

958 

Nitrogen  

-194.4 

HEAT   OF  COMBUSTION. 

Heat  of  combustion  of  some  common  organic  compounds. 

Products  of  combustion,  CO2  or  SO2  and  water,  which  is  assumed  to  be  in  a  state  of  vapor. 


Substance. 

Therms  per 
Gramme  of 
Substance. 

Substance. 

Therms  per 
Gramme  of 
Substance. 

Acetylene.  .  .  . 

11,923 

Gas- 

Alcohols: 
Amyl.  .  . 

8,958 

Methane  
Naphthalene. 

13,063 
9,618-9,793 

Ethyl.  . 

7,183 

Gunpowder.  . 

720-750 

Methyl  
Benzene.  .  . 

5,307 
9,977 

Oils: 
Lard.  .  . 

9  200-9  400 

Coals: 
Bituminous  
Anthracite  

7,400-8,500 
7,800 
6,900 

Olive  
Petroleum,  American  crude.  . 
refined  . 

9,328-9,442 
11,094 
11,045 
10  800 

Coke  
Carbon  disulphide.  . 

7,000 
3  244 

Woods: 
Beech  with  129  per  cent   H^O 

4  168 

Dynamite,  75  per  cent  
Gas: 
Coal  gas.  .  . 

1,290 
5,800-11  000 

Birch      "     11.83"      " 
Oak     '  "     13.3    "      " 
Pine       "     12  17"      " 

4,207 
3,990 
4  422 

Illuminating  

5,200-5,500 

452 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SIZES     OF     DRY     PLATES. 
3i  X  4±  inches                      8X10  inches 
4   X5          '                         10X12 
4JX5}       '                         11X14 
4iX6*       '                         14X17 
4fX6£        •                          16X20 
5    X7          '                          17X20 
5    X8         '                        18X22 
6}X8£        '                        20X24 

SIZES     IN    FRANCE    AND     GERMANY. 
6£X   9  cm  2.5X   3.  6  inches 
9    X12          ....               3.6X   4.7 

AIR.  —  The  following  data  are  useful  in  cal- 
culations relating  to  air: 
1.  To  find  the  quantity  of  nitrogen  by  vol- 
ume corresponding  to   1   volume  of  oxygen, 
multiply  by  3.770992. 
2.   To  find  the  quantity  of  oxygen  by  vol- 
ume corresponding  to  1  volume  of  nitrogen, 
multiply  by  0.265182. 
3.  To    find    the   quantity   of   nitrogen    by 
weight  corresponding  to  1  part  by  weight  of 
oxygen,  multiply  by  3.313022. 
4.  To    find    the    quantity    of    oxygen    by 
weight  corresponding  to  1  part  by  weight  of 
nitrogen,  multiply  by  0.301839. 
5.  To  find  the  quantity  of  nitrogen  by  vol- 
ume corresponding  to  1  part  by  weight  of  oxy- 
gen, multiply  by  2.6365411. 
6.  To  find  the  quantity  of  oxygen  by  vol- 
ume corresDonding  to    1   part   by  weight   of 
nitrogen,  multiply  by  0.2730071. 
7.  To    find    the    quantity    of    nitrogen    by 
weight  corresponding  to  1  part  by  volume  of 
oxygen,  multiply  by  3.6629154. 
8.  To    find    the    quantity    of    oxygen    by 
weight  corresponding  to  1  part  by  volume  of 
nitrogen,  multiply  by  0.3792848. 
To  TEST  AIR  FOR  SEWER  GAS.  —  Saturate 
unglazed  paper  with  a  solution  of  1  oz.  of  pure 
lead  acetate  in  half  a  pint  of  rain  water;  let  it 
partially  dry,  then  expose  in  the  room  sus- 
pected of  containing  sewer  gas.     The  presence 
of  the  latter  in  any  considerable  quantity  soon 
darkens  or  blackens  the  test  paper. 

12    X15          4.7X    5.9 
13    X18          5.  IX   7.0 
12   X20          4.7X7.8 

es 

15   X21          5.  9  X   8.2 
15    X22          5.9X    8.0 
18    X24          7.  OX   9.4 
21    X29          8.2X10.6 
24    X30          9.4X11.8 
27    X33                                10.6X12.0 

27    X35          10.6X13.7 
30    X40          11.8X15.7 
40   X50          15.7X19.6 
50    X60          19.6X23.6 

SIZES     IN     ITALY. 
9X12  cm  3.6X   4.  7  inch 
12X16          4.7X    6.3 
12X18          4.7X   7.0 
13X18          5.  IX   7.0 
12X20          4.7X   7.8 
18X24          .                        7  OX   9.4 

21X29          8.2X10.6 
24X30          9.4X11.8 
27X33          10.6X12.9 
30X36          11.8X14.1 
40X50          15.7X19.6 
50X60          19.6X23.6 

CHAPTER  II. 


ASTRONOMY. 


THE  TELESCOPE. — Telescopes  are  of  two 
kinds,  namely,  refracting  and  reflecting  tele- 
scopes. The  refracting  telescope  consists  of 
an  object-glass  which  forms  an  image  of  the 
object,  and  an  eye-glass  by  which  the  image 
is  viewed.  The  reflecting  telescope  consists 
of  a  concave  mirror  which  receives  light  from 
the  distant  object,  and  reflects  it  so  that  the 
rays  converge  to  a  focus  and  form  an  image, 
the  image  being  viewed  by  an  eye-glass. 
The  terrestrial  telescope  consists  of  two  tele- 
scopes like  the  preceding — which  are  called 
astronomical  telescopes,  and  give  an  inverted 
image — the  second  inverting  the  inverted 
image  of  the  first,  and  so  giving  an  upright 
image.  Eye-pieces  generally  have  two 
lenses,  and  have  names  according  to  the  posi- 
tion of  the  focus.  Ramsden's  eye-piece  has 
two  lenses,  the  focus  being  just  beyond  the 
field  lens.  It  is  called  a  positive  eye-piece, 
and  it  can  be  used  as  a  magnifying  glass. 
Huyghens'  eye-piece  also  has  two  lenses,  the 
focus  being  between  the  two.  It  is  called  a 
negative  eye-piece,  and  cannot  be  used  as  a 
magnifying  glass.  These  compound  eye- 
pieces enable  us  to  get  rid  of  spherical  and 
chromatic  aberration.  The  achromatic  ob- 
ject-glass is  made  by  joining  together  two 
lenses,  one  of  flint  glass  and  the  other  of 
crown  glass.  The  dispersion  is  made  equal 
and  opposite,  but  the  bending  powers  are 
unequal.  A  lens  is  equivalent  to  a  number 
of  prisms  placed  base  to  base,  the  outer 
prisms  having  a  greater  angle  to  cause  the 
rays  to  bend  more,  so  that  all  the  rays  may 
come  to  one  point,  called  the  focus.  The 
magnifying  power  of  a  telescope  is  found  by 
dividing  the  focal  length  of  the  object-glass 
by  the  focal  length  of  the  eye-piece. 

THE  EQUATORIAL  TELESCOPE. — The  equa- 
torial is  an  ordinary  telescope,  mounted  in 
such  a  way  that  it  can  easily  be  directed  to 
any  part  of  the  heavens.  The  polar  axis  is 
parallel  to  the  earth's  axis,  that  is  to  say,  it 
is  inclined  at  an  angle  equal  to  the  latitude 
of  the  place,  at  Washington  about  39°,  at 
London  about  51£°.  The  telescope  can  be 
moved  round  the  polar  axis  in  a  plane  which 
is  parallel  to  the  earth's  equator,  and  this 
motion  is  said  to  be  motion  in  right  ascen- 
sion. The  telescope  can  also  be  moved  up 
and  down  in  a  plane  at  right  ancles  to  the 
earth's  equator,  and  this  motion  is  called 
motion  in  declination.  Whatever  part  of 
the  skies  an  object  is  in,  the  equatorial  can 
be  directed  to  it,  and  the  object  can  be  kept 
constantly  in  view,  because  there  is  a  kind  of 
clock  which  drives  the  instrument  round  at 
the  same  speed  at  which  the  earth  is  turning 
round. 


THE  TRANSIT  INSTRUMENT. — The  transit 
instrument  is  a  telescope  mounted  on  a  hori- 
zontal axis,  so  as  to  be  capable  of  moving  in 
the  meridian  only.  It  is  used  to  determine 
the  exact  moment  at  which  celestial  bodies 
cross  the  meridian,  that  is,  when  they  are  in 
a  true  north  or  south  position.  It  is  also 
used  for  determining  the  declination  of 
celestial  objects,  that  is,  how  far  in  angular 
measures  these  bodies  are  from  the  celestial 
equator. 

THE  SIDEREAL  CLOCK. — Th3  sidereal 
clock  is  similar  to  an  ordinary  clock,  but  it 
is  regulated  to  keep  accurate  time  with  the 
apparent  diurnal  movements  of  the  stars, 
instead  of  with  the  mean  sun.  It  shows  the* 
same  time  as  clocks  and  watches  only  once  in 
a  year,  namely,  at  the  Vernal  Equinox,  about 
the  21st  of  March.  It  gains  about  four  min- 
utes each  day  on  the  ordinary  clock,  and  in  a 
year  it  gains  a  whole  day,  so  that  there  are 
36G  sidereal  days  and  only  365  solar  days  in 
one  year.  The  sidereal  noon  occurs  when 
the  first  point  of  Aries  passes  the  meridian, 
and  the  hours  are  reckoned  from  0  to  24. 
The  time  by  the  sidereal  clock  at  which  a 
celestial  body  crosses  the  meridian  is  equal 
to  the  right  ascension  of  that  particular  ob- 
ject. Conversely,  if  the  exact  right  ascen- 
sion of  a  star  be  known,  the  error  of  the 
clock  can  be  determined  by  observing  a 
transit  of  the  star. 

THE  CHRONOGRAPH. — The  chronograph 
consists  of  a  cylinder  covefed  with  paper, 
and  made  to  rotate  uniformly  by  clockwork. 
It  is  connected  electrically  with  the  sidereal 
clock,  which,  as  it  ticks,  makes  dots  on  the 
paper  at  equal  distances  by  means  of  a  re- 
cording pen,  and  these  dots  represent  sec- 
onds. Fractions  of  a  second  are  recorded 
by  the  observer  touching  a  key,  which  causes 
a  second  pen  to  make  a  dot  on  the  cylinder 
as  it  turns  round.  This  dot  would  come  be- 
tween two  second  dots,  and  the  distance  is 
measured  from  these.  In  this  manner  the 
Tita  or  .TT&TT  of  a  second  can  be  estimated.  The 
small  fractions  of  a  second  obtained  by  the 
chronograph  are  necessary  in  fixing  the 
right  ascension  and  declination  by  the  tran- 
sit instrument. 

THE  MICROMETER. — The  micrometer  is 
used  for  measuring  small  arcs.  It  consists 
of  two  wires,  which  can  be  brought  together 
or  separated  at  pleasure  by  means  of  a 
screw.  An  equatorial  star  appears  to  move 
through  about  15°  in  one  hour,  1°  in  four 
minutes,  15'  in  one  minute,  or  15"  of  arc  in 
one  second  of  time.  The  distance  that  the 
wire  moves  for  one  turn  of  the  screw  is  found 
by  allowing  a  star  to  pass  from  one  wire  to 


453 


454 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


the  other,  and  then  allowing  15"  of  arc  for 
every  second  of  time  taken  in  so  doing.  The 
diameter  of  the  moon,  the  sun,  or  a  planet 
can  be  estimated  in  angular  measure  by  the 
micrometer,  and  then,  knowing  the  distance 
of  these  objects,  their  size  can  be  calculated 
from  a  knowledge  of  the  relation  that  exists 
between  the  radius  of  a  circle'  and  its  cir- 
cumference. 

THE  THEODOLITE. — The  theodolite  is 
used  for  measuring  horizontal  and  vertical 
angles,  that  is,  altitude  and  azimuth.  It 
consists  of  a  small  telescope,  which  can  be 
moved  up  and  down,  and  the  inclination  is 
shown  by  a  graduated  circle,  called  the  alti- 
tude circle.  The  telescope  can  also  be 
twisted  around  a  vertical  axis,  and  the  angu- 
lar distances  of  objects  from  the  north  point 
of  the  horizon  measured,  that  is,  azimuth. 

THE  SEXTANT. — The  sextant  is  chiefly 
employed  on  board  ship  for  observing  the 
altitude  of  the  sun,  lunar  distances,  etc.,  in 
the  determination  of  latitude  and  longitude. 
It  consists  of  a  telescope,  through  which  the 
observer  looks.  Opposite  to  the  telescope  is 
a  mirror,  half  silvered  and  half  plain,  so  that 
he  can  see  directly  through  the  plain  part  to 
an  object,  and  he  can  bring  a  second  object 
to  coincide  with  the  first  by  means  of  a  sec- 
ond mirror  attached  to  the  movable  arm, 
which  reflects  its  light  on  to  the  silvered  part 
of  the  first  mirror,  and  from  thence  through 
the  telescope.  The  reading  on  the  sextant 
then  gives  the  angular  distance  between  the 
two  objects. 

VERNIERS. — Verniers  are  divided  scales, 
with  their  divisions  a  little  smaller  than  those 
on  the  main  scale  to  which  they  are  attached. 
If  a  length  equal  to  nine  divisions  of  the  main 
scale  be  divided  into  ten  parts,  then  each  of 
these  latter  will  be  TV  less  than  the  former. 
In  general,  n  divisions  of  the  vernier  are 
equal  to  n  -  1  divisions  of  the  scale,  which 
enables  us  to  read  to  the  nth  part  of  a  divi- 
sion, whatever  that  may  be.  If  the  divi- 
sions on  the  main  scale  were  tenths  of  an 
inch  we  could  get  hundredths  by  dividing  a 
length  equal  to  nine  of  them  into  ten  parts, 
then  the  difference  between  the  lengths  of 
these  would  be  TV  of  ^  of  an  inch,  that  is,  Tijj. 

ANGULAR  MEASUREMENT. — The  measure- 
ment of  the  distances  of  the  sun,  moon,  and 
planets  depends  upon  our  knowledge  of  the 
properties  of  triangles.  Our  knowledge  of 
the  size  of  the  earth  and  other  bodies  in 
space  depends  upon  angular  measurement. 
Our  knowledge  of  the  mass,  volume,  and 
density  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets,  and 
even  the  masses  and  distances  of  some  of  the 
stars,  depends  upon  our  ability  to  measure 
angles. 

MEASUREMENT  OF  TIME. — An  ancient 
method  of  measuring  time  was  by  the  gno- 
mon, an  upright  stick  in  the  ground  which 
cast  a  shadow  of  the  sun,  the  length  and 
position  of  which  varied  according  to  the 
time  of  day,  hence  the  sun-dial.  Other 
methods  consisted  in  chanting  psalms,  burn- 
ing candles,  and  dropping  water  or  sand 
from  one  vessel  to  another,  hence  clepsydra 
and  hour-glass,  etc.  Clocks  came  into  use  in 
England  in  the  fourteenth  century;  but  in- 
stead of  a  pendulum  a  vibrating  horizontal 
bar  was  employed — DeWyck's  clock.  Gali- 
leo discovered  the  pendulum,  which  sug- 
gested itself  to  him  by  observing  a  swinging 


lamp  in  the  Cathedral  of  Pisa.  Huyghens 
found  that  the  vibrations  of  a  pendulum 
were  not  equal  for  any  length  of  swing; 
hence  the  introduction  of  the  cycloidal  pen- 
dulum. Hooke's  anchor  escapement  was  the 
next  advance,  which  allowed  of  a  smaller 
arc  of  swing  and  eliminated  a  certain  amount 
of  friction,  but  it  is  not  used  in  the  best 
clocks  because  of  the  recoil.  Graham  over- 
came the  recoil  just  mentioned  by  using  pal- 
lets whose  surfaces  were  arcs  of  circles,  hence 
dead-beat  escapement.  The  chronometer  es- 
capement has  a  balance-wheel  in  place  of  a 
pendulum,  which  thus  admits  of  a  more 
compact  arrangement  than  is  possible  in  a 
clock  with  a  pendulum;  moreover,  it  will 
work  in  any  position. 

ALTITUDE  AND  AZIMUTH. — The  altitude 
of  a  celestial  object,  as  a  star,  is  its  angular 
height  above  the  horizon,  and  its  comple- 
ment— or  that  which  is  required  to  make  it 
equal  to  a  right  angle — is  called  the  zenith 
distance.  The  azimuth  of  a  celestial  object 
is  its  angular  distance  from  the  north  point 
of  the  horizon.  It  is  found  by  drawing  an 
imaginary  arc  from  the  zenith  point  through 
the  object  till  it  cuts  the  horizon,  and  then 
measuring  the  angular  distance  between 
this  point  and  the  north  point. 

THE  SPHERE  OF  OBSERVATION. — The  ap- 
pearance of  the  starry  sphere  presents  dif- 
ferent aspects,  depending  upon  the  locality 
of  the  observer.  At  Washington  the  north 
pole  is  elevated  about  39°  above  the  horizon, 
at  London  about  5H° above  the  horizon;  this 
elevation  of  the  pole  always  being  equal  to 
the  latitude  of  the  place  of  observation. 
The  celestial  equator  being  90°  distant  from 
the  pole,  will  cut  the  horizon  of  London  at 
an  angle  of  38^°,  and  that  of  Washington  at 
about  51°,  the  northern  side  in  each  case 
being  depressed  below,  and  the  southern 
side  elevated  above,  the  horizon. 

PARALLAX. — The  moon's  place,  when 
looked  at  through  a  telescope  from  London 
and  some  distant  place,  as  Cape  Town,  seems 
to  change — that  is,  the  telescopes  contain  an 
angle.  This  contained  angle  is  less  when 
the  sun  is  viewed  in  the  same  way,  but  when 
stars  are  looked  at  similarly  the  angle  disap- 
pears altogether — that  is,  stars  have  no  par- 
allax, while  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets  have 
parallax,  or  angular  displacement  caused  by 
change  of  position. 

ROTUNDITY  OF  THE  EARTH. — The  concave 
heavens;  the  disappearance  of  a  ship  at  sea; 
the  extension  of  the  horizon  as  we  ascend 
high  elevations;  the  frequent  circumnaviga- 
tion of  the  globe;  the  earth's  shadow  cast  by 
the  sun  upon  the  moon  during  an  eclipse; 
the  spherical  form  of  the  sun,  moon,  and 
planets — all  confirm  our  belief  that  the  earth 
is  globular  in  form. 

MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  EARTH. — The  size  of 
the  earth  is  found  by  observing  a  star  in  the 
exact  zenith  of  any  place,  then  traveling 
along  a  direct  north  line,  till  the  star  has 
declined  1°  from  the  zenith,  and  measuring 
the  distance  traversed.  This  distance 
would  be  the  length  of  1°  in  miles,  and  360 
times  that  length  would  give  the  circumfer- 
ence of  the  earth. 

DEMONSTRATION  OF  EARTH'S  ROTATION. — 
A  heavy  body  set  in  motion  tends  to  retain 
its  original  plane  of  motion.  Foucault's 
pendulum  consists  of  a  heavy  ball  at  the 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


455 


end  of  a  long  wire,  supported  by  a  steel  pivot 
on  an  agate  plane.  The  ball,  when  set 
swinging,  seems  to  change  its  direction  of 
swing  across  a  graduated  circle  on  a  table 
beneath  it,  but,  as  we  know  that  the  pendu- 
lum tends  to  keep  to  the  same  plane  of  mo- 
tion, and  that  there  is  so  little  to  prevent  it 
from  doing  so,  we  conclude  it  is  the  earth 
which  is  turning  on  its  axis  and  carrying  the 
table  with  it.  The  gyroscope  is  essentially 
the  same  as  the  pendulum,  a  heavy  rotating 
disk  taking  the  place  of  the  swinging  bob  of 
the  pendulum.  The  rotating  disk  is  sup- 
ported inside  a  horizontal  ring,  this  ring 
being  in  its  turn  supported  by  knife  edges 
resting  on  steel  plates  in  the  circumference 
of  a  vertical  ring,  and  this  vertical  ring  is 
supported  by  a  torsionless  thread,  so  that  all 
th§  parts  are  nicely  counterpoised  and  are 
free  to  move.  A  pointer  attached  to  the 
vertical  ring  is  found  to  move  over  a  gradu- 
ated scale  at  the  same  rate  as  the  pendulum 
changed  its  plane  of  motion ;  hence,  we  con- 
clude that  it  is  the  earth  which  moves,  be- 
cause we  know  that  the  rotating  disc  holds  to 
its  initial  plane  of  motion.  The  rotation  of 
the  earth  on  its  axis  furnishes  us  with  an  in- 
valuable unit  of  lime. 

REVOLUTION  OF  THE  EARTH  IN  ITS  ORBIT. 
— The  stars  which  are  seen  nearest  to  the 
sun  after  sunset  at  different  times  of  the  year 
are  not  the  same,  but  belong  to  different 
signs  of  the  zodiac.  This  change  of  position 
of  the  sun  with  respect  to  the  stars  takes 
place  at  the  rate  of  about  1°  a  day,  so  that 
the  whole  heavens  appear  to  revolve  once  in 
a  year  independent  of  their  diurnal  revolu- 
tion. This  is  due  to  the  real  revolution  of 
the  earth  in  its  orbit.  The  stars  appear  to 
describe  little  ellipses  in  the  course  of  a  year, 
but,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  the  light  com- 
ing from  the  stars  that  is  displaced  by  the 
motion  of  the  earth  in  its  orbit,  the  form  of 
this  orbit  being  elliptical,  so  that  the  star's 
position  is  changed  in  such  a  way  as  to  pro- 
ject an  ellipse  similar  to  that  which  the 
earth  traces  out.  This  phenomenon  is 
known  as  the  aberration  of  light,  and  was  dis- 
covered by  Bradley. 

VELOCITY  OF  LIGHT. — Fizeau  determined 
the  velocity  of  light  by  reflecting  a  spot  of 
light  from  a  mirror  at  one  station  to  a  second 
mirror  at  a  distant  station.  The  light  was 
brought  to  a  focus  at  the  required  points  by 
means  of  lenses.  A  toothed  wheel  whose 
revolutions  could  be  registered  was  so  placed 
that  its  teeth  revolved  in  the  focus,  and  the 
spot  of  light  could  be  seen  between  two 
teeth.  It  was  possible  to  turn  the  wheel  so 
quickly  that  the  spot  of  light  was  stopped  by 
a  tooth  coming  up  before  it  could  pass 
through.  The  distance  between  the  sta- 
tions being  known,  and  the  rate  at  which 
the  wheel  turned,  the  velocity  of  light  could 
be  found.  Foucault's  method  consisted  of 
a  rapidly  rotating  mirror,  on  which  a  beam  of 
light  was  admitted  through  a  slit.  It  was 
then  reflected  on  to  a  lens,  after  which  it  was 
brought  to  a  focus  on  a  concave  mirror  at 
some  distance.  It  was  found  possible  to 
turn  the  mirror  so  quickly  that  it  moved 
through  a  small  angle  before  the  spot  of 
light  returned.  The  distance  between  the 
mirrors,  the  rate  of  rotation  of  the  mirror, 
and  the  amount  of  displacement  being 
known,  the  velocity  of  light  could  be  esti- 


mated. The  velocity  of  light  and  the  aberra- 
tion angle  being  known  the  sun's  distance 
can  be  found. 

(1)  The  ratio  of  the  velocity  of  light  and 
the  earth  in  its  orbit  as  determined  by  ob- 
servation is  as  10,089  :  1. 

(2)  The  earth  completes  its  orbit  in  365± 
days. 

(3)  Light  would  do  the  same  journey  in 
365*     , 

1^089  days" 

(4)  Knowing  the  time  it  would   take  to 
complete   the   revolution   we   can   find   how 
long  it  would  take  to  cross  the  diameter,  and 
therefore  the  radius. 

(5)  We  multiply  the  number  of  seconds 
taken  by  light   to  cross   the  radius  of  the 
earth's  orbit  by  the  velocity  of  light,  and  it 
gives  us  92,628,000  miles  as  the  sun's  dis- 
tance. 

THE  SUN  NOT  ALWAYS  AT  THE  SAME  DIS- 
TANCE FROM  THE  EARTH. —  In  the  Nautical 
Almanac  the  sun's  apparent  diameter  is 
given  for  every  day  in  the  year.  The  ap- 
parent diameter  was  32'35.2"on  January  3rd, 
1904,  and  on  July  4th  of  the  same  year  it  was 
only  31'30.7".  This  proves  the  sun  is  farther 
away  from  us  in  summer  than  in  winter. 

PERIHELION  AND  APHELION. — When  the 
earth  is  nearest  to  the  sun  it  is  said  to  be  in 
Perihelion,  and  when  farthest  from  the  sun 
it  is  said  to  be  in  Aphelion. 

THE  EARTH  MOVES  WITH  VARYING  VE- 
LOCITY IN  ITS  ORBIT. — This  is  ascertained 
by  measuring  the  sun's  longitude  for  two 
successive  days  at  different  times  of  the  year, 
by  which  means  it  is  found  in  December  to 
move  over  61'10.0"  within  a  period  of 
twenty-four  hours,  while  in  June  it  only 
moves  over  57'10.8"  in  the  same  time. 

KEPLER'S  LAW  OF  EQUAL  AREAS. — Kepler 
found  that  the  line  joining  the  center  of  the 
sun  with  the  center  of  the  earth  moved  over 
equal  areas  in  equal  times,  that  is,  the  greater 
distance  of  the  earth  from  the  sun  in  June 
compensated  for  the  smaller  arc  of  motion 
in  longitude,  so  that  lines  drawn  from  the 
sun  to  the  extremities  of  the  arcs  moved 
over  make  equal  triangles. 

How  THE  INCLINATION  OF  THE  ECLIPTIC 
TO  THE  PLANE  OF  THE  EARTH'S  EQUATOR  is 
DETERMINED. — The  elevation  of  the  sun  above 
the  horizon  is  measured  by  the  shadow  cast 
by  the  gnomon,  or  the  north  polar  distance  is 
ascertained  by  the  transit  instrument  for  each 
day  in  the  year.  In  either  case  the  sun  will 
be  found  to  oscillate  backwards  and  forwards 
over  an  arc  of  about  47°,  half  of  which  arc  is 
the  inclination  of  the  ecliptic  to  the  equator. 

NODES. — The  two  points  where  the  plane  of 
the  ecliptic  crosses  the  plane  of  the  celestial 
equator  or  equinoctial  are  called  nodes,  that 
point  at  which  the  sun  appears  to  come  up 
from  below  the  equator  being  called  the  as- 
cending node,  and  that  at  which  the  sun  ap- 
pears to  descend  from  above  the  same  plane 
being  called  the  descending  node. 

THE  FIRST  POINT  OF  ARIES. — The  ascend- 
ing node  above  referred  to  is  the  first  point  of 
Aries.  It  is  universally  used  by  astronomers 
for  fixing  the  longitudinal  and  right  ascen- 
sion of  celestial  bodies. 

THE  SIDEREAL,  SOLAR,  AND  MEAN  SOLAR 
DAY. — The  sidereal  day  is  the  interval  which 
elapses  between  two  successive  appearances 
of  the  same  star  on  the  meridian.  The  solar 


456 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


day  is  the  interval  which  elapses  between  two 
successive  appearances  of  the  sun  on  the  meri- 
dian, but  these  are  not  of  the  same  length. 
The  mean  solar  day  is  the  interval  of  time 
obtained  by  adding  all  the  solar  days  in  a 
year  together,  and  then  dividing  by  the  num- 
ber of  days  in  a  year. 

EQUATION  OF  TIME. — The  inequality  of  the 
solar  days  arises  from  two  causes,  namely,  the 
obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  to  the  equator,  and  the 
unequal  velocity  of  the  earth  in  its  orbit.  The 
equation  of  time  is  the  algebraic  sum  of  these 
two  variables — that  is  to  say,  sometimes  they 
both  cause  the  sun  to  come  too  soon  to  the 
meridian;  at  other  times  one  causes  the  sun 
to  come  up  too  soon  and  the  other  too  late. 
In  the  former  case  the  sum  of  the  two  correc- 
tions, and  in  the  latter  case  the  difference  of 
the  two  corrections,  is  the  equation  of  time, 
and  so  on. 

THE  SEASONS. — The  seasons  are  the  result 
of  the  revolution  of  the  earth  in  its  orbit  and 
the  inclination  of  the  ecliptic  to  the  equator. 
The  sun  on  this  account  attains  different 
heights  above  the  horizon,  giving  different 
len'gths  of  day  and  night.  By  reason  of  its 
giving  to  the  earth  more  heat  in  the  day  than 
it  loses  by  radiation  in  the  night,  and  vice 
versa,  we  have  summer  or  winter  as  the  case 
may  be. 

THE  YEAR. — The  ordinary  or  tropical  year 
is  the  period  which  elapses  between  two  suc- 
cessive appearances  of  the  sun  at  the  vernal 
equinox.  The  anomalistic  year  is  the  period 
which  elapses  between  two  successive  returns 
of  the  sun  to  his  perigean  point.  The  .sidereal 
year  is  the  time  which  elapses  between  two 
successive  appearances  of  the  same  star  on 
the  meridian  at  the  same  time  of  day. 

PRECESSION  AND  NUTATION. — The  sun  and 
moon  attract  the  protuberant  portion  of  the 
earth's  equator  more  on  that  side  nearest  to 
them  than  on  that  side  farthest  away,  and  in 
this  way  the  differential  attraction  tends  to 
tilt  the  axis  a  little,  so  that  it  describes  a  cir- 
cle in  about  25,800  years.  The  moon's  differ- 
ential attraction  is  greater  than  that  of  the 
sun.  On  account  of  the  moon  continually 
changing  its  relation  to  the  earth's  equator, 
it  causes  the  axis  of  the  earth  to  describe  a 
circle  with  a  wavy  circumference,  to  which 
effect  the  term  nutation,  or  nodding  of  the 
earth's  axis,  is  applied. 
ASTRONOMICAL  SYMBOLS  AND  ABBREVIATIONS. 

0      The  Sun.       °     Degrees. 

Minutes  of  Arc. 
"    Seconds  of  Arc. 
N.  North.      S.    South. 
E.  East.         W.  West. 


®  or 


The  Moon. 

Mercury. 

Venus. 

The  Earth. 

Mars. 

Jupiter. 

Saturn. 

Uranus. 

Neptune. 

Conjunction. 

Quadrature. 

Opposition. 

Ascending 


0.  T  Aries 0 

Taurus 30 

60 


II.  II  Gemini. . 

III.  »3  Cancer 90 

IV.  Q  Leo 120 

V.  IIP  Virgo 150 

VI.  ^  Libra 180 

VII.  HI  Scorpio 210 

Node.         VIII.  £  Sagittarius   .240 
t3       Descending       IX.  \fr  Capricornus .  270 
Node.  X.  ts.  Aquarius.  .  .  300 

h   Hours.  XL  K  Pisces 330 

m  Minutes  of  Time. 
s    Seconds  of  Time. 

LATITUDE,  LONGITUDE,  RIGHT  ASCENSION, 
AND    DECLINATION. — Terrestrial    latitude    is 


Country. 

Latitude. 

Length 
of  De- 
gree in 
Feet. 

Observer. 

Sweden.  .  . 
Denmark.  . 
England  . 
India  .... 
Peru  
Cape  of 
Good  Hope 

Of// 

N.  66  20  10 
N.  54    813.7 
N.  52  35  45' 
N.  123220.8 
S.     131    0.4 

S.  33  18  30 

365,744 
365,087 
364,971 
362,956 
362.790 

364,713 

Maupertuis 
Schumacher 
Roy 
Lambton 
Lacondamine 

Lacaille 

measured  from  the  equator  to  the  poles,  north 
and  south.  Terrestrial  longitude  is,  in  Eng- 
land, measured  from  the  meridian  of  Green- 
wich, but  other  countries  use  their  own  meri- 
dians. Right  ascension  is  measured  from 
the  first  point  of  Aries.  Declination  is  meas- 
ured from  the  celestial  equator.  Celestial 
longitude  is  measured  from  the  first  point  of 
Aries.  Celestial  latitude  is  measured  from 
the  ecliptic. 

VARIATION  IN  THE  LENGTH  OF  DEGREES  OF 
LATITUDE. 


MEASUREMENT  OF  THE  SIZE  OF  THE  SUN 
AND  PLANETS.  —  The  ratio  between  the  radius 
of  a  circle  and  its  circumference  is  always  the 
same,  no  matter  how  large  or  small  the  circle 
may  be.  Thus,  an  arc  of  57.2958°  on  any  cir- 
cle is  equal  in  length  to  the  radius  of  that 
circle;  and  if  this  be  reduced  to  seconds  of 
arc,  we  get  206,265"  as  the  number  of  seconds 
in  a  length  of  arc  equal  to  radius.  The  mean 
angular  diameter  of  the  sun,  as  measured  by 
the  micrometer,  is  a  little  over  32'  of  arc. 
We  may  consider  the  sun  to  form  part  of  the 
circumference  of  a  circle,  with  its  distance 
from  the  earth  as  radius.  There  are  1920"  in 

32',  and  =108  nearly;    hence  the  dis- 

tance of  the  earth  from  the  sun  is  108  times 
the  diameter  of  the  sun,  whatever  that  may 
be.  But  we  know  the  distance  of  the  sun  to 
be  92,885,000  miles;  so  that  the  diameter  of 


the   sun   must   be       '-      =  860,000   miles. 

The  same  method  applies  to  the  planets  and 
their  satellites  as  well  as  to  the  sun.  The 
angular  diameter  of  the  body  being  measured 
in  seconds  of  arc,  it  bears  the  same  ratio  to 
206,265  (the  number  of  seconds  in  a  length  of 
arc  equal  to  radius)  that  the  diameter  in 
miles  bears  to  the  distance  in  miles  ;  or,  calling 
the  actual  diameter  d,  and  the  real  distance  D, 

,     DX  angular  diameter      ^ 
we  have  rf  =  --      -      --  .     For  ex- 


ample —  the  moon,  in  round  numbers,  is  240,- 
000  miles  distant,  and  its  angular  diameter  is 
a  little  over  31';  hence,  by  the  formula,  its 
diameter  is  — 


.     240,000  XI 860 
206,265 


2164  miles. 
DENSITY  OF  THE  EARTH. 


Experiment. 

Mean 
Density. 

Observer. 

Schehallien  
Attraction  of  leaden  ball 
Ditto,  repeated  
Harton  coal-pit  
Probable  value.  .  . 

5.01 
5.48 
5.66 
6.56 
5.53 

Maskelyne 
Cavendish 
Baily 
Airy 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


457 


To  FIND  THE  PERIOD  OF  A  PLANET.  —  The 
synodic  period  may  be  readily  observed,  and 
from  it  the  actual  time  occupied  by  a  planet 
in  completing  its  revolution  round  the  sun  can 
be  calculated.  For  example,  the  synodic 
period  of  Mercury  is  115.9  days;  this  means 
that  the  earth  and  the  planet  being  in  a  line 
with  the  sun  at  any  time,  the  latter  has  pro- 
gressed in  its  orbit  so  quickly  as  to  complete 
an  entire  revolution  and  again  overtake  the 
earth  during  the  period  of  115.9  days.  Now 

360° 
the  earth  moves  ^^-^  =  0.9856°  in  a  day,  and 


in  the  entire  period  115.9X0.  9856°  =  114.2°. 
But  the  planet  has  moved  360°  +  114.2°  = 
474.2°  in  the  same  time,  hence  the  period  of 
the  planet  is  to  that  of  the  earth  as  114.2°  : 

474.2°,  that  is,  114^°7^065'25  =  88  days  nearly. 

SHOOTING  STARS.  —  The  names  of  the  prin- 
cipal meteor  swarms  and  the  dates  of  their 
appearance  are  as  follows  :  — 


Name. 

Date. 

Comet  having 
same  Orbit. 

Andromedes  . 
Lyrids  
Leonids  
Perseids  

23  November 
20  April  
15  November 
11  August.  .  . 

Biela's 
Comet  I.  1861 
Tempel's,  1866 
Comet  III.  1863 

The  number  of  stars  in  the  northern  hemt- 
sphere  in  Argelander's  catalogue  is  324,000. 
The  number  of  known  variables  is  111,  and 
the  suspected  variables  381.  Roughly,  then, 
there  is  one  variable  in  every  660  of  the 
known  stars.  According  to  Duner,  about 
1  in  7  of  the  third  type  stars  is  variable. 

To  FIND  THE  TIME  OF  SUNRISE  AND  SUN- 
SET BY  MEANS  OF  THE  TERRESTRIAL  GLOBE. 

The  time  of  sunrise  or  sunset  may  be  found 
for  any  day  by  elevating  the  north  or  south 
pole  equal  to  the  sun's  declination  north  or 
south  for  any  given  day.  The  place  being 
under  the  brass  meridian,  the  hour  circle 
should  be  set  at  XII.,  and  then  the  place 
should  be  rotated  first  to  the  eastern  horizon 
and  then  to  the  western  and  the  times  on  the 
hour  circle  noted,  the  former  being  the  time 
of  rising,  and  the  latter  that  of  setting  of  the 
sun.  Twice  the  time  of  setting  of  the  sun 
gives  the  length  of  the  day,  and  twice  the 
time  of  rising  gives  the  length  of  the  night. 

Example:  20th  January,  1890,  sun  rose, 
8.15;  set,  3.45. 

2  X  3. 45  =   7^  =  length  of  day. 
2  X  8. 15  =  16*  =  length  of  night. 

The  months  and  days  of  the  months  are  all 
marked  on  the  ecliptic,  so  that  the  sun's  place 
for  any  day  is  determined  by  finding  the  day 
on  the  ecliptic  and  noting  the  part  of  the 
sign  of  the  zodiac  corresponding  to  that  day, 
and  if  the  globe  be  turned  till  this  part  of  the 
ecliptic  comes  to  the  meridian,  the  latter  will 
indicate  the  declination  of  the  sun. 

Note. — The  Analemma  is  a  convenient  pro- 
jection of  the  ecliptic  on  which  the  sun's  dec- 
lination may  be  readily  found,  as  it  is  noted 
for  every  day  in  the  year. 

NUMERICAL  FACTS  RELATING  TO  THE  SUN. 
— Solar  Parallax  (equatorial  horizontal), 
8.80"  ±0.02".  Mean  distance  of  the  sun  from 
the  earth,  92,885,000  miles;  149,480,000  kil- 
ometers. Variation  of  the  distance  of  the 
sun  from  the  earth  between  January  and 
June,  3,100,000  miles;  4,950,000  kilometers. 


Linear  value  of  1"  on  the  sun's  surface,  450.3 
miles;  724.7  kilometers.  Mean  angular  semi- 
diameter  of  the  sun,  16'  02.0".  Sun's  linear 
diameter,  866,400  miles;  1,394,300  kilometers. 
(This  may,  perhaps,  be  variable  to  the  extent 
of  several  hundred  miles.)  Ratio  of  the  sun's 
diameter  to  the  earth's,  109.3.  Surface  of  the 
sun  compared  with  the  earth,  11,940.  Vol- 
ume, or  cubic  contents,  of  the  sun  compared 
with  the  earth,  1,305,000.  Mass,  or  quantity 
of  matter,  of  the  sun  compared  with  the  earth, 
330,000  ±  3000.  Mean  density  of  the  sun  com- 
pared with  the  earth,  0.253.  Mean  density  of 
the  sun  compared  with  water,  1.406.  Force 
of  gravity  on  the  sun's  surface  compared  with 
that  on  the  earth,  27.6.  Distance  a  body 
would  fall  in  one  second,  444.4  feet;  135.5 
meters.  Inclination  of  the  sun's  axis  to  the 
ecliptic,  7°  15'.  Longitude  of  its  ascending 
node,  74°.  Date  when  the  sun  is  at  the  node, 
June  4,  5.  Mean  time  of  the  sun's  rotation 
(Carrington),  25.38  days.  Time  of  rotation  of 
the  sun's  equator,  25  days.  Time  of  rotation 
at  latitude  20°,  25.75  days.  Time  of  rotation 
at  latitude  30°,  26.5  days.  Time  of  rotation  at 
latitude  45°,  27.5  days.  (These  last  four 
numbers  are  somewhat  doubtful,  the  formulae 
of  various  authorities  giving  results  differing 
by  several  hours  in  some  cases.)  Linear 
velocity  of  the  sun's  rotation  at  his  equator, 
1.261  miles  per  second;  2.028  kilometers  per 
second.  Total  quantity  of  sunlight,  1,575,- 
000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000  candles.  In- 
tensity of  the  sunlight  at  the  surface  of  the 
sun,  190,000  that  of  a  candle  flame;  5300  times 
that  of  metal  in  a  Bessemer  converter;  146 
times  that  of  a  calcium  light;  3.4  times  that 
of  an  electric  arc.  Brightness  of  a  point  on 
the  sun's  limb  compared  with  that  of  a  point 
near  the  center  of  the  disk,  25  per  cent.  Heat 
received  per  minute  from  the  sun  upon  a 
square  meter,  perpendicularly  exposed  to  the 
solar  radiation,  at  the  upper  surface  of  the 
earth's  atmosphere  (the  solar  constant),  25 
calories.  Heat  radiation  at  the  surface  of 
the  sun,  per  square  meter  per  minute,  1,117,- 
000  calories.  Thickness  of  a  shell  of  ice 
which  would  be  melted  from  the  surface  of 
the  sun  per  minute,  48£  feet,  or  14f  meters. 
Mechanical  equivalent  of  the  solar  radiation 
at  the  sun's  surface,  continuously  acting, 
109,000  horse  power  per  square  meter;  or, 
10,000  (nearly)  per  square  foot.  Effective 
temperature  of  the  solar  surface  (according 
to  Rossetti),  about  10,000°  C.,  or  18,000  F. 

NEBULAR  HYPOTHESIS. — According  to  this 
theory,  all  the  members  of  our  solar  system 
once  existed  in  a  state  of  highl£  heated  gas- 
eous or  nebulous  matter,  which  extended  far 
beyond  the  orbit  of  our  most  remote  planet, 
Neptune.  This  matter  was  supposed  to  have 
received  a  motion  of  rotation,  and,  as  it  cooled, 
became  more  and  more  condensed,  the  central 
portion  leaving  a  ring  of  protuberant  matter 
in  the  equatorial  region,  which,  after  becoming 
detached,  would  continue  to  revolve  in  the 
same  direction  as  the  parent  mass,  something 
after  the  fashion  of  Saturn's  ring.  This  de- 
tached ring,  it  was  presumed,  would  break  up, 
and  collecting  into  a  globular  mass  retain  its 
motion  of  rotation,  and  take  up  an  additional 
motion  of  revolution  around  its  primary. 
The  detached  planets  formed  in  this  way 
would,  by  a  similar  process,  throw  off  their 
satellites,  which,  after  long  ages  of  cooling, 
have  assumed  their  present  state. 


458 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


SOME   ELEMENTS    OF    THE    PLANETARY    SYSTEM. 


Name. 

Mean  Dis- 
tance from 
Earth  in 
Millions  of 
Miles. 

Sidereal 
Period  of 
Revolution 
Round  Sun 

Time  of 
Axial 
Rotation. 

Real 
Diameter 
in  Miles. 

Volume 

0  =  1. 

Density 

0=1. 

The  Sun  0 
Mercury.  ..                  $ 

92.9 
56  9 

D. 

'  '  88  ' 

H.      M. 

60748 
*24    5* 

866,400 
3  030 

1,300,000 
0  056 

0.25 

0  85  (?) 

Venus.                        9 

25  7 

225 

*23  21£ 

7  700 

0  920 

0  89 

Earth  0 

365 

23  56 

7  918 

1  000 

1  00 

Mars.  .  .    v                  of 

48  6 

687 

24  37$ 

4  230 

0  152 

0  71 

Jupiter.  .    1| 
Saturn  >? 
Uranus  $ 
Neptune  tj? 

390.4 
793.2 
1,689.0 
2,698.8 

4,333 
10,759 
30,687 
60,181 

955$ 
1014* 
930(?) 

86,500 
73,000 
31,900 
34,800 

1,309 
760 
59 
85 

0.24 
0.13 
0.22 
0.20 

Sun  .... 
Mercury 
Venus  .  . 
Earth  .  . 
Mars  .  .  . 
Jupiter  . 
Saturn.  . 
Uranus  . 
Neptune 


THE   SOLAR   SYSTEM. 

Mean  distance  from  sun 
in  miles. 


35,750,000 

66,750,000 

92,333,333 

141,000,000 

480,000,000 

881,000,000 

1,771,000,000 

2,775,000,000 


Mean  diameter 
in  miles. 
860,000 

2,992 

7,660 

7,918 

4,211 
86,000 
70,500 
31,700 
34,500 


Satel- 
lites. 

"6" 
0 
1 
2 
5 
8 
4 
1 


GREEK   ALPHABET. 

The  different  stars  of  the  several  constellations  are  usually  indicated  by  the  letters  of  the 
Greek  alphabet.     For  convenience  of  reference,  the  alphabet  is  here  given. 

A   a    Alpha.                          H  r,    Eta.                          N  v    Nu.  T  T  Tau. 

B  /3     Beta.                            0  0    Theta.                      H  £    Xi.  Y  v  Upsilon. 

r  y    Gamma.                      I    i    Iota.                        O  o    Omicron.  *  4>  Phi. 

A  5     Delta.                          K  K    Kappa.                    n  IT    Pi.  X  x  Chi. 

E  e     Epsilon.                      A  A    Lambda                  P  p    Rho.  *  $  Psi. 

Z  £    Zeta.                            M  n    Mu.                          2  s    Sigma.  fl  w  Omega. 


NAMES    OF  THE    PRINCIPAL   STARS. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  names  of  all  the  Stars  of  the  First  Three  Magnitudes  to 
fhich  Astronomers  have  given  names,  at  least  all  those  whose  names  are  in  common  use- 


a  Andromedi 


a  Aquarii — Water  Bearer. 


Aquilae — Eagle. 


Arietis— Ram. 


•Andromeda. .  Alpherat  z. 

Mirach  Mizar. 

.Almach. 
.  Sadalmelik. 
Sadalsund. 
.  Skat. 
.  Altair. 
Alshain . 
Tarazed. 
.Hamal. 
.  Sheratan. 

Mesartim. 

Aurigse — Charioteer Capella. 

Menkalinan. 

Bootis — Herdsman Arcturus. 

"     Nekkar. 

'     Izar,  Mizar,  Mirach. 

Muphrid. 

Canis  Majoris — Great  Dog.Sirius. 

"       .  .Mirzam. 

..Adara. 


«  Canis  Minoris — Little  Dog .  Procyon. 

0  Gomeisa. 

«  Canum         Venaticorum  — 


Hunting  Dogs 
a2  Capricorn! — Sea  Goat.  .  . 

S  "          

a  Cassiopeiae — Cassiopeia. . 


Cephei — Cepheus 


Cor  Caroli. 
.  Secunda  Giedi. 
.  Deneb  Algiedi. 
.  Schedar. 
.Chaph. 
.  Alderamin. 
.Alphirk. 
.  Errai. 


Ceti— Whale Menkar. 

Diphda. 


C     " 

o  

a  Columbse — Dove 

a  Coronae  Borealis — Crown 

a  Corvi — Crow 


a  Crateris — Cup. 
a  Cygni — Swan.  . 


Baten  Kaitos 
Mira. 
.  Phact. 
.  Alphecca. 

Alchiba. 

Algores. 

Alkes. 

Arided,  Deneb  Adige. 


*  The  periods  of  rotation  of  Mercury  and  Venus  are  possibly  equal  to  their  periods  of  revo- 
lution. 

N.B. — The  numbers  in  the  third  column  refer  to  the  mean  distances  at  inferior  conjunction 
for  the  inferior  planets  at  opposition  for  the  superior  planets. 

- — Knowledge  Diary  and  Scientific  Handbook. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


459 


NAMES    OF   THE    PRINCIPAL    STARS.^Continued. 


ft  Cygni  —  Swrn  Albireo. 
«   Draconis  —  Dragon.                Thuban. 

8  Orionis  —  Orion  Mintaka. 
e                  .  Alnilam. 

ft         '  '                                         Alwaid 

a  Pegasi  —  Pegasus  .                 Markab 

7-         "        Etanin. 
ft  Eridani  —  River  Eridanus     Cursa 

ft         '      Scheat. 
f       "      .                                      Algenib. 

f        "       Zaurac. 
«   Geminorum  —  Twins  Castor. 
ft            '  '                                       Pollux 

e         "      Enif  . 
£       "      Homan. 
a  Persei  —  Perseus  .  .  .              Mirfak 

f            "           .  Alhena. 
8                        Wesat. 
e                         Mebsuta. 
a  Herculis  —  Hercules               Ras  Algethi. 

ft         "       Algol, 
a  Piscis  Australis  —  Southern 
Fish  Fomalhaut. 
e    Sagittarii  —  Archer.  .              Kaus  Australis 

ft         "        Korneforos. 
a  Hydrse  —  Sea  Serpent.  .  AlFard,Cor  Hydrse. 
«  Leonis  —  Lion  Regulus,  Cor  Leonis. 
ft         '      Deneb  Aleet,  Denedola,  Deneb. 
f       '  '                                           Algeiba. 

a  Scorpionis  —  Scorpion  Antares,      Cor 
Scorpionis. 
«  Serpentis  —  Serpent  Unukalhai. 
«  Tauri  —  Bull  Aldebaran. 
B        '                                            Nath 

8        "      Zosma. 
n  Leporis  —  Wolf  Arneb. 
a  Librae  —  Scales  Zuben  el  Genubi. 
ft       "     .                                    Zuben  el  Chamali 

r)         '     Alcyone  (Pleiad). 
«  Ursse  Majoris  —  Great  Bear.Dubhe. 
f)        '                   Merak. 
r                            <  .  .                    Phecda. 

r       "     Zuben  Hakrabi. 
«  Lyras  —  Lyre  Vega. 
ft      "    Sheliak. 
7-        '    Sulaphat. 
n  Ophiuchi  —  Serpent  Bearer.  Ras  Alhague. 
ft          "        Cebalrai. 
a  Orionis  —  Orion  Betelgeux. 

e                           Alioth. 
C                            Mizar. 
r;         '                    Alkaid,  Benetnasch. 
i                            Talitha. 
a  Ursae  Minoris—  Little  Bear.  Polaris. 
ft                           Kochab. 
a  Virginis  —  Virgin.  .  .  .Spica  Azimech,  Spica. 

B        "                                           Rigel 

r        "                                       .  .Bellatrix. 

e         "                                       .  .  Vindemiatrix 

MAGNITUDES  AND   DISTANCES   OF   SOME   OF  THE   STARS. 


POLARIS  (ALPHA  URS*:  MINORIS),  THE  NORTH 
STAR. 

The  parallax  is  0".075  +  0".015,  according 
to  Pritchard  (1888).  This  parallax  repre- 
sents 2,318,000  times  the  distance  of  the 
Earth  from  the  Sun,  or,  in  other  words, 
Polaris  is  distant  210,000,000,000,000  of 
miles.  Estimating  the  velocity  of  light  as 
187,500  miles  per  second,  the  light  from 
Polaris  would  take  thirty-six  years  to  reach 
the  Earth.  An  express  train  traveling  a 
mile  a  minute  would  have  to  run  without  stop- 
ping for  479,000,000  years  in  order  to  tra- 
verse this  distance. 

ARCTURUS. 

The  parallax,  as  determined  by  Elkin  in 
1888,  is  0".018±0".022,  and  by  Peters,  in 
1842-43,  as  0".127  +  0".073.  The  average 
0".094  would  make  the  distance  of  Arcturus 
from  us  to  be  2,194,100  times  the  distance 
from  the  Earth  to  the  Sun,  or  200,000,000,000.- 
000  of  miles;  and  taking  the  velocity  of  light 
as  187,500  miles,  it  would  require  thirty-four 
years  and  six  months  for  the  light  to  reach  us. 


This  was  the  polar  star  of  our  Earth  14,000 
years  ago,  and  will  again  be  the  polar  star  in 


about  12,000  years.  The  parallax  of  Vega, 
which  is  0".15,  represents  1,375,000  times  the 
distance  of  the  Earth  from  the  Sun,  or  12,000,- 
000,000.000  of  miles.  It  takes  twenty  years 
and  eight  months  for  the  light  from  Vega  to 
reach  us.  estimating  the  velocity  of  light  as 
187,500  miles  a  second. 

ALTAIR. 

The  parallax,  according  to  Elkin  (1887),  is 
0".199±0".047.  Taking  the  average  between 
the  parallax  of  Struve,  0".181iO".094,  and 
that  of  Elkin  as  0".  19,  the  distance  would  be 
1,086,000  times  the  distance  of  the  Earth 
from  the  Sun,  or  100,000,000,000,000  miles. 
It  would  require  a  little  over  seventeen  years 
for  the  light  of  this  star  to  reach  us. 

SIRITJS,    THE    DOG    STAR. 

The  parallax  is  0".266±0".047,  according 
to  Elkin  (1888).  Taking  the  average  parallax 
of  several  observers  as  0".33,  it  would  repre- 
sent 625,000  times  the  distance  of  the  Earth 
from  the  Sun,  or  58,000,000,000,000  of  miles. 
The  light  of  this  star  would  require  nine  years 
and  ten  months  to  reach  us.  It  is  supposed 
the  diameter  of  Sirius  is  about  twenty  times 
that  of  the  Sun,  and  the  volume  of  Sirius  is 
possibly  7,000  times  greater  than  our  Sun. 


DIRECTIONS    FOR    USING    THE    STAR    MAP. 


Traced  in  dot  and  dash  lines  on  the  accom- 
panying star  map  are  a  series  of  ellipses. 
From  the  points  where  these  ellipses  come 
nearest  to  the  edge  of  the  map,  arrows  project 
radially  to  the  names  of  the  months  which  are 
printed  around  the  map.  Each  ellipse  marks 
the  extent  of  the  heavens  visible  at  nine  o'clock 


p.m.  of  the  first  day  of  that  month  toward 
which  its  arrow  points.  To  avoid  confusion, 
the  best  plan  is  to  cut  in  a  piece  of  stiff  paper 
an  oval  opening  of  the  exact  size  of  one  of  the 
ellipses,  and  to  place  this  over  the  map,  so  as 
to  expose  to  view  only  that  portion  of  the  map 
which  represents  the  visible  heavens  at  the 


460 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


time  of  the  observation.  The  map  should  be 
held  with  the  arrow  pointing  toward  the 
South,  then  contrary  to  custom  in  geograph- 
ical maps  the  East  will  lie  on  the  left-hand 
side  and  the  West  on  the  right-hand  side. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  heavens  are 
viewed  looking  upward,  whereas  the  map  is 
viewed  looking  downward.  In  locating  stars 
and  constellations  it  is  best  to  hold  the  map 
overhead,  when  the  actual  points  of  the  com- 
pass and  those  marked  on  the  map  will  bear 
the  true  relation  to  each  other.  Now,  suppose 
the  night  be  the  first  of  December  and  the  hour 
nine  p.m.;  cover  up  the  entire  map  except. 


that  included  within  the  ellipse  whose  arrow 
points  to  December.  Then  when  the  map  is 
held  overhead  with  the  arrow  pointing  south 
it  will  be  possible  to  pick  out  the  stars  visible 
at  that  hour  and  date.  As  time  passes  the 
ellipse  must  be  slowly  moved  eastward  around 
the  Pole  Star  as  a  center  at  the  rate  of  nearly 
1 5  degrees  per  hour,  so  that  two  hours  later, 
that  is  at  11  p.m.,  the  visible  heavens  would 
correspond  with  that  portion  enclosed  by  the 
ellipse  marked  for  the  first  of  January. 
Owing  to  the  fact  that  this  eastward  move- 
ment is  not  exactly  15  degrees  per  hour,  the 
ellipse  for  the  second  day  of  December  will 


Copyright,  1904,  by  Munn  &  Co. 

STAR    MAP    OF   THE    HEAVENS. 

Stars  of  the  first  magnitude  are  indicated  by  an  eight-point  star,  those  of  the  second  magni- 
tude by  a  six-point  star,  third  magnitude  stars  by  five-point  stars,  fourth  magnitude  star.s  by 
four-point  stars,  and  fifth  magnitude  stars  by  dots. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


461 


fall  about  one  decree  to  the  east  of  the  posi- 
tion on  the  first  of  December  at  nine  o'clock, 
so  that  at  the  end  of  thirty  days  it  would 
move  into  coincidence  with  the  ellipse  traced 
for  January  1st. 

The  following  descriptions  of  the  heavens 
apply  to  the  stars  visible  at  nine  o'clock  on 
the  first  days  of  the  months,  but  it  will  be 
evident  that  the  same  description  would  apply 
for  the  stars  visible  at  eight  o'clock  on  the 
fifteenth  of  that  same  month,  or  for  ten 
o'clock  on  the  15th  and  11  o'clock  on  the  first 
of  the  preceding  month. 

JANUARY. — The  Great  Bear,  Ursa  Major, 
is  now  rising  well  above  the  horizon,  in  the 
northeast,  the  Pointers  about  midway  be- 
tween north  and  northeast.  The  Dragon, 
Draco,  lies  due  north,  curving  round  under 
the  Little  Bear,  its  head  close  to  the  horizon. 
Low  down  in  the  northwest  is  a  part  of  the 
Swan,  Cygnus.  Higher  up  we  see  King 
Cepheus,  his  wife,  Cassiopeia,  and  their 
daughter,  Andromeda,  the  Seated  Lady  and 
Chained  Lady  respectively,  with  the  Rescuer, 
Perseus,  nearly  overhead.  The  Winged 
Horse  is  setting,  his  head  close  by  the  western 
horizon,  and  near  the  Jar  of  the  Water  Bearer, 
Aquarius.  In  the  southwest  is  the  Whale, 
and  close  by  the  constellation  Pisces,  or  the 
Fishes;  above  them  the  Ram,  Aries,  between 
which  and  Andromeda  the  Triangle  can  be 
seen.  In  the  south  the  River,  Eridanus, 
makes  now  its  best  show.  Its  leading  bril- 
liant, Achernar,  is,  however,  never  seen  in  the 
United  States.  In  the  southwest  the  Great 
Dog  with  the  splendid  Sirius  ("which  bright- 
liest  shines  when  laved  of  ocean's  wave") 
shows  resplendently.  Above  is  Orion,  now 
standing  upright,  treading  on  the  Hare, 
Lepus,  and  facing  the  Bull,  Taurus,  now  at  its 
highest.  The  Dove,  Columba,  below  the 
Hare  is  a  modern  and  not  very  interesting  con- 
stellation. The  Little  Dog,  Cam's  Minor,  is 
on  the  east  of  Orion.  In  the  east  the  Sea 
Serpent,  Hydra,  is  rising,  and  due  east  a  little 
higher  we  find  Cancer,  the  Crab;  above  are  the 
Twins,  Gemini,  and  above  them  the  Charioteer, 
Auriga,  with  the  bright  Capella,  nearly  over- 
head. The  Lion  is  rising  in  the  northeast,  his 
heart  star,  Regulus,  being  low  down  a  little 
north  of  east. 

FEBRUARY. — The  Great  Bear,  Ursa  Major, 
with  its  Dipper  and  Pointers,  occupies  the 
northeasterly  midheaven.  The  Dragon,  Draco, 
curves  round  the  Little  Bear  toward  the 
Pointers.  In  the  northwest,  fairly  high  up, 
we  find  Cassiopeia,  the  Seated  Lady,  and  on 
her  right,  lower  down,  the  inconspicuous  con- 
stellation Cepheus.  Andromeda,  the  Chained 
Lady,  is  on  Cassiopeia's  left.  Above  An- 
dromeda is  Perseus,  the  Rescuing  Knight  and 
above  him  the  Charioteer,  Auriga,  nearly 
overhead.  On  the  left  of  Andromeda  is 
Aries,  the  Ram,  the  small  constellation  the 
Triangle  lying  between  them.  Toward  the 
southwest,  the  Whale,  Cetus,  is  beginning  to 
set.  The  River,  Eridanus,  occupies  the  lower 
part  of  the  southwesterly  sky,  and  extends 
also  to  the  midheavens  in  that  direction.  The 
Dove,  Columba,  lies  toward  the  south,  and  is  at 
its  best,  which  is  not  saying  much.  Above  is 
the  Hare,  Lepus,  on  which  Orion  treads.  The 
giant  now  presents  his  noblest  aspect — prince 
of  all  the  constellations,  as  he  is.  He  faces 
the  Bull,  Taurus,  known  by  the  Pleiades  and 
the  bright  Aldebaran.  Close  by  the  poor 


Hare,  on  the  left,  leaps  Canis  Major,  the 
Greater  Dog,  with  the  bright  Sirius,  which 
"bickers  into  green  and  emerald."  The 
stern  of  the  Star-Ship,  Argo,  is  nearing  the 
south.  Very  high  in  the  southeast  we  find 
the  Twins,  Gemini,  with  the  twin  stars,  Castor 
and  Pollux,  and  below  them  the  Little  Dog, 
Canis  Minor.  The  Sea  Serpent,  Hydra,  is 
rearing  its  tall  neck  above  the  eastern  horizon 
(by  south),  as  if  aiming  either  for  the  Little 
Dog  or  for  the  Crab,  Cancer,  now  high  up  in 
the  east,  with  its  pretty  Beehive  cluster 
showing  well  in  clear  weather.  The  Lion, 
Leo,  is  due  east,  the  Sickle  being  easily  recog- 
nized. 

MARCH. — The  Great  Bear,  Ursa  Major, 
with  its  Dipper  and  Pointers,  is  now  high  up 
in  the  northeastern  sky.  The  Dragon,  Draco, 
extends  from  between  the  Bears  to  the  hori- 
zon, east  of  north,  where  its  head  with  its  two 
bright  eyes  can  be  seen.  Cepheus  is  low- 
down,  somewhat  to  the  west  of  north;  his 
Queen,  Cassiopeia,  the  Seated  Lady,  beside 
him.  Andromeda,  the  Chained  Lady,  is  in 
the  northwest,  low  down — in  fact,  partly  set; 
the  Triangle,  and  next  the  Ram,  Aries,  beside 
her,  toward  the  west.  Above  them  is  Perseiis, 
the  Rescuing  Knight;  and  above  him,  some- 
what to  the  west,  the  Charioteer,  Auriga. 
The  Bull,  Taurus,  with  the  Pleiades  and  the 
bright  Aldebaran,  is  in  the  midheaven,  due 
west;  Gemini,  the  Twins,  higher,  and  toward 
the  S9uthwest.  Orion,  below  them,  is  already 
slanting  toward  his  grave,  low  down  in  the 
west ;  beneath  him  the  Hare,  and  in  the  south- 
west a  part  of  the  River,  Eridanus.  Due 
south  is  a  part  of  the  Star  Ship,  Argo  beside 
which,  low  down,  is  the  foolish  Dove,  Columba, 
while  above  leaps  the  Great  Dog,  Canis 
Major,  with  the  splendid  Sirius,  chief  of  all 
the  stars  in  the  sky,  marking  his  mouth. 
High  up,  a  little  west  of  north,  is  the  Little 
Dog,  Canis  Minor,  and  higher,  a  little  east  of 
north,  the  Crab,  Cancer,  the  dark  constella- 
tion, as  it  was  called  of  old,  with  the  pretty 
cluster,  Prcesepe,  or  the  Beehive.  The  Sea 
Serpent,  Hydra,  is  rearing  his  long  neck  high 
above  the  horizon,  bearing,  absurdly  enough, 
on  his  back  Noah's  Cup,  Crater,  and  Noah's 
Raven,  or  (>ow,  Corvus.  Nearly  due  east, 
the  Virgin,  Virgo,  has  risen.  The  Lion,  Leo, 
occupies  the  midspace  above.  East  of  the 
Great  Bear  lies  Hevelius's  feolish  constella- 
tion, the  Hunting  Dogs,  uanes  Venatici. 
Lastly,  in  the  northeast,  the  Herdsman, 
Bootes,  with  the  orange-yellow  brilliant 
Arcturus,  is  rising,  though  at  present,  para- 
doxical as  it  may  seem,  he  lies  on  his  back. 

APRIL. — The  Great  Bear,  Ursa  Major,  is 
now  nearing  the  point  overhead,  the  Pointers, 
aiming  almost  directly  downward  toward  the 
Pole  Star.  Cepheus  lies  north,  low  down; 
Cassiopeia  on  his  left.  Perseus  is  nearing  the 
horizon,  the  Charioteer,  Auriga,  on  his  left, 
but  higher.  Setting  toward  the  west  we  see 
the  Bull,  Taurus,  with  the  Pleiades  and  the 
ruddy  Aldebaran.  Orion  is  almost  prone  in 
his  descent  toward  his  western  grave.  The 
Twins,  Gemini,  are  due  west,  in  the  mid- 
heavens;  the  Little  Dog,  Canis  Minor,  beside 
them  on  their  left;  the  Crab,  Cancer,  above; 
the  Greater  Dog,  Canis  Major  below,  chasing 
the  Hare,  Lepus,  below  the  horizon.  Just 
behind  the  Dog  the  poop  of  the  Great  Ship, 
Argo,  is  also  setting.  The  Sea  Serpent, 
Hydra,  now  shows  his  full  length,  rearing 


462 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


his  head  high  in  the  south.  Observe  the 
darkness  of  the  region  around  his  heart. 
Alfard,  the  Solitary  One.  The  Cup,  Crater, 
and  Crow,  Corvus,  stand  on  his  back.  The 
Sickle  in  the  Lion,  Leo,  now  stands  with 
handle  upright,  due  south.  Below  the  tail 
stars  of  the  Lion  we  see  the  Virgin,  Virgo. 
The  Herdsman,  Bootes,  still  on  his  back  pur- 
sues in  that  striking  and  effective  position 
the  Great  Bear.  Below  the  shoulder  stars  of 
the  Herdsman  we  see  the  Crown,  Corona 
Borealis,  near  which,  on  the  right,  low  down 
and  due  ea>t,  the  head  of  the  Serpent,  Ser- 
pens,  is  rising. 

MAY. — The  Great  Bear,  Ursa  Major,  is  now 
at  its  highest  and  nearly  overhead,  the  Point- 
ers aiming  downward  from  high  up,  slightly 
west  of  due  north.  Below  the  Little  Bear  we 
find  Cepheus  low  down  to  the  east  of  north, 
and  Cassiopeia  low  down  to  the  west  of  north. 
Perseus,  the  Rescuer,  is  setting  in  the  north- 
west. The  Charioteer,  Auriga,  with  the 
bright  Capella,  is  nearing  the  northwestern 
horizon,  followed  by  the  Twins,  Gemini,  in  the 
west.  Further  west  and  higher  we  find  the 
Crab,  Cancer,  below  which  is  the  Little  Dog, 
Cam's  Minor.  The  southwestern  sky  is  very 
barren  of  bright  stars,  Alfard,  the  heart  of  the 
Sea  Serpent,  Hydra,  shining  alone  in  a  great 
blank  space.  Above  the  Sea  Serpent's  head 
we  see  the  Sickle  in  the  Lion,  Leo,  himself 
stretching  his  tail  to  due  south,  very  high  up. 
In  the  south,  lower  down,  we  find  the  Crow, 
Corvus,  and  the  Cup,  Crater,  on  the  Serpent's 
back;  the  Virgin,  Virgo,  extending  in  the  mid- 
heavens  from  southeast  to  south,  between  the 
Lion's  tail  and  the  Crow.  In  the  same  direc- 
tion, but  low  down,  we  find  the  head  and  body 
of  the  Centaur,  Centaurus,  supposed  to  have 
typified  the  patriarchal  Noah.  In  the 
southeast  the  Scorpion  is  just  beginning  to 
appear,  and  between  the  head  of  Scorpio  and 
the  Virgin's  robes  we  see  the  stars  of  the 
Scales,  Libra.  Due  east,  low  down,  is  the 
Serpent  Bearer,  Ophiuchus,  on  his  back — 'tis 
the  customary  attitude  of  heavenly  bodies 
when  rising.  The  Serpent,  Serpens,  held  by 
him  is  seen  curving  upward  toward  the  Crown, 
Corona  Borealis.  The  Serpent's  head  is  due 
west,  and  above  it  we  see  the  bright  Arcturus, 
chief  brilliant  of  the  Herdsman,  Bootes.  In 
the  northeast  is  Hercules,  his  head  close  to  the 
head  of  the  Serpent  Bearer.  Beneath  his 
feet  is  the  Lyre,  Lyra,  with  the  brilliant  Vega; 
and  the  Swan,  Cygnus,  has  already  half  risen 
above  the  northeastern  horizon.  Lastly,  the 
Dragon,  Draco,  curves  from  between  the 
Pointers  and  the  Pole,  round  the  Guardians, 
toward  Cepheus,  and  then  retorts  its  head- 
with  gleaming  eyes,  0  and  7-,  toward  the  heel 
of  Hercules. 

JUNE. — The  Great  Bear,  Ursa  Major,  occu- 
pies all  the  upper  sky  from  west  to  north, 
except  a  small  space  occupied  by  the  Hunting 
Dogs,  Canes  Venatici.  Due  south,  low  down, 
lies  Cassiopeia,  while  above,  somewhat 
toward  the  east,  we  find  the  inconspicuous 
constellation  Cepheus.  Low  down  in  the 
northwest  lie  the  Charioteer,  Auriga,  and  the 
head  stars  of  the  Twins,  Gemini,  farther  west. 
The  Crab,  Cancer,  is  nearly  due  west,  the  Sea 
Serpent,  Hydra,  holding  his  head  almost 
exactly  to  the  west  point.  Above  is  the 
Sickle  in  the  Lion,  its  blade  curved  down- 
ward, and  the  tail  of  the  Lion,  Leo,  lies  above, 
toward  the  south  of  west.  On  the  Serpent's 


back  we  find  the  Cup,  Crater,  and  the  Crow, 
Corvus,  in  the  southwest  and  to  the  south  of 
southwest  respectively.  Above  these  con- 
stellations the  Virgin,  Virgo,  occupies  the 
midheavens.  Above  the  Virgin  we  see  the 
Herdsman,  Bootes,  his  head  and  shoulders 
nearly  overhead.  Low  down  in  the  south  is 
the  Centaur,  Centaurus,  bearing  on  his  spear 
the  Wolf,  Lupus,  as  an  offering  for  the  Altar, 
Ara,  which,  however,  is  invisible  in  these 
latitudes.  Above  the  Wolf  we  see  the  Scales, 
Libra,  while  the  Scorpion,  Scorpio,  one  of  the 
few  constellations  which  can  at  once  be  recog- 
nized by  its  shape,  is  rising  balefully  in  the 
southeast.  Te  Serpent  Bearer,  Ophiuchus, 
bears  the  Serpent,  Serpens,  in  the  midheavens 
toward  the  southeast,  the  Crown,  Corona 
Borealis,  being  high  up  in  the  east,  close  by  the 
Serpent's  head.  Low  down  in  the  east  is  the 
Eagle,  Aquila,  with  the  fine  steel  blue  star 
Altair,  the  Swan  on  the  left  about  northeast, 
and  above  it  the  Lyre,  Lyra,  with  the  still 
more  brilliant  steel  blue  star  Vega.  Hercules 
occupies  the  space  between  the  Lyre  on  the 
one  side  and  the  Crown  and  the  Serpent's 
head  on  the  other.  He  is  high  up,  due  east. 

JULY. — The  Great  Bear,  Ursa  Major,  is  in 
the  midheavens  toward  the  northwest,  the 
Pointers  not  far  from  the  horizontal  position. 
The  Dragon,  Draco,  curls  over  the  Little  Bear, 
curving  upward  on  the  east,  to  where  its 
head,  high  up  in  the  northeast,  is  marked  by 
the  gleaming  eyes,  /?  and  7-.  Low  down  in  the 
West  the  Lion,  Leo,  is  setting.  The  point  of 
the  "Sickle  in  the  Lion"  is  turned  to  the 
horizon;  the  handle  is  nearly  horizonatal. 
The  Crow,  Corvus,  is  low  down  in  the  south- 
west, the  Cup,  Crater,  beside  it,  partly  set,  on 
the  right.  Above  is  Virgo,  the  Virgin.  Still 
higher  in  the  southwest — in  fact,  with  head 
close  to  the  point  overhead — is  the  Herdsman, 
Bootes,  the  Crown,  Corona  Borealis,  near 
his  southern  shoulder  marking  what  was 
once  the  Herdsman's  uplifted  arm.  Low 
down  between  the  south  and  southwest  we 
find  the  head  and  shoulders  of  the  Centaur, 
Centaurus,  who  holds  the  Wolf,  Lupus,  due 
south.  In  the  midsky,  toward  the  southeast, 
we  find  the  Serpent  Holder,  Ophiuchus. 
Below  the  Serpent  Holder  we  find  the  Scorpion, 
Scorpio,  now  fully  risen,  and  showing  truly 
scorpionic  form.  Beside  the  Scorpion  is  the 
Archer,  Sagittarius,  low  down  in  the  southeast. 
Above,  near  the  point  overhead,  is  the  kneeling 
Hercules.  Due  east,  we  see  part  of  the 
Winged  Horse,  Pegasus:  above  that,  the  little 
Dolphin,  Delphinus:  and  higher,  the  Swan, 
Cygnus,  and  the  Lyre,  Lyra,  with  the  beau- 
tiful bluish-white  star  Vega.  Lastly,  low 
down,  between  north  and  northeast,  we  find 
the  Seated  Lady,  Cassiopeia:  and  above, 
somewhat  eastwardly,  the  inconspicuous  con- 
stellation Cepheus,  Cassiopeia's  royal  husband. 

AUGUST. — The  Great  Bear,  Ursa  Major,  is 
now  in  the  northwest,  his  paws  near  the  hori- 
zon. The  Dragon,  Draco,  curves  round  from 
between  the  Pointers  and  the  Pole,  above  the 
Little  Bear  toward  the  east,  then  upward  to 
near  the  point  overhead,  its  head,  with  the 
bright  stars  /?  and  r,  being  highest.  The 
Herdsman,  Bootes,  occupies  the  midheavens  in 
the  west,  the  Crown,  Corona  Borealis,  higher 
up,  and  due  west  Hercules,  between  the 
Crown  and  the  point  overhead.  Low  down, 
extending  from  the  west  to  near  the  south- 
west, we  find  the  Virgin,  Virgo,  the  bright 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


463 


Spica  near  its  setting  place.  In  the  southeast 
are  the  Scales,  Libra,  and,  farther  to  the  left, 
extending  from  the  Scales  to  low  down  near 
the  south,  we  find  the  Scorpion,  Scorpio,  one 
of  the  finest  of  the  constellations,  Antares,  the 
rival  of  Mars  (as  the  name  means),  marking 
its  heart.  Above  the  Scorpion  and  the  Scales 
are  the  Serpent  Holder,  Serpentarius  or 
Ophiuchus,  and  the  Serpent,  Serpens,  extend- 
ing right  across  him  to  near  the  Crown,  after 
which  the  Serpent  seems  reaching.  A  little 
east  of  due  south,  low  down,  we  find  the 
Archer,  Sagittarius:  in  the  southeast,  low 
down,  the  Sea  Goat,  Capricornus:  and  farther 
east,  and  lower  down,  the  Water  Bearer, 
Aquarius.  Above  the  Sea  Goat  is  the  Eagle, 
Aquila,  with  the  bright  bluish-white  star 
Altair;  on  its  left,  the  pretty  little  Dolphin, 
Delphinus,  and  above  the  Dolphin,  nearly 
overhead,  the  Lyre,  Lyra,  with  the  bluish- 
white  star  Vega  (even  brighter  than  Altair) 
nearly  overhead.  Below  the  Lyre  we  see  the 
Swan,  Cygnus,  due  east ;  and  below  the  Swan 
the  Winged  Horse,  Pegasus,  upside  down,  as 
usual.  In  the  northeast,  Andromeda,  the 
Chained  Lady,  is  rising.  Between  the  north 
and  northeast  is  Cassiopeia,  the  Seated  Lady, 
and  above  her,  her  husband,  King  Cepheus. 

SEPTEMBER. — The  Great  Bear,  Ursa  Major, 
is  low  down,  between  northwest  and  north, 
the  Pointers  directed  slantingly  upward 
toward  the  Pole.  Between  the  Great  Bear 
and  the  Little  Bear  run  the  stars  of  the 
Dragon,  Draco,  round  the  Little  Bear  toward 
the  north,  thence  toward  the  northwest, 
where  we  see  the  head  of  the  Dragon  high 
up,  his  two  bright  eyes,  directed  toward 
Hercules,  which  occupies  the  western  mid- 
heaven.  Above  Hercules  is  the  Lyre, 
Lyra,  with  the  bright  steel-blue  star  Vega 
high  up  toward  the  point  overhead.  Right 
overhead  is  the  Swan,  Cygnus.  Near  the 
west  stands  the  Herdsman,  rather  slanting 
forward,  however,  with  the  Crown,  Corona 
Borealis,  on  his  left,  almost  due  west.  The 
long  winding  Serpent,  Serpens,  runs  from 
near  the  Crown,  where  we  see  its  head,  due 
west  to  farther  south  than  southwest,  high  up, 
on  the  western  side  of  the  Serpent  Holder, 
Serpentarius  or  Ophiuchus,  now  standing 
upright  in  the  southwest.  Low  down  creeps 
the  Scorpion,  Scorpio,  its  heart  Antares,  rival 
of  Mars,  in  the  southwest,  the  erd  of  its  tail 
between  south  and  southwest.  Above,  and 
south  of  the  Scorpion's  tail,  we  see  the  Archer, 
Sagittarius.  Due  south  and  high  up  is  the 
Eagle,  Aquila,  the  bright  steel-blue  Altair 
marking  its  body.  On  the  left,  or  east,  of  the 
Eagle  lies  the  neat  little  Dolphin,  Delphinus. 
Midway  between  the  Dolphin  and  the  horizon 
is  the  tip  of  the  tail  of  the  Sea  Goat,  Capri 
cornus,  whose  head  lies  nearly  due  south.  On 
the  southern  horizon  is  the  head  of  the  Indian, 
Indus;  and  low  down  in  the  southeast 
lies  Fomalhaut,  the  chief  brilliant  of  the 
Southern  Fish,  Piscis  Australis.  Above  lies 
the  Water  Bearer,  Aquarius,  in  the  south- 
western midheaven.  Due  east,  fairly  high,  is 
the  "Square  of  Pegasus,"  the  head  of  the 
Winged  Horse,  Pegasus,  lying  close  by  the 
Water  Pitcher  of  Aquarius.  The  Fishes, 
Pisces,  are  low  down  in  the  east.  On  the  left 
of  Pisces  we  see  the  Ram,  Aries,  low  down; 
above  it,  the  Triangle;  and  above  that,  the 
Chained  Lady,  Andromeda.  Low  down  in 
the  northeast  is  the  Rescuing  Knight,  Perseus; 


above  whom  is  Cassiopeia;  and  on  her  left, 
higher  up,  the  inconspicuous  constellation 
Cepheus. 

OCTOBER. — Low  down  between  north  and 
northwest  we  find  the  seven  stars  of  the 
Dipper,  the  Pointers  on  the  right  nearly  due 
north.  They  direct  us  to  the  Pole  Star.  Be- 
tween the  Pointers  and  the  Pole  Star  we  find 
the  tip  of  the  Dragon's  tail,  and  sweep  round 
the  Little  Bear  with  the  Dragon's  long  train  of 
third  magnitude  stars,  till  we  come,  after  a 
bend,  to  the  Dragon'b  head,  with  the'  two 
bright  eyes,  0  and  r.  These  two  stars  are 
almost  exactly  midway  between  the  horizon 
and  the  point  overhead,  and  nearly  north- 
west. King  Cepheus — not  a  very  conspic- 
uous constellation — lies  between  the  point 
overhead  and  the  Little  Bear.  Low  down  in 
the  northwest  we  find  the  head  of  the  Herds- 
man, Bootes.  The  Crown,  Corona  Borealis, 
which  no  one  can  mistake,  lies  on  his  left,  and 
close  by  is  the  setting  head  of  the  Serpent. 
Above  these  three  groups  we  see  Hercules — 
the  Kneeler.  Above  the  head  of  Hercules 
we  find  the  Lyre,  with  the  bright  star  Vega; 
and  above  that  the  Swan.  Passing  south- 
ward, we  see  the  Serpent  Holder,  Serpentarius 
or  Ophiuchus,  beyond  whom  lies  the  Serpent's 
tail,  a  most  inconvenient  arrangement,  as  the 
Serpent  is  divided  into  two  parts.  Almost 
exactly  southeast,  and  low  down,  are  the  stars 
of  the  Archer,  Sagittarius;  while  above,  in  the 
mid-sky,  we  see  the  Eagle,  Aquila,  with  the 
bright  Altair.  Note  the  neat  little  constella- 
tion, the  Dolphin,  Delphinus,  close  by.  Due 
south  is  the  Crane,Grus;  above  it,  the  Southern 
Fish,  with  the  bright  star  Fomalhaut;  above 
that,  the  Sea  Goat,  Capricornus,  and  on  the 
left  of  this  the  Water  Bearer,  Aquarius;. 
Toward  the  east,  high  up,  is  the  Winged 
Horse,  Pegasus;  he  is  upside  down  just  now. 
Below  lies  the  Whale,  Cetus,  or,  rather,  the 
Sea  Monster.  The  Fishes,  Pisces,  may  be 
seen  between  the  Whale  and  Pegasus.  Few 
constellations  have  suffered  more  than  Pisces 
by  the  breaking  up  of  star  groups.  The 
fishes  themselves  are  now  lost  in  Andromeda 
and  Pegasus.  Note  how,  on  the  left  of  Pisces 
the  Ram,  Aries,  "bears  aloft"  Andromeda, 
the  Chained  Lady,  as  Milton  set  Aries  doing 
long  since.  The  Triangle  serves  only  as  a 
saddle.  Between  Andromeda  and  her  father, 
Cepheus,  we  find  her  mother,  Cassiopeia,  or, 
rather,  Cassiopeia's  Chair.  Perseus,  the 
Rescuer,  lies  below. 

NOVEMBER. — The  Dipper  lies  low,  the 
Pointers  a  little  east  of  north.  Between  the 
Pointers  and  Pole  Star  lies  the  tip  of  the 
Dragon's  tail.  Low  down  in  the  northwest, 
Hercules  is  setting.  Above  is  the  Lyre,  with 
the  bright  steel-blue  Vega ;  and  above  that  the 
stars  of  the  Swan,  Cygnus,  which  has  some- 
times been  called  the  Northern  Cross.  Nearly 
due  west  we  find  the  Eagle,  Aquila.  Above 
the  Eagle  is  the  pretty  little  constellation  the 
Dolphin,  Delphinus.  In  the  southwest, 
rather  low,  is  the  Sea  Goat,  Capricornus; 
above,  and  to  the  south  of  him,  the  Water 
Bearer,  Aquarius.  The  head  of  the  Winged 
Horse,  Pegasus,  now  upside  down  (in  fact, 
he  is  seldom  otherwise),  is  just  above  this 
group.  Much  attention  need  not  be  directed 
to  the  lowly  Phoenix,  low  in  the  southern 
horizon.  The  River,  Eridanus,  is  coming 
well  into  view;  and  the  great  Sea  Monster, 
Cetus,  now  shows  finely.  The  Fishes,  Pisces, 


464 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


are  above;  the  Ram,  Aries,  above  them,  and 
eastward,  lying  toward  the  southeast ;  then  the 
Triangle,  Triangula  (or  the  Triangles,  accord- 
ing to  modern  maps),  and  the  Chained  Lady, 
Andromeda,  too  nearly  overhead  to  be  very 
pleasantly  observed.  The  grand  giant, 
Orion,  is  rising  in  the  east;  above  him,  the 
Bull,  Taurus,  with  the  Pleiades.  Low  down 
in  the  northeast  the  Twins,  Gemini,  are  rising ; 
above  is  the  Charioteer,  Auriga,  and  above 
him  the  Rescuing  Knight,  Perseus,  "of  fair- 
haired  Danae  born." 

DECEMBER. — The  Great  Bear,  Ursa  Major, 
is  beginning  to  rise  above  the  northeast  by 
north  horizon.  The  end  of  the  Dipper's 
handle  is  hidden.  The  stars  of  the  Dragon 
wind  round  below  the  Little  Bear  toward  the 
west,  the  head  of  the  Dragon  with  the  gleam- 
ing eyes  ("oblique  retorted  that  askant  cast 
gleaming  fire")  being  low  down,  a  little  north 
of  northwest.  Above  is  King  Cepheus,  and 
above  him  his  queen,  the  Seated  Lady, 
Cassiopeia,  their  daughter,  the  Chained  Lady, 
Andromeda,  being  nearly  overhead.  Low 
down  in  the  northwest  we  see  the  Lyre,  Lyra, 


with  the  bright  Vega,  and  close  by  toward  the 
west  the  Swan,  Cygnus,  or  Northern  Cross. 
The  Eagle  is  setting  in  the  west,  and  the  little 
Dolphin  nears  the  western  horizon.  Toward 
the  southwest  by  west  we  see  the  Water 
Bearer,  Aquarius,  with  his  Pitcher,  close  by 
which  is  the  head  of  the  Winged  Horse, 
Pegasus.  In  the  south,  low  down,  is  the 
absurd  Phcenix;  above,  the  Sea  Monster,  or 
Whale,  Ce.tus;  above  him,  the  Fishes,  Pisces; 
above  them,  the  Ram,  Aries;  while  nearly 
overhea  1  lies  the  Triangle.  The  River 
Eridanus.  occupies  the  southeasterly  sky, 
the  Dove  and  Great  Dog,  Columba  and 
Canis  Major,  rising  in  the  southeast.  The 
glorious  Orion  has  now  come  well  into 
position,  though  not  yet  so  upright  as  we 
could  wish  a  knightly  hunter  to  be.  He 
treads  on  the  Hare,  Lepus,  and  faces  the 
Bull,  Taurus,  above.  Due  east  we  find  the 
Crab,  Cancer,  and  Little  Dog,  Canis  Minor, 
low  down;  the  Twins,  Gemini,  higher;  above 
them  the  Charioteer,  Auriga,  with  the  bright 
Capella,  and  Perseus,  the  Rescuer,  nearing 
the  point  overhead. — R.  A.  Procter's  Star 
Maps.  Copyright,  1903,  by  Munn  &  Co. 


THE    LARGE   REFRACTORS   OF    THE  WORLD. 


Institution. 

Aperture 
in  Inches. 

Focal 
Length  in 
Feet. 

Date  of 
Erection. 

Yerkes  Observatory,  Wisconsin,  U.  S.  A  
Lick  Observatory,  California,  U.  S.  A 

40.0 
36  0 

62.0 
57  8 

1897 
1888 

Lick  Observatory,  California,  U.  S.  A.  .  .  . 

33.0 

49.2 

National  Observatory,  Meudon.  . 

32  5 

53  0 

1891 

Astrophysical  Observatory,  Potsdam  
Bischoffsheim  Observatory,  Nice  

31.1 
30  3 

39.4 
52  6 

1889 

Imperial  Observatory,  Poulkova  .... 

30.0 

42.0 

1882 

National  Observatory,  Paris.  .  . 

28  9 

Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich  

28.0 

28.0 

1894 

Imperial  Observatory,  Vienna.  . 

27  0 

34.0 

1894 

Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich  
Naval  Observatory,  Washington.  .  . 

26.0 
26.0 

26.0 
32.5 

1897 
1871 

Leander  McCormick  Observatory,  Virginia,  U.  S.  A  
Cambridge  University  Observatory.  „  

26.0 
25.0 

32.5 

1874 
1868 

National  University,  Meudon.  ... 

24  4 

52  2 

1891 

Harvard  College,  Cambridge,  U.  S.  A  
Royal  Observatory,  Cape  of  Good  Hope  

24.0 
24.0 

11.3 
22.6 

1894 
1897 

Lowell  Observatory,  Mexico  
National  Observatory,  Paris.  .  . 

24.0 
23  6 

31.0 
59  0 

1895 
1889 

Halstead  Observatory,  Princeton,  U.  S.  A  
Etna.  . 

23.0 

21  8 

32.0 

1881 

Buckingham  Observatory  
M.  Porro,  Private  Observatory,'  Italy.  .  .  . 

21.2 
20  5 

Chamberlin  Observatory,  Colorado,  U.  S.  A  
Manila  Observatory,  Philippines  
Astrophysical  Observatory,  Potsdam  

20.0 
20.0 
19.7 

28.0 
"\\'z" 

1891 
1892 

Imperial  Observatory,  Strassburg  
Milan  Observatory,  Italy 

19.1 
19  1 

23.0 
23.0 

1880 

North-  Western  Observatory,  Illinois,  U.  S.  A  
Dearborn  Observatory.  .  . 

18.5 
18  5 

27.0 

1863 

National  Observatory   La  Plata 

18  1 

29  5 

1890 

Lowell  Observatory,  Mexico  
Flower  Observatory,  Philadelphia,  U.  S.  A.  .  .  . 

18.0 
18  0 

26.3 

1894 
1896 

Vander  Zee  Observatory  
Royal  Observatory,  Cape  of  Good  Hope  

18.0 
18.0 

"22!6" 

1897 

— Knowledge  Diary  and  Scientific  Handbook. 


PART  IT. 


WEIGHTS    AND    MEASURES. 


LINEAR   MEASURE. 

3  barleycorns,  or.  .  .  "| 

MHoniensts?rorV::::::hin<=h«».) 

1,000  mils  (mi.) j 

3  inches 1  palm 

4  inches 1  hand 

9  inches 1  span 

12  inches 1  foot  (ft.) 

18  inches 1  cubit 

3  feet 1  yard  (yd.) 

2£  feet 1  military  pace 

5  feet 1  geometrical  pace 

2  yards 1  fathom 

5£  yards 1  rod,  pole,  or  perch 


66  feet,  or. 
4  rods 


1  Gunter  's  chain 


8  furlongs,  or f 

1,760  yards,  or 5-1  mile 

5,280  feet \ 

3  miles 1  league 

The  hand  is  used  to  measure  horses '  height. 
The  military  pace  is  the  length  of  the  ordinary 
step  of  a  man.  One  thousand  geometrical 
paces  were  reckoned  to  a  mile. 

LAND   MEASURE   (LINEAR). 

7.92  inches 1  link 

100       links,  or 1 

22  yards°ror.'.  '  '  I*  cliain  (ch-) 

4  poles .' .  .'.I'.'.';'...'.'.) 

10  chains 1  furlong  (fur.) 

80  chains,  or. ...  .  .  ) 


8        furlongs 


-i 
mile 


LAND    MEASURE    (SQUARE). 

144  sq.  inches.  .  .  1  square  foot  (sq.  ft.) 

9  square  feet.  .  1  square  yard  (sq.  yd.) 

30i  sq.  yards  ...  1  sq.  pole,  rod,  or  perch 

16  sq.  poles.  ...  1  square  chain  (sq.  ch.) 

40  sq.  poles,  or  »  ,  , 

l,210sq.  yards..   I1  sq'  rood 
4  roods,  or  .  .  1 
10  sq.  chs.,  or  .  | 
160  sq.  poles,  or  }•  1  acre  * 
4,840  sq.  yds.,  or.  | 
43,560  sq.  ft  .....  J 

640  acres,  or.  ..  (  1  ., 

3,097,600  sq.  yds  ....  \  l  sq'  mile 

30  acres  ........  1  yard  of  land 

100  acres  ........  1  hide  of  land 

40  hides  ........  1  barony 

CUBIC  MEASURE. 

1,728  cubic  inches  ......  1  cubic  foot 

27  cubic  feet.  .......  1  cubic  or  solid  yard 

*  The  side  of  a  square  having  an  area  of  an 
acre  is  equal  to  69.57  linear  yards. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  AND   NAUTICAL    MEASURE. 

6086.44      feet,  or ] 

1000  fathoms,  or.  ...  {=1  nautical  mile" 

10  cables,  or i  or  knot 

1.1528  statute  miles.  . .  I 
60          nautical  miles,  or  I  _,    i 
67.168    statute  miles.  . .  (  "" 
360  degrees.  . =1  circumfer- 

ence of  the  earth  at  the  equator 

league =3  nautic'l  miles 

1  cable's  length  .  .  .  =  120  fathoms 

DRY   MEASURE,    U.  S. 

Cu.  In. 

2  pints 1  quart  (qt.)      /=     67.20 

4  quarts 1  gallon  (gal.)    =   268.80 

2  gallons,  or t  -.         ,  _    ^07  «n 

8  quarts f  i  peck  5d/.bU 

4  pecks 1  struck  bushel  =  2150.42 


LIQUID   MEASURE,   U.  S. 


4  gills 

2  pints. 
4  quarts. .  . 
63  gallons.  . 
2  hogsheads 
2  pipes 


pint  (O.) 
quart  (qt.) 
gallon  (gal.) 
hogshead  (hhd.) 
pipe  or  butt 
tun 


Cu.  In. 

=   28.875 
=   57.75 
=  231. 


APOTHECARIES'  LIQUID  MEASURE. 
Apothecaries'  or  Wine  Measure  is  used  by 
pharmacists  of  this  country.     Its  denomina- 
tions   are    gallon,    pint,    fluid    ounce,    fluid 
drachm,  and  minim,  as  follows: 
Cong.         O.          F.  Oz.       F.  Dr.       Minims. 
1      =       g       =     128    =    1,024    =  61,440 
1       =       16    =       128    =     7,680 
1     =  8    =        480 

1    =          60 
1 

The  Imperial  Standard  Measure  is  used  by 
British  pharmacists.  Its  denominations  and 
their  relative  value  are: 

Gal.   Quarts.  Pints.  F.  Oz.      F.  Dr.      Minims 

1    =    4    =    8     =    160    =  1,280  =  76,800 

1     =     2=     40    =      320  =   19,200 

1     =     20    =      160  =     9,600 

1    =          8  =        480 

1  =          60 

The  relative  value  of  United  States  Apothe- 
caries'  and  British  Imperial  Measures  is  as 
follows: 

, Imperial  Measure. , 

U.S. 

Apothe-  oj    *i     ^        G 

caries'  £    O    P       'H 

Measure.  £   b   ^        S 

1  Gallon  =  .83311  Gallon,  or  6  13  2  22.85 
1  Pint  =  .83311  Pint,  or  16  5  17.86 
1  Fl.  Oz.  =  1.04139  Fl.  Oz.,  or  1  0  19.86 
1  Fl.  Dr.  =  1.04139  Fl.  Dr.,  or  1  2.48 

1  Minim  =1.04139  Minim,   or  1.04 


465 


466 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


OLD   WINE   AND  SPIRIT  MEASURE. 

Imperial 
Gals. 

Troy.                                          Avoirdupois. 
Oz.     Dr. 
1  pound  equals  13     2.65 

4  gills  or  quarterns.   1  pint 
2  pints  1  quart 

1  ounce  equals  1      1.55 
1  dwt.  equals  .     0     0.877 

4  quarts  (231  cu.  in.)l  gallon         =        .8333 
10  gallons  1  anchor       =      8.333 
18  gallons  1  bunlet        =    15 

Troy.                           Apothecaries'.  
Lb.   Oz.   Dr.   Scr.  Gr. 

3H  gallons  1  barrel         =   26.25 
42  gallons  1  tierce          =   35 
63  gallons,  or              1  -,  r.       u     j         co  e 

1  ounce  equals  0        1        0       0       0 
1  dwt.  equals  0       0       0       1       4 

2  barSS.    .  .  .  :  :  r1  h°8shead  -  *2-5 
?USesad°sr:::::['p^eon=7o 

Apothecaries'.                             Avoirdupois. 
Oz.      Dr. 

126  gallons,  or  

1  ounce  equals  .            1       1.55 

1  drachm  equals.  .                                  0       2  19 

1£  puncheons  )          butt 

IgCSSi.-:  :•.::}'*»      -2I° 

Apothecaries'     Weight     is      the      officinal 

1  scruple  equals  0       0.73 
Apothecaries'.                        Troy.  
Lb.  Oz.  Dwt.  Gr. 
1  pound  equals                          1000 

standard  of  the  United  States  Pharmacopoeia. 
In  buying  and  selling  medicines  not  ordered 

1  ounce  equals  0        1       0      -0 
1  drachm  equals.     .                   0       0       2      12 

by  prescriptions  avoirdupois  weight  is  used. 

Lb.           Oz.            Dr.             Scr.               Gr. 
1       =      12      =      96      =      288      =      5760 
1               g     =        24     =        480 
1      =          3     =          60 
1      =          20 

1  scruple  equals  0       0       0     20 
Avoirdupois.                       Troy.  
Lb.  Oz.  Dwt.  Gr. 
1  long  ton  equals  2722     2     13       8 
1  cwt.  equals  136     1       6     16 
1  quarter  equals.                     34     0       6     16 

Avoirdupois   Weight.  —  Used   for   weighing 

1  pound  equals  1     2     11     16 
1  ounce  equals              .                   0     18       5}^ 

apothecaries'  weight  are  employed. 
Gross 
or  Long 
Ton.  Cwt.      Qr.         Lb.             Oz.            Dr. 
1  '=   20   =  80  =  2,240  =   35,840  =  573,440 
1    =     4   =      112  =     1,792   =     28,672 

1  drachm  equals  0       1       3% 
Avoirdupois.                        Troy.  
Lb.  Oz.  Dwt.  Gr. 
1  short  ton  equals  2430     6     13       8 
1  cwt.  equals  121     6       6     16 
1  quarter  equals.                        30     4     11     16 

1    =        28  =        448   =       7,168 
1   =          16  =          256 
1   =            16 
Short 
or  Net 
Ton.  Cwt.     Qr.         Lb.            Oz.             Dr. 
1    =   20   =  80   =  2,000  =   32,000   =  512,000 
1=4=       100  =     1,600   =     25,600 
1   =        25   =        400   =       6,400 
1    =          16   =          256 
1   =            16 

Avoirdupois.              —  Apothecaries'.  — 
Lb.  Oz.   Dr.  Scr.    Gr. 
1  pound  equals  1       2       4       2       0 
1  ounce  equals  0070      17H 
1  drachm  equals.  ...     0       0       0       1       7% 

DIAMOND  MEASURE. 
16  parts   =1  grain  =  0.8  troy  grains. 
4  grains  =  1  carat  =  3.2  troy  grains. 

HOUSEHOLD  MEASURES.  —  Nothing  is  more 

The  "short"  ton  of  2,000  Ibs.  is  used  com- 
monly in  the  United  States.  The  British  or 
"long"  ton,  used  to  some  extent  in  the  United 
States,  contains  2,240  Ibs.,  corresponding  to  a 
cwt.  of  112  and  a  quarter  of  28  Ibs. 

Troy  Weight. — Used  by  jewelers  and  at  the 
mints,  in  the  exchange  of  the  precious  metals. 


Lb. 
1 


Oz. 

12 

1 


7000    troy  grains    = 


Dwt.  Gr. 

240        =        5760 
20        =         480 
1        =  24 

_  1  Ib.  avoirdupois. 

175  troy  pounds  =  144  Ib.  avoirdupois. 
175  troy  ounces  =  192  oz.  avoirdupois. 
437£  troy  grains  =  1  oz.  avoirdupois. 

1  troy  pound  =.8228+  Ib.  avoirdupois. 
The  common  standard  of  weight  by  which 
the  relative  values  of  these  systems  are  com- 
pared is  the  grain,  which  for  this  purpose  may 
be  regarded  as  the  unit  of  weight.  The  pound 
troy  and  that  of  apothecaries'  weight  have 
each  five  thousand  seven  hundred  and  sixty 
grains;  the  pound  avoirdupois  has  seven 
thousand  grains. 

The  relative  proportions  and  values  of  these 
several  systems  are  as  follows : 


vague  and  inaccurate  than  such  expressions 
as:  "A  cupful,  a  wineglass."  An  attempt  has 
been  made  to  reduce  these  measures  to  some 
scale.  In  these  liquid  measures,  the  glass  is 
supposed  to  be  filled  £  inch  from  the  top.  A 
"wineglass"  is  very  apt  to  be  a  claret  glass. 
If  the  diameter  is  2f  inches  and  the  depth  2\ 
inches  from  rim  to  bottom,  the  glass  will  hold 
3£  fl.  oz.  =  105  cubic  centimeters.  A  sherry 
glass  is  also  a  common  wine  glass  and  is  flar- 
ing. If  its  top  is  2i  inches  in  diameter  it 
should  hold  1£  fl.  oz.,  or  45  cubic  centimeters, 
A  liquor  glass,  usually  called  a  whiskey  glass, 
varies  greatly,  but  if  3  inches  high  and  2i 
inches  in  diameter  and  slightly  flaring  it 
holds  4  fl.  oz.,  or  120  cubic  centimeters.  A 


centimeters.  A  "liqueur"  glass  having  a 
diameter  of  1£  inches,  2i  inches  deep,  flaring 
sides,  holds  $  of  a  fluid  ounce,  or  20  cubic  cen- 
timeters. A  straight-sided  soda  glass,  6f 
inches  high  by  2$  inches  in  diameter,  holds  10 
fl.  oz.,  or  300  cubic  centimeters.  A  T3g  liter 
stein,  2$  inches  in  diameter  and  3£  inches  deep, 
holds  10  fl.  oz.,  or  300  cubic  centimeters  as 
ordinarily  filled- 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


467 


120  drops  water                       = 

teaspoon 

oz. 
dessert-spoc 
tablespoon 
cup 
=  1  ph 
=*lb 
.  .  =1  o 

m 

it 
z. 

. 

r 
i* 

2 

2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 

9  eg 

tips  buckwheat  flour  = 
coffee  = 
tea     ...                                          — 

11  > 

60      '  '      thick  fluid              — 

60      "         "        "    = 

rice  = 
lard.                                                 = 

16  tablespoons                       = 

butter  = 
graham  flour  = 
rye  flour  = 

1  cup  
1    '  '    water  
4  tablespoons  flour 

corn  meal  ;  = 
rolled  oats  = 
powdered  sugar                            — 

2  tablespoons  butter  
3  teaspoons  soda  
4                      baking  powder.  . 

..  =1 
=* 

brown            "      = 
raisins                                                — 

'"-ii 

2£     "     confectioners'  sugar.  . 
2.]r     "     wheat  flour  
3V     "     whole-  wheat  flour.  .  . 

=1 
=1 
.  .  =1 

currants                                          — 

bread  crumbs  = 
gs.  .  .                                                 .  .  = 

FOREIGN    WEIGHTS   AND   MEASURES. 

The  following  table  embraces  only  such  weights  and  measures  as  are  given  from  time  to 
time  in  CONSULAR  REPORTS  and  in  COMMERCIAL  RELATIONS: 

Foreign  weights  and  measures,  with  American  equivalents. 


Denominations. 

Where  Used. 

American  Equivalents. 

Portugal.  .  . 

4.422  gallons. 

Ardeb 

Egypt 

7  6907  bushels 

Are   .  . 

Metric.  .  . 

0.02471  acre. 

Arobe  
Arratel  or  libra  
Arroba  (dry)  
Do.  ... 

Paraguay  
Portugal  
Argentine  Republic  
Brazil  .... 

25  pounds. 
1.011  pounds. 
25.3175  pounds. 
32.38  pounds. 

Do 

Cuba  .  .  . 

25.3664  pounds 

Do  
Do 

Portugal  
Spain.  .  .  . 

32.38  pounds. 
25.36  pounds. 

Do  
Arroba  (liquid)  
Arshine  
Arshine  (square)  
Artel  

Venezuela  
Cuba,  Spain,  and  Venezuela  
Russia  
Do  
Morocco  

25.4024  pounds. 
4.263  gallons. 
28  inches. 
5.44  square  feet. 
1.12  pounds. 

Baril  
Barrel 

Argentine  Republic  and  Mexico  .  .  . 
Malta  (customs).  . 

20.0787  gallons. 
11.4  gallons. 

Do  
Batman  or  tabriz.  . 

Spain  (raisins)  
Persia 

100  pounds. 
6.49  pounds. 

Berkovets  
Bongkal  
Bouw.  .  .  . 

Russia  
India  
Sumatra.  .  .  . 

361.12  pounds. 
832  grains. 
7  096  5  square  meters. 

Bu  
Butt  (wine).  . 

Japan  
Spain  

0.1  inch. 
140  gallons. 

Caffiso  
Candy  
Do.  .  .  . 

Malta  
India  (Bombay)  
India  (Madras) 

5.4  gallons. 
529  pounds. 
500  pounds. 

Cantar  
Do.  ... 

Morocco  
Syria  (Damascus).  .  . 

113  pounds. 
575  pounds. 

Do  

Turkey.  . 

124.7036  pounds. 

Malta 

Carga   .  .  . 

Mexico  and  Salvador. 

Catty  
Do.1  .  . 

China  
Japan. 

1.333i  (1J)  pounds. 
1  31  pounds. 

Do.  .  . 

Java  Siam  and  Malacca 

Do 

2  12  pounds 

Centaro.  . 

Central  America 

4  2631  gallons. 

Centner  
Do.  . 

Bremen  and  Brunswick  
Darmstadt.  .  .  . 

117.5  pounds. 
110  24  pounds. 

Do.  ... 

Denmark  and  Norway 

110  11  pounds. 

Do  
Do.  . 

Nuremberg  
Prussia 

112.43  pounds. 
113  44  pounds. 

Do.  . 

Sweden   . 

Do  
Do  

Vienna  
Zollverein  

123.5  pounds. 
110.24  pounds. 

1  More  frequently  called  "kin." 
pounds  avoirdupois. 


Among  merchants  in  the  treaty  ports  it  equals  1.33$ 


468 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


FOREIGN    WEIGHTS    AND    MEASURES—  Continued. 


Denominations. 

Where  Used. 

American  Equivalents. 

Centner.  
Chetvert.     
Chih. 

Double  or  metric  
Russia  
China.  .  . 

220.46  pounds. 
5.7748  bushels. 
14  inches 

Coyan  
Do  
Cuadra  

Sarawak  
Siam  (Koyan)  
Argentine  Republic. 

3,098  pounds 
2,667  pounds. 
4.2  acres. 

Do.  .  . 

Paraguay 

78.9  yards. 

Do  
Do.  ... 

Paraguay  (square)  
Uruguay.  .  . 

8.077  square  feet. 
Nearly  2  acres. 

Cubic  meter.  .  .  .  ;  
Cwt.  (hundredweight)..  .  . 

Metric.     
British.  . 

35.3  cubic  feet. 
1  12  pounds. 

Dessiatirie 

Russia 

2  6997  acres 

Do   .     . 

Spain  

1.599  bushels. 

Drachme  

Greece  

Half  ounce. 

Fanega  (dry)  
Do  

Central  America  
Chile  

1.5745  bushels. 
2.575  bushels. 

Do  
Do 

Cuba  
Mexico.  . 

1.599  bushels. 
1.54728  bushels. 

Do  

Do  
Do  

Morocco  

Uruguay  (double)  
Uruguay  (single). 

Strike  fanega,  70  pounds  ;  full 
fanega,  1  18  pounds. 
7.776  bushels. 
3.888  bushels. 

Do  
Fanega  (liquid)  
Feddan.     
Frail  (raisins).  
Frasco.  . 

Venezuela  
Spain  
Egypt  
Spain.  .  .  ,  .  .  
Argentine  Republic.  .  . 

1.599  bushels. 
16  gallons. 
.03  acres. 
50  pounds. 
2.5096  quarts. 

Do 

Mexico.  . 

2.5  quarts. 

Frasila  
Fuder  
Funt  
Garnice 

Zanzibar  
Luxemburg  .... 
Russia  ... 
Russian  Poland..  . 

35  pounds. 
264.  17  gallons. 
0.9028  pound. 
0.88  gallon. 

Metric.  .  . 

15.432  grains. 

Hectare 

Do.  .    . 

2.471  acres. 

Hectoliter. 
Dry 

Do.  .  , 

2.838  bushels. 

Do.  .  . 

26.417  gallons. 

Joch  
Ken 

Austria-Hungary  
Japan. 

1.422  acres. 
6  feet. 

Kilogram  (kilo)  
Kilometer  . 

Metric  
Do  - 

2.2046  pounds. 
0.621376  mile. 

Klafter  

Russia  

216  cubic  feet. 

Koku 

Japan  

4.9629  bushels. 

Russia. 

3.5  bushels 

Kwan.  . 

Japan  

8.28  pounds. 

Last.  .  . 

Belgium  and  Holland.  

85.134  bushels. 

Do  
Do. 

England  (dry  malt)  
Germany.  .  . 

82.52  bushels. 
2  metric  tons  (4,480  pounds). 

Do  
Do.  .  . 

Prussia  
Russian  Poland.  .  . 

112.29  bushels. 
Ill  bushels. 

Do  
League  (land)  
Li 

Spain  (salt)  
Paraguay  
China.  . 

4,760  pounds. 
4,633  acres. 
2,115  feet. 

Libra  (pound)  
Do  
Do 

Argentine  Republic  
Central  America  
Chile 

.0127  pounds. 
.043  pounds. 
.014  pounds. 

Do  
Do 

Cuba  
Mexico. 

.0161  pounds. 
.01465  pounds. 

Do 

Peru   .  . 

.0143  pounds. 

Do   . 

Portugal.  .  . 

.01  1  pounds. 

Do 

Spain   .  .  . 

.0144  pounds. 

Do  
Do  
Liter.  .                       

Uruguay  
Venezuela  
Metric  

.0143  pounds. 
.0161  pounds. 
1.0567  quarts. 

Livre  (pound). 

Greece  

1.1  pounds. 

Do  

Guiana  

1.0791  pounds. 

Load  

England  (timber)  

Square,    50   cubic   feet;    un- 
hewn, 40  cubic  feet;    inch 
planks,  600  superficial  feet. 
If  acres 

Do  ., 

Nicaragua  and  Salvador.  . 

1.727  acres. 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


469 


FOREIGN    WEIGHTS   AND   MEASURES— Continued. 


Denominations. 

Where  Used. 

American  Equivalents. 

Marc.                         

Bolivia  

0.507  pound. 

Maund 

India.  . 

82f  pounds 

Meter  

Metric  

39.37  inches. 

Mil  . 

Denmark.  . 

4.68  miles 

Do  
Milla    . 

Denmark  (geographical)  
Nicaragua  and  Honduras 

4.61  miles. 
1.1493  miles 

Morgen  .  . 

Prussia  

0.63  acre. 

Oke 

Egypt  

2.7225  pounds 

Do 

Greece. 

2  84  pounds 

Do   .  . 

Hungary.  .  .  . 

3.0817  pounds 

Do  
Do  
Pic   . 

Turkey  
Hungary  and  Wallachia  
Egypt.  .  . 

2.82838  pounds. 
2.5  pints. 
2H  inches 

Picul  .  . 

Borneo  and  Celebes 

135.64  pounds. 

Do  
Do  

China,  Japan,  and  Sumatra.  ..... 
Java  

133^  pounds. 
135.1  pounds. 

Do.  ,  
Pie.  .  . 

Philippine  Islands  
Argentine  Republic.  .  . 

137.9  pounds. 
0.9478  foot. 

Do  

Spain.  .  .  . 

0.91407  foot. 

Pik  
Pood  
Pund  (pound)  

Turkey  
Russia  
Denmark  and  Sweden.  .    . 

27.9  inches. 
36.112  pounds. 
1.102  pounds. 

Quarter.  .    . 

Great  Britain. 

8.252  bushels. 

Do  
Quintal  
Do  
Do  
Do  

London  (coal)  .  .  ;  
Argentine  Republic  
Brazil  
Castile,1  Chile,  Mexico,  and  Peru.  . 
Greece. 

36  bushels. 
101.42  pounds. 
130.06  pounds. 
101.41  pounds. 
123.2  pounds. 

Do  

Newfoundland  (fish)  

112  pounds. 

Do  

Paraguay.  . 

100  pounds. 

Do.  .  . 

Syria.  .  . 

125  pounds 

Do 

Metric 

220  46  pounds 

Rottle.  . 

Palestine  . 

6  pounds. 

Do  
Sagene.  .  . 

Syria  -.  
Russia. 

5f  pounds. 
7  feet. 

Salm  
Se  

Malta  
Japan.  .    . 

490  pounds. 
0.02451  acre 

Seer.  .  . 

India.  . 

Shaku  

Japan.  . 

11.9305  inches. 

Sho.  .  . 

Do.  .  . 

1  6  quarts 

Standard  (St.  Petersburg).  . 
Stone  

Lumber  measure.  .  .  . 
British.  .  .  . 

165  cubic  feet. 
14  pounds 

Suerte  

Uruguay 

Sun.  .  .    . 

Japan.  .  . 

1.193  inches 

Tael  
Tan  
To  

Cochin  China  
Japan  
Do  

590.75  grains  (troy). 
0.25  acre. 
2  pecks 

Ton  
Tonde  (cereals)  

Space  measure  
Denmark.  .  . 

40  cubic  feet. 
3.94783  bushels. 

Tondeland  

Do.  ... 

1  36  acres 

Tsubo  

Japan. 

Tsun. 

China 

Tunna  
Tunnland 

Sweden  
Sweden 

4.5  bushels. 
1  22  acres 

Vara. 

Argentine  Republic 

34  1208  inches 

Do.  
Do.  .     . 

Central  America  
Chile  and  Peru 

32.87  inches. 
33  367  inches 

Do  

Cuba  

33  384  inches 

Do  

Curacao  

33.375  inches. 

Do.  .  . 

Mexico 

Do   .  , 

Do  

Spain.     

0  914117  yard 

Do.  .     

Venezuela.  . 

33  384  inches 

Vedro  
Vergees  

Russia  
Isle  of  Jersey.  .  . 

2.707  gallons. 

Verst  
Vlocka  

Russia.  .  
Russian  Poland  

0.663  mile. 
41.98  acres. 

1  Although  the  metric  weights  are  used  officially  in  Spain,  the  Castile  quintal  is  employed 
in  commerce  in  the  Peninsula  and  colonies,  save  in  Catalonia:  the  Catalan  quintal  equals 
91.71  pounds. 


470 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


DECIMAL  SYSTEM— WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


A  meter  is  one  ten-millionth  of  the  distance 
from  the  equator  to  the  North  Pole. 


SOUTH 


The  metric  system,  formed  on  the  meter  as 
the  unit  of  length,  has  four  other  leading  units, 
all  connected  with  and  dependent  upon  this. 
The  are,  the  unit  of  surface,  is  the  square  of 
ten  meters.  The  liter,  the  unit  of  capacity, 
is  the  cube  of  a  tenth  part  of  the  meter.  The 
stere,  the  unit  of  solidity,  has  the  capacity  of 
a  cubic  meter.  The  gram,  the  unit  of 
weight,  is  the  weight  of  that  quantity  of  dis- 
tilled water  at  its  maximum  density  which 
fills  the  cube  of  a  hundredth  part  of  the  meter. 
Each  unit  has  its  decimal  multiple  and  sub- 
multiple,  that  is,  weights  and  measures  ten 
times  larger  or  ten  times  smaller  than  the 
principal  unit.  The  prefixes  denoting  the 
multiples  are  derived  from  the  Greek,  and 
aredeca,  ten;  hecto,  hundred;  kilo,  thousand; 
and  myria,  ten  thousand.  Those  denoting 
sub-multiples  are  taken  from  the  Latin,  and 
are  deci,  ten;  centi,  hundred;  milli,  thousand. 


Relative  Value. 

Length. 

Surface. 

Capacity. 

Solidity. 

Weight. 

10,000  .  , 

Myriameter 

1  000 

Kilometer 

Kiloliter 

Kilogram 

100.     .  .  . 
10  
Unit  
0.1  
0.01  
0.001  

Hectometer 
Decameter 
Meter 
Decimeter 
Centimeter 
Millimeter 

Hectare 

'Are 
Deciare 
Centiare 

Hectoliter- 
Decaliter 
Liter 
Deciliter 
Centiliter 
Milliliter 

Dekastere 
Stere 
Decistere 

Hectogram 
Decagram 
Gram 
Decigram 
Centigram 
Milligram 

APPROXIMATE    EQUIVALENTS   OF   THE   FRENCH    (METRIC)   AND 
ENGLISH   MEASURES. 


I  yard 

I 1  meters _ 

To  convert  meters  into  yards 

1  meter=  1.1  yd. ;   3.3  ft j 

1  meter,  by  the  Standards  Commission 

1  meter,  by  the  Act  of  1878 

1  foot 

1  inch 

1  mile 

1  kilometer 

1  chain  (22  yards) 

5  furlongs  (1,100  yards) 

1  square  yard 

1  square  meter. •< 

1  square  inch 

1  square  mile  (640  acres) 

1  acre  (4840  square  yards) 

1  cubic  yard 

1  cubic  meter 

1  cubic  meter 

1  cubic  meter  of  water 

1  kilogram 

1,000  kilograms \ 

1  metric  ton I 

1  long  hundredweight 

1  United  States  hundredweight 


11  meter. 

12  yards. 
Add  Ath. 

3  ft.  3|  inches  (^th  less). 
40  inches  (1.6  per  cent  less). 
=  39.38203  inches. 
=  39.37079  inches. 
3  decimeters  (more  exactly  3.048). 
25  millimeters  (more  exactly  25.4). 
1.6  or  If  kilometers  (more  exactly  1.60931) 
£  of  a  mile. 

20  meters  (more  exactly  20.1165). 
1  kilometer  (more  exactly  1.0058). 
f  square  meter  (more  exactly  .8361). 
lOf  square  feet. 

square  yards. 

square  centimeters  (more  exactly  6.45). 

0  hectares  (0.4  per  cent  less). 
4000  square  meters  (1.2  per  cent  more). 
f  cubic  meter  (2  per  cent  more). 
H  cubic  yards  (1?  per  cent  less). 
35^  cubic  feet  (.05  per  cent  less). 
1  long  ton  nearly. 
2.2  pounds  fully. 

1  long  ton  nearly. 

51  kilograms  nearly. 
45^  kilograms  nearly  . 


6£ 
260 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


471 


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472 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


FRENCH    AND    ENGLISH    COMPOUND   EQUIVALENTS. 

1  kilogram  per  linear  meter |  -6J2  pound  per  linear  foot. 

)  2.016  pounds  per  yard. 

1,000  kilograms  (1  ton)  per  meter .300  long  ton  per  foot ;  i  short  ton  per  foot. 

1  kilogram  per  kilometer 3.548  pounds  per  mile. 

1,000  kilograms  (1  ton)  per  kilometer \  1.584  long  tons  per  mile;    1.774  short  tons  per 

mile. 

1  kilogram  per  square  millimeter J  1422.32  pounds  per  square  inch;    .635  long  ton 

I         per  square    inch;   .711  short  ton  per  sq.  in. 

kilogram  per  square  centimeter 14.2232  pounds  per  square  inch. 

kilogram  per  square  decimeter 20.481  pounds  per  square  foot. 

kilogram  per  square  meter 1.843  pounds  per  square  yard. 

,000  kilograms  (1  ton)  per  square  meter 8229  long  ton,  .922  short  ton,  per  square  yard. 

kilogram  per  ton' J  2>24°  P°unds  Per  lonS  ton  >  2  pounds  per  short 

kilogram  per  ton  per  kilometer 3.6042  pounds  per  long  ton  per  mile. 

liter  of  water  at  4°  C.  per  ton  per  kilometer.  .4325  U.  S.  gal.  at  62°  F.  per  long  ton  per  mile. 

gram  per  square  millimeter 1.422  pounds  per  square  inch. 

gram  per  square  centimeter 01422  pound  per  square  inch. 

kilogram  per  cubic  meter j  .1686  pound  per  cubic  yard. 

I  .0624  pound  per  cubic  foot. 

,000  kilograms  (1  ton)  per  cubic  meter \  ;»f  |  &^^<^°«*' 

cubic  meter  per  kilogram 16.019  cubic  feet  per  pound. 

cubic  meter  per  ton.  ..  . .  j  EgfSjatff&E; 

cubic  meter  per  kilometer 2.105  cubic  yards  per  mile. 

cubic  meter  per  linear  meter 1.196  cubic  yards  per  linear  yard. 

cubic  meter  per  square  meter 3.281  cubic  feet  per  square  foot. 

1  cubic  meter  per  hectare \%  ^  gT*?™ 

1  kilogrammeter 7.233  foot-pounds. 

1  kilogrammeter •*     =  °-00323     foot-ton     (long)  =  .00362     foot-ton 

1  ton-meter 3  foot-tons  (long);  3.36  (short). 

1  cheval  vapeur.or  cheval  (75kXm  per  second).  .9863  horse-power. 

1  kilogram  per  cheval 2.235  pounds  per  horse-power. 

1  square  meter  per  cheval 10.913  square  feet  per  horse-power. 

1  cubic  meter  per  cheval 35.806  cubic  feet  per  horse-power. 

1  calorie,  or  French  unit  of  heat 3.968  British  heat-units. 

French  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat  (423.55k  j.    3Q63  5  foot.pounds> 

1  calorie  per  square  meter 369  heat-unit  per  square  foot. 

1  calorie  per  kilogram 1.800  heat-units  per  pound. 

ENGLISH   AND   FRENCH. 

1  pound  per  linear  foot 1.488  kilograms  per  linear  meter. 

1  pound  per  yard 496  kilogram  per  meter. 

1  long  ton  per  foot 33.32  kilograms  (3£  tons  approx.)  per  meter. 

1  long  ton  per  yard 1111  kilograms  ( 1^  tons  approx.)  per  meter. 

1  pound  per  mile. 2818  kilogram  per  kilometer. 

1  long  ton  per  mile 6313  ton  per  kilometer. 

1  pound  per  long  ton 4464  kilogram  per  ton. 

1  pound  per  long  ton  per  mile 2774  kilogram  per  tori  per  kilometer. 

,     .0703077  kilogram  per  square  centimeter. 

1  pound  per  square  inch I     .7031  gram  per  square  millimeter. 

I     5.170  centimeters  of  mercury  at  0°  C. 
1  atmosphere  (14.7  pounds  per  square  inch).  ..  l     1.0335  kilograms  per  square  centimeter. 

1,000  pounds  per  square  inch 703077  kilogram  per  square  millimeter. 

2,000  pounds  per  square  inch 1.406154  kilograms  per  square  millimeter. 

1  long  ton  per  square  inch 1.575  kilograms  per  square  millimeter. 

1  pound  per  square  foot 4.883  kilograms  per  square  meter. 

1,000  pounds  per  square  foot 4882.517  kilograms  per  square  meter. 

1  ton  per  square  foot 10.936  tons  per  square  meter. 

1,000  pounds  per  square  yard 542.500  kilograms  per  square  meter. 

1  ton  per  square  yard 1.215  tons  per  square  meter. 

1  pound  per  cubic  yard 5933  kilogram  per  cubic  meter. 

1  pound  per  cubic  foot 16.020  kilograms  per  cubic  meter. 

1  ton  per  cubic  yard 1.329  tons  per  cubic  meter. 

1  cubic  yard  per  pound 1.6855  cubic  meters  per  kilogram. 

cubic  yard  per  ton 7525  cubic  meter  per  ton. 

cubic  yard  per  mile 4750  cubic  meter  per  kilometer. 

cubic  yard  per  linear  yard 836  cubic  meter  per  linear  meter. 

cubic  foot  per  square  foot 3048  cubic  meter  per  square  meter. 

cubic  meter  per  acre 2.471  cubic  meters  per  hectare. 

cubic  yard  per  acre 1.889  cubic  meters  per  hectare. 

foot-pound 1382  kilogrammeter. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


473 


FRENCH   AND    ENGLISH 

foot-ton  (long) 

horse-power 

pound  per  horse-power 

square  foot  per  horse-power 

cubic  foot  per  horse-power.  .  . 

British  unit  of  heat,  or  heat-unit  .  ..  . 
British  mechanical  equivalent  of  one 

unit  (772  foot-pounds) 

1  British  heat-unit  per  square  foot.  .  .  . 
1  British  heat-unit  per  pound 


COMPOUND    EQUIVALENTS— Continued. 
.3097  ton-meter. 

1.0139  cheval. 

447  kilogram  per  cheval. 

0916  square  meter  per  cheval. 

0279  cubic  meter  per  cheval. 

252  calorie. 

heat-  j.    1Q6  7  kilogrammeters. 

2.713  calories  per  square  meter. 

f  calorie  per  kilogram. 

— D.  K.  Clark,   Mechanical  Engineer's  Pocket  Book. 


To  REDUCE  PARTS  BY  VOLUME,  OR  MEAS- 
URE TO  PARTS  BY  WEIGHT. — Multiply  the 
parts  by  volume,  or  measure,  by  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  different  substances:  the  re- 
sult will  be  parts  by  weight. 


MENSURATION. 

SURFACES. 

PARALLELOGRAM. — Area  equals  base  mul- 
tiplied by  height. 

TRIANGLE. — Base  and  height  given.  Mul- 
tiply base  by  height  and  divide  by  two. 

When  three  sides  are  given.  From  the  half 
sum  of  the  three  sides  subtract  each  side  sep- 
arately; multiply  the  half  sum  and  the  three 
remainders  together.  The  area  is  the  square 
root  of  the  product  thus  obtained. 

TRAPEZIUM  (a  figure  with  two  sides  parallel 
and  two  sides  not  parallel ).— To  find  the  area 
multiply  the  sum  of  the  two  parallel  sides  by 
the  distance  between  them  and  divide  by  two. 

SQ/-ARE  OR  RHOMBUS  (an  oblique  paral- 
lelogram with  four  equal  sides). — Area  equals 
half  the  product  of  the  diagonals. 

IRREGULAR  POLYGON. — The  area  may  be 
found  by  dividing  it  into  a  series  of  triangles 
and  trapeziums,  and  finding  the  sum  of  the 
areas  thus  obtained. 

REGULAR  POLYGON. — Area  equals  number 
of  sides  multiplied  by  length  of  one  side  and 
by  the  radius  of  the  inscribed  circle  divided 
by  two. 

CIRCLE. — Circumference  equals  diameter 
multiplied  by  3.1410,  or  approximately  by  3|. 
Area  equals  diameter  squared  multiplied  by 
.7854. 

SECTOR  OF  CIRCLE. — Multiply  the  length  of 
the  arc  by  the  radius  and  divide  by  two. 

SEGMENT  OF  CIRCLE. — Find  the  area  of  the 
sector  having  the  same  arc.  Also  find  area  of 
triangle  formed  by  the  radial  sides  and  the 
chord.  The  area  equals  the  sum  or  differ- 
ence of  these  according  as  the  segment  is 
greater  or  less  than  a  semicircle. 

ANNULUS. — Multiply  the  sum  of  the  diame- 
ters by  their  difference  and  by  .7854. 

SQUARE  EQTTAL  TO  A  CIRCLE. — Side  of 
square  equals  diameter  multiplied  by  .8862. 

INSCRIBED  SQUARE. — Side  of  square  equals 
diameter  multiplied  by  .7071. 

ELLIPSE. — Area  equals  the  product  of  the 
two  axes  by  .7854. 

SOLIDS. 

CUBE. — Surface  equals  length  of  one  edge 
squared  and  multiplied  by  six.  Contents 
equals  length  of  one  edge  cubed. 

CYLINDERS  AND  PRISMS.— Surface  equals 
perimeter  of  one  end  multiplied  by  height  plus 
twice  the  area  of  one  end.  Contents  equals 
area  of  base  multiplied  by  height.  This  last 
also  applies  to  oblique  cylinders  and  prisms. 


CONE  OR  PYRAMID. — Surface  equals  cir- 
cumference of  base  multiplied  by  slant  height 
divided  by  two,  plus  the  area  of  the  base. 
Contents  equals  area  of  base  multiplied  by 
one-third  perpendicular  height.  This  last 
applies  whether  the  cones  and  pyramids  be 
right  or  oblique. 

FRUSTUM  OF  CONE  OR  PYRAMID. — Con- 
tents :  To  the  sum  of  the  area  of  the  two  ends 
add  the  square  root  of  their  product  and 
multiply  the  quantity  thus  obtained  by  one- 
third  the  perpendicular  height. 

SPHERE. — Area  equals  square  of  diameter 
multiplied  by  3.1416  or  3};  i.e.,  it  is  equal  to 
four  times  the  area  of  one  of  its  great  circles, 
or  to  the  convex  surface  of  its  circumscribing 
cylinder.  Surfaces  of  spheres  vary  as  the 
squares  of  their  diameters.  Contents  equal 
the  cube  of  the  diameter  multiplied  by  .5236, 
i.e.,  equals  area  of  surface  multiplied  by  diam- 
eter and  divided  by  six.  Contents  of  spheres 
vary  as  the  cubes  of  the  diameter. 

SEGMENT  OF  SPHERE. — Contents:  From 
three  times  the  diameter  of  the  sphere  sub- 
tract twice  the  height  of  the  segment,  multi- 
ply the  difference  by  the  square  of  the  height 
and  by  .5236;  or,  another  rule:  Add  -the 
square  of  the  height  to  three  times  the  square 
of  the  radius  of  the  base  and  multiply  the 
sum  by  the  height  and  by  .5236. 

ZONE  OF  SPHERE. — To  the  sum  of  the 
squares  of  the  radii  of  the  two  ends  add  one- 
third  the  square  of  the  height,  multiply  the 
sum  by  the  height  and  by  1.5708. 

CONE,  SPHERE,  AND  CYLINDER. — The  con- 
tents of  a  cone,  sphere,  and  cylinder  of  same 
diameter  and  height  are  in  the  ratio  of  1  to  2 
to  3. — Practical  Engineer's  Electrical  Pocket 
Book  and  Diary. 

CIRCULAR  MEASURE. 

Diameter  of  a  Circle  X  3. 141 6  gives  Circum- 
ference. 

Diameter  Squared  X  .7854  gives  Area  of 
Circle. 

Diameter  Squared  X  3. 1416  gives  Surface  of 
Sphere. 

Diameter  Cubed  X  .5236  gives  Solidity  of 
Sphere. 

One  Degree  of  Circumference  X  57.3  gives 
Radius. 

Diameter  of  Cylinder  X  3.1416,  and  product 
by  its  length,  gives  the  Surface. 

Diameter  Squared  X  .7854,  and  product  by 
the  length,  gives  Solid  Contents. 

A  Circular  Acre  is  235.504  feet,  a  Circular 
Rood  117.752  feet,  in  diameter.  The  Circum- 
ference of  the  globe  is  about  24,855  miles,  and 
the  Diameter  about  7,900  miles. — Whittakfr's 
A  Imanac. 


474 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


ANGULAR   MEASURE. 
There  is  perfect  unanimity  as  to  the  stand- 
ard angle   (i.e.,  the   right  angle)  and  practi- 
cal unanimity  as  to  its  subdivision,  for  the 
subdivision  into  grades,  etc.,  once  favored  by 
the  French,  is  now  abandoned. 
1  minute  of  angle  or  arc  =  60  seconds. 


1  degree    " 
90  degrees  ' ' 


Radian        "      " 

Length  of  arc  of  1° 
Length  of  arc  of  1' 


=  60  minutes. 

=  1  right  angle  or 
i  of  circum- 
ference. 

=  arc  same  length  as 
radius. 

=  57.295779513082°. 

=   0.017453292520. 

=  0.000290888209. 

=  0.015707963268. 


TIME. 

The  unit  of  time  measurement  is  the  same 
among  all  nations.  Practically  it  is  }  s64oo  of 
the  mean  solar  day,  but  really  it  is  a  perfectly 
arbitrary  unit,  as  the  length  of  the  mean  solar 
day  is  not  constant  for  any  two  periods  of 
time.  There  is  no  constant  natural  unit  of 
time. 

1  minute  =60  seconds. 

1  hour  =60   minutes,    3GOO   sec- 

onds. 
1  day  =24  hours,  1440  minutes, 

86,400  seconds. 

1  sidereal  day  =86164.1  seconds. 

1  sidereal  month        =27.321661     mean    solar 

days  (average). 
1  lunar  month  =29.530589    mean    solar 

days  (average). 

1  anomalistic  month  =  27.544600    mean    solar 
days  (average). 


1  tropical  month        =27.321582    mean     solar 

days  (average). 
1  nodical  month         =27.212222     mean    solar 

days  (average). 

Mean  solar  year  =365  d.  5  h.  48  m.  46.045 
s.  with  annual  varia- 
tion of  0.00539. 

The  change  in  the  length  of  the  mean  side- 
real day,  i.e..  of  the  time  of  the  earth's  rota- 
tion upon  its  axis,  amounts  to  0.01252  s.  in 
2400  mean  solar  years. 

— Physical  Tables, 

TABLE    OF    DECIMAL    EQUIVALENTS 
OF  FRACTIONS  OF  AN  INCH. 


•015635 

•03125 

•046875 

•0625 

•078125 

•09375 

•109375 

•125 

•140625 

•15625 

•171875 

•1875 

•203125 

•21875 

•234375 

•25 

•265625 

•28125 

•296875 

•3125 

•328125 


34375 
359375 
•375 
•390625 
•40625 
•421875 
•4375 
•453125 
•46875 
•484375 
•50 

•515625 
•53125 
•546875 
'5625 
•578125 
59375 
•609475 
•625 
•640625 
•65625 


•671875 

•6875 

•703125 

•71875 

•734375 

•75 

•765625 

•78125 

•796875 

•8125 

•828125 

•84375 

•859375 

'875 


•921875 

•9375 

•953125 

•96875 
•984375 


WEIGHTS    AND    MEASURES    OF   THE    BIBLE. 


A  gerah 

10  gerahs    =  1  bekah. 
2  bekahs  =  1  shekel. 
60  shekels  =  1  maneh 


WEIGHTS. 

Avoirdupois. 

Lbs.  Oz.  Drs. 

0         0  0.439  = 
0         0  4.39     = 

0         0  8.78     = 

2         0  14.628  = 


50  manehs  =  1  talent 102       13       11.428 


Troy. 

Lbs.     Oz.    Dwt.    Gr. 
0         0         0        12 
0050 
0         0       10         0 
2600 


125 


0 


MEASURES. 

Long  Measure. 

Ft.        In. 

A  digit,  or  finger  (Jer.  lii.  21)  
4  digits      =     palm  (Exod.  xxv.  25)  

0        0.912 
0        3.648 

3  palms     =     span  (Exod.  xxviii.  16)  

0      10.944 

2  spans      =     cubit  (Gen.  vi.  15)  

1        9.888 

4  cubits     =     fathom  (Acts  xxvii.  28)  

7        3.552 

1.5  fathoms  =     reed  (Ezek.  xl.  3,  5)  

10      11.328 

13.3  reeds       =  1  line  (Ezek.  xl.  3)  

145      11.04 

Land  Measure. 

Eng.  miles.    Paces.     Ft. 

A  cubit  

0                0        1.824 

400  cubits     =  1  furlong  (Luke  xxiv.  13)  

...      0             145       4.6 

5  furlongs  =  1  sabbath  day's  journey  (John  xi.  18;  Acts  i.  12).  .  . 

0             727       3.0 

10  furlongs  =  1  mile  (Matt.  v.  41)  

....      1             399        1.0 

24  miles       =  1  day's  journey  

...    33               76       4.0 

Liquid  Measure. 

Gals.    Pts. 

A  caph  

0     0.625 

1.3  caphs  —    log  (Lev.  xiv.  10)  

0     0.833 

4  logs      =     cab  

0     3.333 

3  cabs     =     hin  (Exod.  xxx.  24)  

1     2 

2  hins     =     seah  

2     4 

3  seahs   =     bath,  or  ephah  (1  Kings  vii.  26;  John  ii.  6)  

7     4.5 

10  ephahs—     kor,  or  homer  (Isa.  v.  10;  Ezek.  xiv.  14)  

75     5.25 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


475 


WEIGHTS    AND    MEASURES    OF    THE    BIBLE— Continued. 


Dry  Measure. 


Pecks.  Gals.  Pts. 


Agachal 0  0  0.1416 

20  gachals  =  1  cab  (2  Kings  vi.  25;  Rev.  vi.  6) 0  0  2.8333 

1.8  cabs      =1  omer  (Exod.  xvi.  36) 0  0  5.1 

3.3  omers  =  1  seah  (Matt.  xiii.  33) 1  0  1 

3  seahs    =  1  ephah  (Ezek.  xlv.  11) 3  0  3 

5  ephahs  =  1  letech  (Hosea  iii.  2) 16  0  0 

2  letechs  =  1  kor,  or  homer  (Num.  xL  32;  Hos.  iii.  2) 32  0  0 


N.B.— The  above  Table  will  explain  many 
texts  in  the  Bible.  Take,  for  instance,  Isa.  v. 
10-  "Yea,  ten  acres  of  vineyard  shall  yield 
one  bath,  and  the  seed  of  an  homer  shall 
yield  an  ephah."  This  curse  upon  the  covet- 
ous man  was,  that  10  acres  of  vines  should 


produce  only  7  gallons  of  wine,  i.e.,  one  acre 
should  yield  less  that  3  quarts;  and  that  32 
pecks  of  seed  should  only  bring  a  crop  of  3 
pecks,  or,  in  other  words,  that  the  harvest 
reaped  should  produce  but  one-tenth  of  the 
seed  sown. 


TIME. 

The  Natural  Day  was  from  sun-rise  to  sun-set. 
The  Natural  Night  was  from  sun-set  to  sun-rise. 

The  Civil  Day  was  from  sun-set  one  evening  to  sun-set  the  next;    for,  "the  Evening  and 
the  Morning  were  the  first  day." 


NIGHT  (Ancient). 

First  Watch  (Lam.  ii.  19)  till  midnight. 
Middle  Watch  (Judg.  vii.  19)  till  3  a.m. 
Morning  Watch  (Exod.  xiv.  24)  till  6  a.m. 

NIGHT  (New  Testament). 
First  Watch,  evening         =   6  to    9  p.m. 
Second  Watch,  midnight  =   9  to  12  p.m. 
Third  Watch,  cock-crow    =  12  to    3  a.m. 
Fourth  Watch,  morning   =   3  to    6a.m. 

JEWISH 

With  its  value  in  English  and  American  money; 
Jewish. 


A  gerah  (Exod.  xxx.  13) 

10  gerahs  =  1  bekah  (Exod.  xxxviii.  26) 

2  bekahs  =1  shekel  (Exod.  xxx.  13;  Isa.  vii. 

50  shekels  =  1  maneh 

60  manehs  =  1  kikkar  (talent) 

A  gold  shekel 

A  kikkar  of  gold 

N.B. — A  shekel  would  probably  purchase 
nearly  ten  times  as  much  as  the  same  nominal 
amount  will  now.  Remember  that  one  Ro- 
man penny  (8£d.)  was  a  good  day's  wages  for 
a  laborer. 

The  Hebrew  maneh,  according  to  1  Kings 
x.  17,  compared  with  2  Chron.  ix.  16,  contained 
100  shekels;  though  according  to  one  inter- 
pretation of  Ezek.  xlv.  12,  it  contained  60, 
but  more  probably  50.  The  passage  reads 
thus: — "Twenty  shekels,  five  and  twenty 
shekels  fifteen  shekels  shall  be  your  maneh." 
This  is  variously  interpreted,  (1)  20  +  25+15 


DAY  (Ancient). 
Morning  till  about  10  a.m. 
Heat  of  day  till  about  2  p.m. 
Cool  of  day  till  about  6  p.m. 

DAY  (New  Testament). 
Third  hour       =   6  to   9  a.m. 
Sixth  hour        =  9  to  12  midday. 
Ninth  hour       =12  to    3pm. 
Twelfth  hour  =   3  to    6  p.m. 

MONEY. 
the  American  dollar  being  taken  as  equal  to  4s.  Id. 

English.  American. 

£        s.        d.         Dols.     Cents. 
0 
1 


1.36  = 


23) 


3.37  = 
0.75  = 
9  = 
6  = 
0 


0 
0 
0 

27 

1,642 
8 
^26,280 


2.73 
27.37 
54.74 
37.50 
50 
76 

0 


...  =  0 

....  =  0 

....  =  0 

=  5 

=  342 

=  1 

=-5,475 

=  60.  (2)  20,  25,  15  are  different  coins  in  gold, 
silver,  and  copper,  bearing  the  same  name. 
It  is  well  to  remark  the  meaning  of  these 
names:  Shekel  =  simply  weight:  Bekah  = 
split,  i.e.,  the  shekel  divided  into  two:  Gerah 

=  a  grain,  as  in  our  weights,  a  grain  and  a 
barley-corn,  the  original  standard  weight: 
Maneh  =  appointed,  equivalent  to  sterling,  a 
specific  sum:  Kikkar  =  a  round  mass  of  metal, 
i.e.,  a  weight  or  coin.  Hebrew  names  of 
weights  and  coins  are  not  found  in  the  New 
Testament:  mna  in  Luke  xix.  13  is  Greek, 
though  possibly  identical  with  the  Hebrew 
maneh. 


ROMAN   MONEY. 

Roman.  English. 

d. 

A  "farthing,"  quadrans  (Matt.  v.  26)  =  nearly 0.125 

A  "farthing,"  as  =  4  quadrantes  (Matt.  x.  29)  =  nearly 0.5 

A  "penny,"  denarius  =  \6  asses  (Matt.  xxii.  19)  =  nearly.  , 8.50 

[The  Roman  sestertius  =  2£  asses,  is  not  named  in  the  Bible.] 


American. 
Cents. 
0.25 
1 

17 


N.B. — Here  we  learn  that — 

NAAMAN'S  offering  to  Elisha  of  6,000  pieces 
(shekels)  of  gold  amounted  to  more  than 
£10,000  =  48,000  dollars. 

The  DEBTOR  (Matt,  xviii.  24)  who  had  been 
forgiven  10,000  talents,  i.e.,  £3,000,000  =  14,- 
400,000  dollars,  refused  to  forgive  his  fel- 


low-servant  100    pence,   i.e.,  £3  10s.  10d  =  17 
dollars. 

JUDAS  sold  our  Lord  for  30  pieces  of  silver, 
i.e.,  £3  10s.  Sd.  =  16  dollars  96  cents,  the  legal 
value  of  a  slave,  if  he  were  killed  by  a  beast. 

JOSEPH  was  sold  by  his  brethren  for  20 
pieces,  i.e.  £2  Is.  =  11  dollars  28  cents. 

— Oxford  University  Bible. 


476 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


TIME  AND    WATCH    ON   BOARD   SHIP. 


WATCH. — For  purposes  of  discipline,  and 
to  divide  the  work  fairly,  the  crew  is  mus- 
tered in  two  divisions:  the  Starboard  (right 
side,  looking  forward)  and  the  Port  (left). 
The  day  commences  at  noon,  and  is  thus 
divided: — 


Afternoon  Watch 

First  Dog 

Second  Dog 

First 

Middle 

Morning 

Forenoon 


noon  to  4  p.m. 
4  p.m.  to  6  p.m. 
6  p.m.  to  8  p.m. 
8  p.m.  to  midnight. 
12  p.m.  to  4  a.m. 
4  a.m.  to  8  a.m. 
8  a.m.  to  noon. 


This  makes  seven  WATCHES,  which  enables 
the  crew  to  keep  them  alternately,  as  the 
Watch  which  is  on  duty  in  the  forenoon  one 
day  has  the  afternoon  next  day,  and  the  men 
who  have  only  four  hours'  rest  one  night  have 
eight  hours  the  next.  This  is  the  reason  for 
haying  Dog  Watches,  which  are  made  by  di- 
viding the  hours  between  4  p.m.  and  8  p.m. 
into  two  Watches. 

TIME. — Time  is  kept  by  means  of  "Bells," 
although  there  is  but  one  bell  on  the  ship,  and 
to  strike  the  clapper  properly  against  the 
bell  requires  some  skill. 


First,  two  strokes  of  the  clapper  at  the  in- 
terval of  a  second,  then  an  interval  of  two 
seconds;  then  two  more  strokes  with  a  sec- 
ond's interval  apart,  then  a  rest  of  two  sec- 
onds, thus: — 

BELL,  ONE  SECOND;    B.,  TWO  SECS. ;    B.  s. ; 
B.  ss;B.  s.;  B.  ss.;  B. 

1  Bell  is  struck  at  12.30,  and  again  at  4.30, 
6.30,  8.30  p.m.;   12.30,  4.30,  and  8.30  a.m. 

2  Bells  at  i  (struck  with  an  interval  of  a 
second  between  each — B.   s,    B.),   the  same 
again  at  5,  7,  and  9  p.m.;   i,  5,  and  9  a.m. 

3  Bells  at  1.30  (B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.),  5.30,  7.30, 
and  9.30  p.m.;   1.30,  5.30,  and  9.30  a.m. 

4  Bells  at  2  (B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B.),  6  and  10 
p.m.;  2,  6,  and  10  a.m. 

5  Bells  at  2.30  (B.  s,  B   ss,  B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.) 
and  10.30  p.m.;  2.30,  6.30,  and  10.30  a.m. 

6  Bells  at  3  (B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B.) 
and  ii  p.m.;  3,  7,  and  n  a.m. 

7  Bells  at  3.30  (B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s, 
B.  ss,  B.)  and   11.30  p.m.;    3.30,  7.30,  and 
11.30  a.m. 

8  Bells  (B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s.  B.  ss, 
B.  s,  B.)  every  4  hours,  at  noon,  at  4  p.m., 
8  p.m.,  midnight,  4  a.m.,  and  8  a.m. 

— Whittaker's  Almanac. 


STONES:    SPECIFIC  GRAVITY,  WEIGHT  AND  VOLUME. 


STONES. 

Specific. 
Gravity. 

Weight  of 
one  Cubic 
Foot. 

Cubic 
Feet  per 
Ton. 

Alabaster,  calcareous  
gypseous  
Barytes  

Water  =  1. 
2.76 
2.31 
4.45 

Pounds. 
172.1 
144.0 

277.5 

Cubic  Ft. 
13.0 
15.6 

8.07 

Basalt.  
Chalk,  air-dried.  . 

2.45-3.00 

2  78 

152.8-187.1 
155 

14.7-12.0 
14  5 

Diamond  
Flint. 

3.50 
2.59 

164 

is  7 

Felspar  
Gneiss  
Granite  .  . 

2.60 
2.69 
2  50-2  74 

162.1 
168 
156-171 

13.8 
13.3 
14  4-13  1 

Graphite  
Jasper.  .  .  . 

2.20 
2.72 

137.2 
169  7 

16.3 
13  2 

Limestone  
Marble: 
African.  .  . 

1.86-2.53 
2  80 

116-158 
174  6 

19.3-14.2 
12  8 

British 

2  71 

169  0 

13  3 

Carrara  
Egyptian  green  
Florentine.  .  .  .  
French.  .  . 

2.72 
2.67 
2.52 
2  65 

169.6 
166.5 
157.1 
165  2 

13.2 
13.5 
14.3 
13  6 

Mica  

2.93 

183 

12.2 

Oolitic  stones  

1.89-2  60 

118-162 

19  0-13.8 

Ores: 
Spicular  or  red  iron  ore  
Magnetic  iron  ore. 

5.21 
5  09 

327.4 
317  6 

6.84 
7  05 

3  92 

244  6 

9  16 

Spathic  iron  ore  
Quartz      .  . 

3.83 
2  61-2  71 

238.8 
162  8-169 

9.38 
13  8-13  3 

Sandstone  
Serpentine  
Slate 

2.04-2.70 
2.81 
2  60-2  85 

127-168 
175.2 
162  1-177  7 

17.6-13.3 
12.8 
13  8-12  6 

Talc,  steatite.  .  . 

2.70 

168,4 

13.3 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


477 


MINERAL  SUBSTANCES,  VARIOUS:  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY,  WEIGHT,  AND  VOLUME. 


Sl'BSTANCES. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Weight  of 
One  Cubic 
Foot. 

Cubic 
Feet  per 
Ton 

Alum  
Ballast  (brick  rubbish  and  gravel)  
Brick 

Water  =  1. 
1.72 
1.80 
1.90-2.40 

Pounds. 
107.2 
112 
124.7-135  3 

Cubic  Ft. 
20.9 
20.0 
18  1-16  0 

Brickwork  

1.76-1.84 
.99 

110 
61.7 

20.4-18 
36  3 

Clay  
Coal: 
Anthracite  

1.92 
1.37-1.59 

119.7 
85.4-99.1 

18.7 
26.2-22.6 

Bituminous  ,  .  .  .  :  
Earth   argillaceous* 

1.20-1.31 

74.8-81.7 
93-137 

30-28.1 
16-24 

Dry,  loose  
Dry,  shaken  
Moist,  loose  
Packed  
Glass: 
Flint  
Green  

1.15-1.29 
1.32-1.48 
1.06-1.22 
1.44-1.60 

2.90 
2.70 

72-80 
82-92 
66-76 
90-100 

187.0 
168.4 

31.1-28 
27.3-24.3 
34.0-29.5 
24.8-22.4 

12.0 
13  3 

Plate  
Thick  flooring  
Crown  
Gunpowder,  heaped  
Ice,  melting  
Marl  
Masonry: 
Ashlar  granite  
Limestone,  hard  
semi-hard  
soft  r.... 
'  '      Sandstone  

2.70 
2.53 
2.50 
1.75-1.84 
.922 
1.60-1.90 

2.37 
2.70 
2.42 
2.34 
2  61 

168.4 
158.0 
155.9 
109.1-114.7 
57.5 
99.8-118.5 

147.5 
168.5 
151.9 
145.6 
162  5 

13.3 
14.2 
144 
20.5-19.5 
39 
22.4-18.9 

15.2 
11.4 
14.8 
15.4 
13  2 

Rubble,  dry  
mortar.  .  .  . 

2.21 
2  47 

138 
154 

16.2 
14  6 

Mortar,  hardened  
Mud: 
Dry,  close  

1.65 
1.28-1  93 

103 

80-110 

21.7 
28  0-20  4 

Wet,  moderately  pressed.  . 

1  93-2  09 

110-130 

20  4-17  2 

Wet,  fluid. 

1  67-1  92 

104  120 

21  5—18  7 

Phosphorus.  .  . 

1  77 

110  4 

20  3 

Plaster  
Portland  cement.  .  . 

1.87-2.47 
1  25  1  51 

98 
78  94 

22.9 
28  7  23  8 

Potash  .     . 

2  10 

131 

17  1 

Sand.  . 

1  44-1  87 

90-117 

24  9  19  1 

1  '    saturated  with  water  
Salt,  common  
4     rock.  .  .  . 

1.89-2.07 
.1.92 
2  10-2  26 

118-129 
119.7 
131   140  7 

19-17.4 
18.7 
17  1   15  9 

Sulphur.  .  . 

2  00 

124  7 

18  0 

Tiles  

2  00 

124  7 

18  0 

478 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


FUELS,  ETC.:    SPECIFIC   GRAVITY,  WEIGHT,  AND  BULK. 


FUELS. 

Specific 

Weight 
Cubic 

of  One 
Foot. 

Volume  of 
One  Ton, 

Solid. 

Heaped. 

Heaped. 

COALS. 
Anthracite,  American   .  .  . 

Water  =  1. 
1.30-1.84 

Lbs. 
93  5 

Lbs. 
54  0 

Cub.  Ft. 

Bituminous  coal,  American  
COKE. 
Coke,  generally  
American    .                     .                 . 

127 

84.0 
40-50 

50.0 

30.0 
32.1 

70-80 
69  8 

Graphite  . 

2.33 

145  3 

LIGNITE  AND  ASPHALT. 
Perfect  lignite 

1.29 

Imperfect  lignite  
Bituminous  lignite  

1.15 
1.18 
1.06 

WOOD  CHARCOAL. 
^4s  made,  heaped. 
Oak  and  beech  

Heaped. 
.24-.  25 

15-15.6 

Birch. 

.22-.2S 

13.7-14.3 

Pine  

.20-.21 

12.5-13.1 

Average  
Gunpowder,  loose  .    . 

.225 
.90 

14 

shaken  
"           solid  

1.00 
1.55-1.  80 

WOODS:     SPECIFIC    GRAVITY   AND   WEIGHT. 


WOOD. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Weight  of 
One  Cubic 
Foot. 

Ash                                                           .                                       v 

Water  =  1. 
.84 
.70 
.79 
.31-.40 
.7S-.85 
.82 
.66 
.T2-.74 
1.04 
.49-.S7 
.24 
.66 
1.13 
.076 
.55-.  67 
.76 
.72 
.74 
.48-.  70 
.50-.64 
.53 
.49 
.46 
.66 
.65-1.33 
.56-1.06 
.56-1.06 
.6S-.73 
.67 
.89 
.87 
.39 
.32-.  51 
.48 
.80 
.59 
.58 
.49 

Pounds. 
52.4 
43.7 
45.5 
19.5-24.9 
46.8-50.3 
51.1 
41.2 
44.9-46.1 
64.8 
30.6-35.5 
15.0 
41.2 
70.5 
4.74 
34.3 
47.5 
44.9 
46.1 
29.9-43.7 
31.2-39.9 
34.3 
30.6 
28.7 
41.2 
40.5-82.9 
34.9 
34.9 
40.5 
41.8 
55.5 
54.2 
24.3 
20.0-31.8 
29.9 
50.0 
36.8 
42.4 
30.6 

'  '  with  20  per  cent,  moisture  

Apple  tree.  .  . 

Bamboo  
Beech.  . 

1     with  20  per  cent,  moisture  
'     cut  one  year  

Birch  . 

Boxwood  
Cfdar  of  Lebanon.  .  .  . 

Cork  
Cypress,  cut  one  year.  . 

Ebony.  
Elder  pith  

Elm      . 

'  *  with  20  per  cent,  moisture.  .  .                                                  .        . 

Fir   Norway  Pine. 

'   Larch.                                              . 

'   White  Pine,  Scotch  
with  20  per  cent,  moisture  
'   Yellow  Pine,  American    . 

'        "          "      English.  
Lignum-  Vitse  

Mahogany,  Cuba  .  . 

4  '          Honduras  
Maple  
20  per  cent,  moisture  
Mulberry  
Oak,  American.  .  . 

Poplar 

"      White  
'  '      20  per  cent,  moisture  
Rock-Elm 

Sycamore 

Walnut  
Willow.  .  . 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


ANIMAL   SUBSTANCES:     SPECIFIC   GRAVITY   AND   WEIGHT.     (Claudel.) 


SUBSTANCE. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Weight  of 
One  Cu.  Ft. 

Pearls  
Coral  .                  

Water  =  1. 

2.72 
2.69 

Pounds. 
169.6 
167.7 

Ivory.  . 

1  82-1  92 

114-119  7 

Bone  
Wool.  .  .  . 

1.80-2.00 
1  61 

112.2-124.7 
100  4 

Tendon  
Cartilage  
Human  Bodv. 

1.12 
1.09 
1  07 

69.8 
68.0 

66  7 

Nerve  
Beeswax 

1.04 
96 

64.9 
59  9 

Lard  
Spermaceti  
White  of  Whalebone  
Butter  

.95 
.94 
.94 
.94 

59.3 

58.8 
58.7 
58  7 

Pork  Fat  

94 

58  7 

Tallow  
Beef  Fat. 

.92 
92 

57.5 
57  5 

Mutton  Fat.  . 

92 

57  4 

VEGETABLE    SUBSTANCES:— 
Cotton  

1  95 

121  6 

Flax.  ... 

1  79 

111  6 

Starch.  .  ,  
Sugar.  .     .              .... 

1.53 
1   1  005 

95.4 

Gutta-percha   . 

97 

60  5 

India-rubber  

Grain: 
Wheat,  California 

.93 
Weight  of 
One  Cu.  Ft., 
loosely 
filled. 
49 

58.0 
Weight  of 
OneCu.  Ft., 
closely 
filled. 
53 

Peas  
Indian  Corn  

50 

43* 

54 
47 

LIQUIDS:     SPECIFIC    GRAVITY   AND    WEIGHT. 


LIQUIDS  AT  32°  F. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Weight  of 
One  Cubic 
Foot. 

Weight 
of  One 
Gallon. 

Mercury.  . 

Water  =1. 
13  596 

Pounds. 

848  7 

Pounds. 

IOC    A 

Sulphuric  Acid,  maximum  concentration 

1  84 

114  9 

18  4 

Nitrous  Acid.  . 

1  55 

96  8 

ICC 

Chloroform  
Nitric  acid,  of  commerce.  .  . 

1.53 

1  22 

95.5 

76  2 

15.3 

10  9 

Acetic  acid,  maximum  concentration.  . 
Milk  

1.08 
1  03 

67.4 
64  3 

10.8 
10  3 

Sea  Water,  ordinary  
Pure  Water,  at  39°  F  
Wine,  Red  '....'.'.'.'. 
Oil,  Linseed.  .  .  . 

1.026 
1.000 
.99 
94 

64.05 
62.425 
62.0 

58  7 

10.3 
10.0112 
9.9 

9    A 

"    Rapeseed.  . 

.92 

57  4 

9  2 

"    Whale.  .    . 

92 

57  4 

q  o 

"    Olive  
"   Turpentine  
Tar  
Petroleum.  .  .  . 

.915 
.87 
1.00 

88 

57.1 
54.3 
62.4 
54  9 

9.15 
8.7 

10.0      _ 

O^^ 

Naphtha  

85 

53  1 

0    C 

Ether,  Nitric. 

1  11 

69  3 

nl 

Sulphurous  *. 

1  08 

67  4 

10  8 

Nitrous  

89 

55  6 

o  q 

Acetic.  

.89 

55  6 

8  9 

Hydrochloric  

.87 

54  3 

8  7 

Sulphuric.  .  . 

74 

44  9 

7  2 

Alcohol,  proof  spirit  .  . 

92 

57  4 

q  o 

'  '        pure  

.79 

49  3 

7  9 

Benzine  

85 

53  1 

o  c 

Proof  Spirit.  .  . 

.80 

49.9 

s.n 

480 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


GASES  AND  VAPORS:     SPECIFIC  GRAVITY,  WEIGHT,  AND  VOLUME. 


GASES  at  32°  F.,  and  under  one 
Atmosphere  of  Pressure. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Weight  of  One 
Cubic  Foot. 

Volume  of 
One  Pound 
Weight. 

Mercury. 

Air—  1. 

6  9740 

Pounds.          Ounces. 
563                  9  008 

Cub.  Ft. 

Chloroform  

5  3000 

428                   6  846 

2  ^37 

Turpentine.  .  .    . 

4  6978 

378                  6  042 

o  £07 

Acetic  Ether. 

3  0400 

24*5                   3  Q97 

Benzine  

2  6943 

217                  3  480 

4  ^QK 

Sulphuric  Ether.  .  . 

2  5860 

20Q                   ^  34.0 

Chlorine  
Sulphurous  Acid.  .  .  . 

2.4400 
2  2470 

.197                  3.152 
1814                2  902 

5.077 

C     C1  0 

Alcohol  
Carbonic  Acid 

1.6130 
1  5290 

.1302                2.083 
12344                 975 

7.679 

8101 

Oxygen.  . 

1  1056 

089253                428 

Air 

1  0000 

OS0798                ^Qlfi11* 

Nitrogen.  
Carbonic  Oxide 

.9701 
9674 

.078596              .258 
0781                       9^0 

12.723 

Olefiant  Gas.  . 

9847 

0795                   27^ 

1  o  con 

Ammoniacal  Gas  
Light  Carbureted  Hydrogen  .  .  . 
Coal  Gas  
Hydrogen  

.5894 
.5527 
.4381 
.0692 

.04758              7.613 
.04462                .7139 
.03536                .5658 
.005592              .0895 

21.017 
22.412 

28.279 
178.83 

WEIGHT   AND    VOLUME   OF   BODIES. 
(Tod.) 


BODIES. 

Weight  of  One 
Cubic  Foot. 

Weight  of 
One  Cubic 
Inch. 

Cubic 
Inches 
in  One 
Pound. 

METALS. 

Antimony,  cast  

Oz. 

6,702 
7,190 
7,207 
7,291 
7,299 
7,471 
7,788 
7,811 
7,816 
7.833 
7,965 
8,279 
8,395 
8,544 
8,666 
8,784 
8,788 
8,878 
8,915 
9,822 
10,510 
10,534 
10,744 
11,000 
11,352 
11,800 
13,568 
14,000 
15,709 
17,647 
19,258 
19,316 
19,500 
20,336 
21,041 
22,069 
23,000 

Lb. 

418.8750 
449.3750 
450.4375 
455.6875 
456.1875 
466.9375 
486.7500 
488.1875 
488.5000 
489.5625 
497.8125 
517.4375 
524.6875 
534.0000 
541.6250 
549.0000 
549.2500 
554.8750 
557.1875 
613.8750 
656.8750 
658.3750 
671.5000 
687.5000 
709.5000 
737.5000 
848.0000 
875.0000 
981.8125 
1,102.9375 
,203.6250 
,210.0625 
,218.7500 
,271.0000 
,315.0625 
,379,3125 
,437.5000 

Oz. 

3.8748 
4.1608 
4.1707 
4.2193 
4.2239 
4.3234 
4.5069 
4.5202 
4.5231 
4.5329 
4.6093 
4.7910 
4.8582 
4.9444 
5.0150 
5.0833 
5.0856 
5.1377 
5.1591 
5.6840 
6.0821 
6.0960 
6.2175 
6.3657 
6.3694 
6.8287 
7.8518 
8.1018 
9.0908 
10.2123 
11.1446 
11.2042 
11.2847 
11.7685 
12.1765 
12.7714 
13.3101 

Cub.  In. 

3.8866 
3.8431 
3.8364 
3.7920 
3.7878 
3.7007 
3.5500 
3.5396 
3.5373 
3.5296 
3.4792 
3.3395 
3.2933 
3.2359 
3.1903 
3.1476 
3.1461 
3.1140 
3.0959 
2.8149 
2.6306 
2.6246 
2.5733 
2.5134 
2.4355 
2.5134 
2.0377 
.9748 
.7600 
.6124 
.4356 
.4280 
.4178 
.3595 
.3140 
.2528 
.2021 

Iron,  cast  .  . 

Tin,  cast  
'    hardened. 

Pewter  

Iron,  bar  .  . 

Cobalt,  cast  
Steel,  hard.  .  .  . 

4     soft  meteoric  
Iron,  hammered  
Nickel,  cast  
Brass,  cast  
wire  
Nickel,  hammered  
Gun-metal.  .  .    . 

Copper,  cast  
wire  
'  '       coin.  .  .  . 

Bismuth,  cast  
Silver,  hammered  
coin  
pure,  cast  
Rhodium.  . 

Lead,  cast  
Palladium.  ... 

Mercury  (quicksilver)  common  
pure  
Gold,  trinket  

4  '     coin  

4  '     pure,  cast   ... 

'     hammered  
Platinum,  pure  
hammered  
wire  
laminated.  .  .  . 

Iridium,  hammered  

—Clark's  Mechanical  Engineer's  Pocket  Book. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


481 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITY. 

Tables  showing  a  comparison  of  the  degrees  of  Baumi',  Cartier,  and  Beck's  Areometers,  with 
specific  gravity  degrees. 


For  Liquids  Lighter  than  Water. 

For  Liquids  Heavier  than  Water. 

Degrees  of 

r*                      -* 

RonV 

Degrees  of 

Baume. 

Beck. 

Baume, 
Cartier, 

Ba,umc. 

C/flrtiGr. 

jjecK. 

Beck!' 

Sp.  Gr. 

Sp.  Gr. 

Beck. 

Sp.  Gr. 

Sp.  Gr. 

Sp.  Gr. 

0 

1.000 

1.0000 

1 

007 

fifiXQ 

0 

1.0000 

i 

2 

.  \}\)i 
.014 

.  uuoy 
.0119 

1 

0.9941 

3 

.020 

.0180 

2 

0.9883 

4 

.028 

.0241 

3 

0.9826 

5 

.034 

.0303 

4 

0  9770 

6 

.041 

.0366 

5 

0.9714 

7 

.049 

.0429 

6 

0.9659 

8 

.057 

.0494 

7 

0  9604 

9 

.064 

0559 

8 

0.9550 

10 

.072 

.0625 

9 

0  9497 

11 

.080 

0692 

10 

1.000 

0.9444 

12 

088 

.0759 

11 

0.993 

i  '.  666  " 

0.9392 

13 

.096 

.0828 

12 

0.986 

0  992 

0.9340 

14 

.104 

.0897 

13 

0.979 

0  985 

0.9289 

15 

.113 

.0968 

14 

0.973 

0.977 

0.9239 

16 

.121 

.1039 

15 

0.967 

0.969 

0.9189 

17 

130 

.1111 

16 

0.960 

0.962 

0.9139 

18 

.138 

.1184 

17 

0.954 

0.955 

0.9090 

19 

.147 

.1258 

18 

0.948 

0.948 

0.9042 

20 

.157 

1333 

19 

0.942 

0.941 

0.8994 

21 

.166 

.1409 

20 

0.935 

0.934 

0.8947 

22 

.176 

.1486 

21 

0.929 

0.927 

0.8900 

23 

.185 

.1565 

22 

0.924 

0.920 

0.8854 

24 

.195 

.1644 

23 

0.918 

0.914 

0.8808 

25 

.205 

.1724 

24 

0.912 

0.908 

0.8762 

26 

.215 

.1806 

25 

0.906 

0.901 

0.8717 

27 

.225 

.1888 

26 

0.901 

0.895 

0.8673 

28 

.235 

.1972 

27 

0.895 

0.889 

0.8629 

29 

.245 

.2057 

28 

0.889 

0.883 

0.8585 

30 

.256 

.2143 

29 

0.884 

0.877 

0.8542 

31 

.267 

.2230 

30 

0.879 

0.871 

0.8500 

32 

.278 

.2319 

31 

0.873 

0.865 

0.8457 

33 

.289 

.2409 

32 

0.868 

0.859 

0.8415 

34 

.300 

.2500 

33 

0.863 

0.853 

0.8374 

35 

.312 

.2593 

34 

0.858 

0.848 

0.8333 

36 

.324 

.2680 

35 

0.853 

0.842 

0.8292 

37 

.337 

.2782 

36 

0.848 

0.837 

0.8252 

38 

•     .349 

.2879 

37 

0.843 

0.831 

0.8212 

39 

.361 

.2977 

38 

0.838 

0.826 

0.8173 

40 

.375 

.3077 

39 

0.833 

0.820 

0.8133 

41 

.388 

.3178 

40 

0.829 

0.815 

0.8095 

42 

.401 

.3281 

41 

0.824 

0.810 

0  .  8061 

43 

.414 

.3386 

42 

0.819 

0.805 

0.8018 

44 

.428 

.3492 

43 

0.815 

0.800 

0.7981 

45 

.442 

.3600 

44 

0.810 

0  7944 

46 

456 

.3710 

45 

0.806 

0.7907 

47 

.470 

.3821 

46 

0.801 

0  7871 

48 

.485 

3934 

47 

0.797 

0.7834 

49 

.500 

.4050 

48 

0.792 

0.7799 

50 

.515 

.4167 

49 

0.788 

0  7763 

51 

531 

4286 

50 

0.784 

0.7727 

52 

.546 

.4407 

51 

0.781 

0.7692 

53 

.562 

.4530 

52 

0.776 

0  7658 

54 

578 

4655 

53 

0.771 

0.7623 

55 

.596 

.4783 

54 

0.769 

0.7589 

56 

.615 

.4912 

55 

0.763 

0  7556 

57 

634 

5044 

56 

0.759 

0.7522 

58 

.653 

.5179 

57 

0.755 

0.7489 

59 

.671 

.5315 

58 

0.751 

0.7456 

60 

.690 

.5454 

59 

0.748 

0.7423 

61 

.709 

.5596 

60 

0.744 

0.7391 

62 

.729 

.5741 

61 

0.740 

0.7359 

63 

.750 

.5888 

62 

0.736 



0.7328 

64 

.771 

.6038 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


UNITS    OF    LOG   MEASURE. 

In  the  United  States  and  Canada  logs  are 
most  commonly  measured  in  board  feet. 
Firewood  and  wood  cut  into  short  bolts,  such 
as  small  pulpwood,  excelsior  wood,  etc.,  are 
usually  measured  in  cords.  In  the  Adiron- 
dack Mountains  the  19-inch  standard,  or,  as 
it  is  often  called,  "the  market,"  is  a  common 
unit  of  log  measure.  In  some  localities  a  log 
22  inches  in  diameter  at  the  small  end  and  13 
feet  long  is  used  as  a  standard  log  and  is  the 
unit  for  buying  and  selling  timber.  In  other 
sections  standards  are  used  which  are  based 
on  logs  12  feet  long  and  respectively  21,  22,  and 
24  inches  in  diameter  at  the  small  end  inside 
the  bark. 

In  some  cases  logs  are  measured  in  cubic 
feet.  This  is  common  with  long  spar  tim- 
ber and  with  long  logs  to  be  cut  or  hewn 
square.  In  many  localities  timber  is  sold  by 
the  log  or  tree,  and  in  some  sections  standing 
timber  is  sold  for  a  specified  amount  per  acre 
or  other  unit  of  land  measure.  Piles  and 
mine  props  are  usually  sold  by  the  piece  or  by 
the  linear  foot.  Logs  are  occasionally  sold 
by  the  ton. 

BOARD  MEASURE. 

The  unit  of  board  measure  is  the  board 
foot,  which  is  the  contents  of  a  board  1  foot 
square  and  1  inch  thick.  The  number  of 
board  feet  which  can  be  sawed  from  logs  of 
different  diameters  and  lengths  is  shown  in 
log  rules. 

Logs  are  usually  measured  at  the  small 
end  inside  the  bark,  because  the  removal  of 
the  slabs  reduces  the  logs  to  the  dimensions 
of  the  small  end.  This  is  the  custom  in 
measuring  short  logs  by  all  the  rules  which 
are  used,  except  in  certain  cases.  Some  of  the 
rules,  for  example  the  Doyle  and  the  Par- 
tridge rules,  were  intended  by  their  origina- 
tors to  be  used  for  an  average  diameter,  but 
most  persons  who  use  them  take  the  diameter 
at  the  small  end,  except  in  case  of  long  tim- 
ber. In  measuring  long  logs  which  are  to  be 
cut  into  short  logs  before  being  sawed  into 
boards,  the  diameter  is  usually  not  taken  at 
the  small  end  alone.  Thus  in  using  the 
Maine  Rule,  long  logs  are  sealed  as  two  logs. 
The  diameter  at  the  small  end  inside  the  bark 
is  measured  and  is  taken  as  the  diameter  of 
the  uppermost  log.  The  diameter  at  the 
small  end  of  the  lower  log  is  estimated  by 
the  log-sealer.  Another  method  of  measur- 
ing long  logs,  often  used  with  the  Doyle  Rule, 
is  to  take  the  diameters  at  both  ends  inside 
the  bark,  average  them,  and  use  this  average 
as  the  diameter  of  the  log.  Still  another 
method  in  use  is  to  take  the  diameter  inside 
the  bark,  one-third  the  distance  from  the 
small  end  of  the  log. 

Logs  are  usually  cut  from  2  to  6  inches 
longer  than  the  standard  lengths  of  boards, 
to  allow  for  bruising  in  handling.  This  addi- 
tional length  is  disregarded  in  scalTng. 

Log  rules  give  the  number  of  board  feet  in 
logs  which  are  straight  and  sound.  If  logs 
are  unsound  or  otherwise  defective,  a  certain 
allowance  must  be  made  by  the  sealer.  The 
determination  of  the  amount  in  board  feet 
which  should  be  deducted  for  unsoundness  or 
defects  in  a  given  log  requires  great  skill  on 
the  part  of  the  sealer,  and,  as  it  is  a  matter  of 
judgment  in  each  case,  no  definite  directions 
can  be  given. 


CORD  MEASURE. 

Firewood,  small  pulpwood,  and  material 
cut  into  short  sticks  for  excelsior,  etc.,  is  usu- 
ally measured  by  the  cord.  A  cord  is  128 
cubic  feet  of  stacked  wood.  The  wood  is 
usually  cut  into  4-foot  lengths,  in  which  case 
a  cord  is  a  stack  4  feet  high  and  8  feet  long. 
Sometimes,  however,  pulpwood  is  cut  5  feet 
long,  and  a  stack  of  it  4  feet  high  and  8  feet 
long  is  considered  1  cord.  In  this  case  the 
cord  contains  160  cubic  feet  of  stacked  wood. 
In  localities  where  firewood  is  cut  in  5-foot 
lengths  a  cord  makes  a  stack  4  feet  high  and 
6£  feet  long,  and  contains  130  cubic  feet  of 
stacked  wood.  Where  it  is  desirable  to  use 
shorter  lengths  for  special  purposes,  the 
sticks  are  often  cut  H,  2,  and  even  3  feet  long. 
A  stack  of  such  wood,  4  feet  high  and  8  feet 
long,  is  considered  1  cord,  but  the  price  is 
always  made  to  conform  to  the  shortness  of 
the  measure. 

A  cord  foot  is  one-eighth  of  a  cord.  A  cord 
foot  is  a  stack  of  4-foot  wood  4  feet  high  and 
1  foot  long.  Farmers  frequently  speak  of  a 
foot  of  cord  wood,  meaning  a  cord  foot.  By 
the  expression  "surface  foot"  is  meant  the 
number  of  square  feet  measured  on  the  side 
of  a  stack. 

In  some  localities,  particularly  in  New 
England,  cord  wood  is  measured  by  means  of 
calipers.  Instead  of  stacking  the  wood  and 
computing  the  cords  in  the  ordinary  way,  the 
average  diameter  of  each  log  is  determined 
with  calipers  and  the  number  of  cords  ob- 
tained by  consulting  a  table  which  gives  the 
amount  of  wood  in  logs  of  different  diameters 
and  lengths,  expressed  in  so-called  cylindrical 
feet.  A  cylindrical  foot  is  one  one-hundred 
and  twenty-eighth  of  a  cord.  A  better  term 
would  be  "stacked  cubic  foot,"  as  it  repre- 
sents a  cubic  foot  of  stacked  wood,  as  opposed 
to  a  cubic  foot  of  solid  wood.  The  number  of 
cylindrical  or  stacked  cubic  feet  in  a  log  is 
computed  by  squaring  the  average  diameter 
of  the  log  in  inches,  multiplying  by  the  length 
of  the  log  in  feet,  and  dividing  the  result  by 
144. 

Some  tables  give  the  results  in  feet  and 
inches  (cylindrical  or  stacked  cubic,  not 
linear  feet). 

A  special  caliper  rule  for  measuring  cord 
wood  has  been  made  by  Mr.  John  Humphrey, 
of  Keene,  N.  H.  Instead  of  considering  a 
cylindrical  or  stacked  cubic  foot  equivalent  to 
one  one-hundred  and  twenty-eighth  of  a  cord, 
he  has  assumed  it  to  be  equivalent  to  one  one- 
hundredth  of  a  cord.  In  either  case  the 
cylindrical  or  stacked  cubic  foot  is  a  purely 
arbitrary  unit  arid  the  final  results  in  cords  are 
the  same. 

The  number  of  cylindrical  or  stacked 
cubic  feet  in  the  different  logs  is  determined 
by  means  of  calipers  and  reference  to  a 
table,  or  by  means  of  the  calipers  alone  if  the 
results  are  inscribed  directly  upon  them. 
The  total  number  of  cylindrical  or  stacked 
cubic  feet  is  then  divided  by  128. 

CONVERSION  OF  CORD  MEASURE 
INTO  CUBIC  MEASURE. 

Dealers  in  wood  frequently  wish  to  convert 
cord  measure  into  cubic  measure,  and  vice 
versa.  The  converting  factor  used  depends 
primarily  on  the  form  of  the  wood.  If  the 
wood  is  split,  there  is  more  solid  contents 
in  a  stacked  wrd  than  if  the  wood  is  in 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


483 


round  sticks.  There  is  more  wood  in  a 
given  stack  if  the  sticks  are  smooth  and 
straight  than  if  they  are  rough  and  crooked. 
The  converting  factor  depends,  further,  on 
the  character  of  the  stacking.  If  the  wood  is 
skillfully  stacked  there  is  more  solid  contents 
than  when  the  work  is  poorly  done.  It  has 
been  found  in  Europe  through  a  series  of  care- 
ful measurements  that  a  stack  of  wood  may 
be  reduced  to  solid  cubic  measure  by  multi- 
plying the  number  of  cubic  feet  by  the  follow- 
ing factors: 


For  split  firewood 

For  small  round  firewood 


0.7 

6 


Thus,  a  cord  of  split  firewood  is  equivalent 
to  128  cubic  feet  multiplied  by  0.7,  which 
equals  89.6  cubic  feet.  To  convert  a  given 
number  of  cords  into  solid  cubic  feet,  multi- 
ply by  128  and  then  multiply  the  product  by 
0.7  or  0.6,  according  as  the  wood  is  split  or 
consists  of  small  round  sticks;  or  multiply 
directly  by  89.6. 

To  convert  a  given  number  of  solid  cubic 
feet  into  cords,  divide  by  128  and  then  divide 
the  result  by  0.7  or  0.6,  according  to  the  form 
of  the  wood;  or  divide  directly  by  89.6.  If 
the  stacking  is  very  poor  or  if  the  wood  is 
rough  and  crooked,  the  figures  must  be  modi- 

No  rule  can  be  given  for  converting  cord 
measure  into  board  measure.  Lumbermen 
assign  to  a  cord  of  wood  values  varying  from 
500  to  1,000  board  feet.  So  much  depends 
upon  the  quality  of  the  wood,  the  purpose  for 
which  it  is  to  be  used,  the  method  of  piling, 
etc.,  that  no  constant  converting  factor  can  be 
given. 

Bark  is  piled  in  stacks  and  measured  in  the 
same  way  as  firewood. 

CONVERSION  OF  CUBIC  MEASURE 
INTO  BOARD  MEASURE. 

The  ratio  between  the  number  of  board  feet 
and  cubic  feet  in  logs  depends  on  the  species 
of  tree,  on  the  size  of  the  logs,  and  on  the 
method  of  scaling.  The  ratio  for  standing 
trees  depends,  further,  on  the  minimum  size 
of  the  merchantable  log.  For  example,  the 
ratio  would  be  different,  if  4  logs  were  cut 
from  a  tree,  from  the  result  if  only  3  logs  were 
taken.  Satisfactory  figures  can,  therefore, 
be  obtained  only  by  comparing  the  scales  of 
logs  and  trees  actually  measured  in  the  woods. 
Such  tables  are  now  being  prepared  by  the 
Bureau  of  Forestry  for  different  species  in 
different  regions. 

MEASUREMENT  OF  SAWED  LUMBER- 
BOARD  MEASURE. 

The  superficial  measure  of  inch  boards  is 
obtained  by  multiplying  the  width  in  inches 
by  the  length  in  feet  and  dividing  by  12.  Ta- 
bles showing  the  contents  of  boards  of  differ- 
ent widths  and  lengths  are  published  in  prac- 
tically every  lumberman's  ready  reckoner,  of 
which  there  are  many  on  the  market. 

The  contents  of  boards  thicker  than  1  inch 
are  obtained  by  multiplying  the  width  in 
inches  by  the  thickness  in  inches  and  the 
product  by  the  length  in  feet,  and  then  divid- 
ing by  12.  —  The  Woodman's  Handbook. 


HARDNESS  OF  MINERALS: 


2.   Rock  Salt   j  Scratched  by  finger  nail. 

3.'  Calcite 

I!  ApTtite        [  Scratched  by  a  knife  blade. 

6.  OrthoclaseJ 

7.  Quartz        } 

8.  Topaz          !  May      be      roughly      distin- 

9.  Corundum  f        guished  by  a  file. 
10.  Diamond    J 

HEAT— ITS    MECHANICAL 
EQUIVALENT. 

HEAT  is  a  peculiar  motion  of  the  particles  of 
matter  which  prevents  their  contact.  Heat 
and  mechanical  power  are  convertible  forms 
of  energy.  The  energy  of  the  heat  that 
raises  one  pound  of  water  1°  F.  will  lift  a 
weight  of  778  Ibs.  one  foot.  The  power  of 
a  weight  of  778  Ibs.  descending  one  foot,  if 
applied  to  a  small  paddle  wheel  turning  in 
one  pound  of  water,  will,  by  friction,  raise 
the  temperature  of  the  water  1°  F. 

A  heat-unit  is  the  amount  of  heat  that  raises 
a  pound  of  water  1°  F.,  or  that  lifts  a  weight 
of  778  Ibs.  one  foot. 

The  mechanical  equivalent  of  a  heat-unit  is 
the  power  of  a  weight  of  778  Ibs.  descending 
one  foot,  or  of  a  one-pound  weight  descending 
778  feet.  Hence, 

778  foot-pounds  =     1  heat-unit. 
1  heat-unit       =  778  foot-pounds. 

A  galvanic  battery  that  produces  an  elec- 
trical current  capable  of  heating  one  pound  of 
water  1°  F.,  will  yield  magnetic  force  suffi- 
cient to  raise  a  weight  of  778  Ibs.  one  foot 
high. 

Thus  heat,  electricity,  magnetism,  and 
chemical  force  are  brought  into  numerical 
correlation  with  mechanical  power. 

The  illustrious  philosopher,  Dr.  J.  P.  Joule, 
of  Manchester,  England,  first  measured  accu- 
rately the  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat, 
A.D.  1845. 

Heat  of  Metals. — A  metal  is  an  element 
possessing  a  luster,  and  the  higher  oxides  of 
which  only  are  acid-forming  compounds. 
Metals  have  the  following  properties:  A  spe- 
cific gravity  usually  greater  than  one.  The 
specific  heat  is  less  than  unity,  and  this  heat 
varies  inversely  as  the  atomic  weight  of  that 
element.  The  conductivity  of  the  metals  is 
greater  than  that  of  either  the  non-metals  or 
their  compounds. 

The  influence  of  heat  upon  metals  is  very 
varied;  some  melt  at  a  low  temperature, 
others  require  a  red  heat,  a  strong  red,  or  a 
white  heat  respectively,  to  melt  them.  The 
following  table,  by  Pouillet,  will  explain  the 
temperatures  corresponding  to  different  colors: 


Heat  Color. 

Corresponds  to 

Incipient  red  heat  

525°  C. 

977°  F. 

Dull  red  

700 

1,292 

Incipient  cherry  red.  .  . 

800 

1,472 

Cherry  red  

900 

1,652 

Clear  cherry  red  

,000 

1,832 

Deep  orange  

,100 

2,012 

Clear  orange  

,200 

2,192 

White  

,300 

2,372 

Bright  white 

,400 

2,552 

Dazzling  white.  .  . 

,500 

2,732 

484 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


STEAM    PRESSURE    AND    TEMPERATURE. 


Pressure 
in  Lbs.  per 
Sq.  In. 

Corresponding 
Temperature, 
Fahrenheit. 

Pressure 
in  Lbs.  per 
Sq.  In. 

Corresponding 
Temperature, 
Fahrenheit. 

Pressure 
in  Lbs.  per 
Sq.  In. 

Corresponding 
Temperature, 
Fahrenheit. 

10 

192.4 

65 

301.3 

140 

357.9 

15 

212.8 

70 

306.4 

150 

363.4 

20 

228.5 

75 

311.2 

160 

368.7 

25 

241.0 

80 

315.8 

170 

373.6 

30 

251.6 

85 

320.1 

180 

378.4 

35 

260.9 

90 

324.3 

190 

382.9 

40 

269.1 

95 

328.2 

200 

387.3 

45 

276.4 

100 

332.0 

210 

391.5 

50 

283.2 

110 

339.2 

220 

395.5 

55 

289.3 

120 

345.8 

230 

399.4 

60 

295.6 

130 

352.1 

240 

403.1 

Degree  of  Fahr. 

2,786. 


TABLE    OF    TEMPERATURE. 
Degree  of  Fahr. 


1,947. 
1,873. 
1,750. 

1,000. 


941. 
773. 
644. 

640.. 

630.. 
617., 
600., 
518., 
442. 
380.. 
356.. 
315.. 

302. 
257. 

256.. 


221.. 


218 

216 

214 

213  or  (213.5) 
212. . . 


Cast  iron  melts  (Daniell). 

Copper  melts  (Daniell). 

Gold  melts. 

Silver  melts  (Daniell). 

Brass  (containing  25%  of 
zinc)  melts  (Daniell). 

Iron,  bright  cherry  red  (Foil- 
let). 

Red  heat,  visible  in  daylight 
(Daniell). 

Zinc  begins  to  burn  (Daniell). 

Zinc  melts  (Daniell). 

Mercury  boils  (Daniell),  662 
(Graham). 

Sulphuric  acid  boils  (Ma- 
grignac),  620  (Graham). 

Whale  oil  boils  (Graham). 

Pure  lead  melts  (Rudberg). 

Linseed  oil  boils. 

Bismuth  melts  (Gmelin). 

Tin  melts  (Crichton). 

Arsenious  acid  volatilizes. 

Metallic  arsenic  sublimes. 

Oil  of  turpentine  boils 
(Kaure). 

Etherification  ends. 

Saturated  sol.  of  sal  ammo- 
niac boils  (Taylor). 

Saturated  sol.  of  acetate  of 
soda  boils. 

Sulohur  melts  (Miller),  226 
(Fownes). 

Saturated  sol.  of  nitre  boils. 

Saturated  sol.  of  salt  boils 
(Paris  Codex). 

Saturated  sol.  of  alum,  carb. 
soda,  and  sulph.  zinc,  boil. 

Saturated  sol.  of  chlorate  and 
prussiate  potash,  boil. 

Saturated  sol.  of  sulph.  iron, 
sulph.  copper,  nitrate  of 
lead,  boil. 

Saturated  sol.  of  acetate 
lead,  sulph.  and  bitar- 
trate  potash,  boil. 

Water  begins  to  boil  in 
glass. 

Water  boils  in  metal,  barom- 
eter at  30°. 


211  

Alloy  of  5  bismuth,  3  tin,  2 

lead,  melts. 

201  

Alloy  of  8  bismuth,  5  lead,  3 

tin,  melts  (Kane). 

207.  .  . 

Sodium  melts  (Regnault). 

185  

Nitric  acid  1.52  begins  to  boil. 

180  (about).  . 

Starch    forms    a    gelatinous 

compound  with  water. 

176  

Rectified  spirit  boils,  benzol 

distils. 

173  

Alcohol  (sp.  gr.  .796  to  .800) 

boils. 

151  

Beeswax  melts   (Kane),    142 

150  

(Lepage). 
Pyroxylic  spirit  boils  (Scan- 

Ian). 

145  

White  of  egg  begins  to  coag- 

ulate. 

141.8  

Chloroform,  and  ammonia  of 

.945,  boil. 

132  

Acetone    (pyroacetic    spirit) 

boils  (Kane). 

122  

Mutton    suet    and    styracin 

melt. 

116  

Bisulphuret  of  carbon  boils 

(Graham). 

115  

Pure  tallow  melts  (Lepage), 

92  (Thomson). 

112  

Spermaceti    and    stearin    of 

lard  melt. 

111..  . 

Phosphorus  melts  (Miller). 

98  

Temperature  of  the  blood. 

95  

Ether  (.720)  boils. 

95  

Carbolic    acid    crystals    be- 

come an  oily  liquid. 

88  

Acetous  fermentation  ceases, 

water  boils  in  vacuo. 

77  

Vinous   ferm.   ends,   acetous 

ferm.  begins. 

64.4.  .  . 

59  

Oil  of  anise  liquefies. 
Gay      Lussac's      Alcoometre 

graduated  at. 

55..  . 

Sirups  to  be  kept  at. 

30  (about).  .. 

Olive    oil  becomes  partially 

solid. 

32... 

Water  freezes. 

5  

Cold    produced    by    snow    2 

parts  and  salt  1  part. 

-37.9  

Mercury  freezes. 

—  Coolcy. 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


485 


LINEAR   EXPANSION   OF   SOLIDS   AT   ORDINARY   TEMPERATURES. 


Substance. 

Forl°Fahr. 

For  1°  Cent. 

Substance. 

Forl°Fahr. 

For  1°  Cent. 

Aluminium  (cast)..  .  . 
Antimony  (cryst.)  .  .. 
Brass,   cast  
"      English  plate, 
sheet  
Brick  best  stock.  . 

Length  =  1. 
.00001234 
.00000627 
.00000957 
.00001052 
.00001040 
00000310 

Length  =  1. 
.00002221 
.00001129 
.00001722 
.00001894 
.00001872 
.00000550 

Masonry,  of  brick  in 
cement     mortar: 
stretchers  
Mercury    (cubic    ex- 
pansion)   
Nickel. 

Length  =  1. 

.00000256 

.00009984 
.00000695 

Length  =  1. 

.00000460 

.00017971 
.00001251 

Bronze  (Baily's).  .  .  . 
Copper,  17.  . 

Osmium  
Palladium,  pure.  .  . 

.00000317 
.00000556 

.00000570 
.00001000 

Tin  2£  . 

(.00000986 

.00001774 

Pewter 

00001129 

00002033 

Zinc,  1  

Plaster,  white  

.00000922 

.00001660 

00000975 

00001755 

Platinum. 

.00000479 

00000863 

Cement,  Roman,  dry. 
Cement,  Portland 
(mixed),  pure  
Cement,        Portland, 
mortar,  with  sand.. 
Concrete:         cement 

.00000797 
.00000594 
.00000656 
00000795 

.00001435 
.00001070 
.00001180 
00001430 

Platinum,  90  per  cent. 
Iridium,      10      per 
cent  
hammered  and  an- 
nealed   
Platinum,       85       per 
cent 

) 
)-  .00000476 

.00000857 

Copper.    . 

.00000887 

.00001596 

Iridium,      15      per 

I-  .00000453 

.00000815 

Ebonite 

00004278 

00007700 

cent  

\ 

Glass,  English  flint.  . 
French  flint.  .  . 
white,     free 
from  lead.  .  . 
blown  
thermometer  .. 
hard  

.00000451 
.00000484 

.00000492 
.00000498 
.00000499 
.00000397 

.00000812 
.00000872 

.00000886 
.00000896 
.00000897 
.00000714 

Porcelain  
Quartz,    parallel      to 
major  axis,  t  0°  to 
40°  C  
Quartz,     perpendicu- 
lar to  major  axis,  t 
0°  to  40°  C  

.00000200 
.00000434 
.00000788 

.00000360 
.00000781 
.00001419 

Granite,  gray,  dry.  .  . 
red       "... 
Gold,  pure  
Iridium,  pure.  .  . 

.00000438 
.00000498 
.00000786 
.00000356 

.00000789 
.00000897 
.00001415 
00000641 

Quartz,  cubic  expan- 
sion at  16°  C  
Silver,  pure  
Slate.  .  . 

.00001924 
.00001079 
.C0000577 

.00003463 
.00001943 
00001038 

Iron,  wrought  
'     Swedish.  .  .    . 

.00000648 
.00000636 

.00001166 
00001145 

Steel,  cast  
'     tempered.  . 

.00000636 
.00000689 

.00001144 
.00001240 

4  '    cast 

00000556 

00001001 

'  '    soft 

00000626 

00001126 

00000652 

00001174 

Lead  
Marble,  moist  
dry  
white  Sicil- 
ian, dry.  .  . 
Marble,  black  Galway 
Carrara  
Masonry,  of  brick  in 

.00001571 
.00000663 
.00000363 

.00000786 
.00000308 
.00000471 

.00002828 
.00001193 
.00000654 

.00001415 
.00000554 
.00000848 

Stone       (sandstone), 
Rauville  
Stone       (sandstone), 
Caen  
Tin  
Wedgwood  ware  
Wood,  pine  
Zinc 

.00000417 

.00000494 
.00001163 
.00000489 
.00000276 
00001407 

.00000750 

.00000890 
.00002094 
.00000881 
.00000496 
00002532 

cement     mortar: 
headers.  . 

.00000494 

.00000890 

Zinc,  8  
Tin,  1.  .  . 

[•  .00001496 

.00002692 

— Clark's  Mechanical  Engineer's  Pocket  Book. 


EXPANSION  OF  LIQUIDS. 
The  cubical  expansion,  or  expansion  of  vol- 
ume, of  water,  from  32°  F.  to  212°  F.  and  up- 
wards, is  given  in  the  following  Table.  The 
rate  of  expansion  increases  with  the  tempera- 
ture. The  expansion  for  the  range  of  tem- 
perature from  32°  to  212°  is  .0466,  or  fully  4* 
per  cent,  of  the  volume  at  32° ;  or  an  average 
of  .000259  per  degree,  or  ^  part  of  the  vol- 
ume at  32°  F. 

Expansion  of  Liquids  from  32°  to  212°  F. 
Volume  at  32°  =  1. 


Liquid. 

Volume 
at  212°. 

Alcohol  

.1100 

Nitric  acid  
Olive  oil.  .  . 

.1100 
0800 

Turpentine  
Sea  water  
Water.  .  . 

.0700 
.0500 
0466 

Mercury.  .  .  . 

1.018 

Expan- 


FRICTTON. — The  ratio  obtained  by  dividing 
the  entire  force  of  friction  by  the  normal  pres- 
sure is  called  the  coefficient  of  friction.  The 
unit  or  coefficient  of  friction  is  the  friction 
due  to  a  normal  pressure  of  one  pound: 

Iron  on  oak 0 . 62 

Cast  iron  on  oak 0 . 49 

Oak  on  oak,  fibres  parallel 0 . 48 

Oak  on  oak,  greased 0. 10 

Cast  iron  on  cast  iron 0. 15 

Wrought  iron  on  wrought  iron.  .  .  0. 14 

Brass  on  iron 0. 16 

Brass  on  brass 0 . 20 

Wrought  iron  on  cast  iron 0. 19 

Cast  iron  on  elm 0. 19 

Soft  limestone  on  the  same 0.64 

Hard  limestone  on  the  same.  ...   0 . 38 
Leather  belts  on  wooden  pulleys .   0 . 47 
Leather  belts  on  cast-iron  pulleys  0 . 28 
Cast  iron  on  cast  iron,  greased.  . .   0. 10 
Pivots  or  axes  of  wrought  or  cast  iron,  on 
brass  or  cast-iron  pillows: 
First,  when  constantly  supplied  with  oil .    0 . 05 
Second, when  greased  from  time  to  time .   0 . 08 
Third,  without  any  application 0. 15 


486 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS. 
METALS. 


Name  of  Metal. 


Aluminum  wire 

Brass  wire,  hard  drawn 

Bronze,phosphor,hard  drawn 

silicon 
Copper  wire,  hard  drawn.     . . 

Gold  *  wire 

Iron,  f  cast 

'     wire,  hard  drawn 

annealed 

Lead,  cast  or  drawn 

Palladium  * 

Platinum  *  wire 

Silver  *  wire 

Steel,  mild,  hard  drawn 

"     hard       "         "     

Tin,  cast  or  drawn 

Zinc,  cast 

' '     drawn.  . 


Tensile 
Strength  in 
Pounds  per 

Sq.  In. 


30,000-40,000 

50,000-150,000 

110,000-140,000 

95,000-115,000 

60,000-70,000 

38,000-41,000 

13,000-29,000 

80,000-120,000 

50,000-60,000 

2,000-3,300 

39,000 

50,000 

42,000 

100,000-200,000 

150,000-330,000 

4,000-5,000 

7,000-13,000 

22,000-30,000 


STONES  AND  BRICKS. 


Name  of  Substance. 


Basalt 

Brick,  soft 

"      hard 

vitrified.  .  .  . 

Granite 

Limestone: 

Marble 

Sandstone 

Slate.  .  . 


Resistance  to 

Crushing  in 

Pounds  per 

Sq.  In. 

18,000-27,000 

300-1,500 
1,500-5,000 
9,000-26,000 

17,000-26,000 
4,000-9,000 
9,000-22,000 
4,500-8,000 

11,000-30,000 


TIMBER. 


Name  of  Wood 

Tensile 
Strength 
in  Pounds  per 
Sq.  In. 

Resistance  to 
Crushing  in 
Pounds  per 
Sq.  In. 

Ash.  . 
Beech 

11,000-21,000 
11,000-18,000 

6,000-9,000 
9  000-10  000 

Birch  
Chestnut  
Elm  
Hackberry.  .  .. 
Hickory  
Maple  
Mulberry  
Oak,  burr.  .     . 
"    red..  .    . 
'    water.     . 
*    white.  -  . 
Poplar  
Walnut  

12,000-18,000 
10,000-13,000 
12,000-18,000 
10,000-16,000 
15,000-25,000 
8,000-12,000 
8,000-14,000 
15,000-20,000 
13,000-18,000 
12,000-16,000 
20,000-25,000 
10,000-15,000 
8,000-14,000 

5,000-7,000 
4,000-6,000 
6,000-10,000 

7',00(M2',6do 
6,000-8,000 

7',odo-'ib',6do 

5,000-7,000 
4,000-6,000 
6,000-9,000 
5,000-8,000 
4,000-8,000 

*  On  the  authority  of  Wertheim. 

t  The  crushing  strength  of  cast  iron  is  from 
5.5  to  6.5  times  the  tensile  strength. 

NOTES. — According  to  Boys,  quartz  fibers 
have  a  tensile  strength  of  between  116,000  and 
167,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Leather  belting  of  single  thickness  bears 
from  400  to  1,600  pounds  per  inch  of  its 
breadth.  — Smithsonian  Tables. 


WATER. 

1  U.  S.  gallon  equals  231  cubic  inches;  .1337 
cubic  foot;  8.333  pounds  of  water  at  62°  F. • 
3.786  liters. 

1  cubic  inch  of  water  at  62°  F.  equals  .03608 
pound;  .5773  ounce;  252.6  grains;  .004326 
U.  S.  gallon;  .01638  liter. 

1  cubic  foot  of  water  at  62°  F.  equals 
62.355  pounds;  997.68  ounces  (about  1000); 
.557  cwt.  (of  112  pounds);  .0278  long  ton  • 
7.4805  U.  S.  gallons;  28.315  liters;  .02832 
cubic  meter. 

1  cylindrical  inch  of  water  at  62°  F.  equals 
.02833  pound;  .4533  ounce;  .7854  cubic  inch. 

1  cylindrical  foot  of  water  at  62°  F.  equals 
48.973  pounds  (about  50);  783.57  ounces; 
.437  cwt.  (of  112  pounds);  .0219  long  ton; 
5.8758  U.  S.  gallons;  22.2380  liters;  .02224 
cubic  meter. 

1  cubic  yard  of  water  equals  1,684.8  pounds; 
15.043  cwt,  (of  112  pounds),  or  15  cwt.  4.8 
pounds;  .7645  cubic  meter. 

1  liter  of  water  equals  2.2046  pounds  at 
62°  F.;  .2641  U.  S.  gallon;  61.025  cubic  inches; 
.0353  cubic  foot. 

1  cubic  meter  of  water  equals  1  metric  ton, 
or  1,000  kilograms  at  39.1°  F.  or  4°  C. ;  2,204.62 
pounds  at  39.1°  F.  or  4°  C.;  2,203.7  pounds  at 
62.4  pounds  per  cubic  foot;  1  ton  of  2,240 
pounds,  nearly;  1  tun  of  4  hogsheads,  or  2, ICO 
pounds,  nearly;  264.2  U.  S.  gallons;  1.308 
cubic  yards;  35.3156  cubic  feet;  1,000  liters. 

The  weight  of  fresh  water  is  commonly 
assumed,  in  ordinary  calculations,  to  be 
62.4  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  which  is  the 
weight  at  52.3°  F.  It  is  frequently  taken 
as  62^  pounds  or  1,000  ounces  per  cubic  foot. 

The  volumes  of  given  weights  of  water, 
at  the  rate  of  62.4  pounds  per  cubic  foot, 
are  as  follows: 

1  ton  (long),  35.90  cubic  feet  (about  36); 
1  cwt.  (of  112  pounds),  1.795  cubic  feet;  1 
pound,  .016  cubic  feet  or  27.692  cubic  inches; 
1  ounce,  1.731  cubic  inches;  1  metric  ton,  at 
39.1°  F.  or  4°  C.,  35.3156  cubic  feet;  1  kilo- 
gram, at  39.1°  F.  or  4°  C.,  .0353  cubic  feet  or 
61.025  cubic  inches;  1  metric  ton,  at  52.3°  F. 
(62.4  pounds  per  cubic  foot),  35.330  cubic  feet. 

A  pipe  1  yard  in  length  holds  about  as 
many  pounds  of  water  at  ordinary  tempera- 
tures as  the  square  of  its  diameter  in  inches 
(about  two  per  cent.  more). 

A  column  of  water  at  62°  F.,  1  foot  high, 
is  equivalent  to  a  pressure  of  .433  pound  or 
6.928  ounces  per  square  inch  of  base;  or  to 
62.355  pounds  per  square  foot. 

A  column  of  water  1  inch  high  is  equivalent 
to  a  pressure  of  .5773  ounce  or  .03608  pound 
per  square  inch;  or  to  5.196  pounds  per 
square  foot. 

A  column  of  water  100  feet  high  is  equiva- 
lent to  43£  pounds  per  square  inch;  or  2.786 
tons  per  square  foot. 

A  column  of  water  1  mile  deep,  weighing 
62.4  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  is  equivalent  to 
a  pressure  of  about  1  ton  per  square  inch. 

1  pound  per  square  inch  is  equivalent  to  a 
column  of  water  at  62°  F.  2.31  feet  or  27.72 
inches  high. 

SEA  WATER. 

1  cubic  foot  at  62°  F.,  64  pounds;  1  cubic 
yard,  15£  cwt.,  nearly  (8  pounds  less);  1  cubic 
meter,  1  long  ton,  fully  (20  pounds  more); 
1  ton,  35  cubic  feet. 

Ratio  of  weight  of  fresh  water  to  that  of 
sea  water,  39  to  40,  or  1  to  1.028. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


487 


ICE  AND   SNOW. 

1  cubic  foot  of  ice  at  32°  F.,  57.50  pounds; 
1  pound  of  ice  at  32°  F.,  .0174  cubic  foot,  or 
30.067  cubic  inches;  specific  density  of  ice, 
.922;  that  of  water  at  62°  F.  being  1. 

AIR. 

1  cubic  foot,  at  14.7  Ibs.  per  square  inch 
or  1  atmosphere,  equals  .080728  Ib.  at  32°  F. 
1.29  ounce  at  32°  F.;  565.1  grains  at  32°  F. 
.076097  Ib.  at  62°  F.;  1.217  ounce  at  62°  F. 
532.7  grains  at  62°  F. 

1  liter,  under  1  atmosphere,  equals  1.293 
grams  at  32°  F. ;  19.955  grains  at  32°  F. 

1  Ib.  of  air  at  62°  F.  equals  13.141  cubic  feet. 

The  weights  of  equal  volumes  of  mercury, 
water,  and  air,  at  62°  F.  under  1  atmosphere, 
are  as  11,140.56,  819.4,  and  1. 

1  atmosphere  of  pressure  equals  14.7  Ibs. 
per  square  inch;  2,116.4  Ibs.  per  square 
foot;  1.0335  kilograms  per  square  centi- 
meter; 29.922  inches  of  mercury  at  32°  F. ; 
76  centimeters  of  mercury  at  32°  F. ;  30  inches 
of  mercury  at  62°  F.;  33.947  feet  of  water  at 
62°  F.;  10.347  meters  of  water  at  62°  F. 

1  Ib.  per  square  inch  equals  2.035  inches  of 
mercury  at  32°  F. ;  51.7  millimeters  of  mercury 
at  32°  F. ;  2.04  inches  of  mercury  at  62°  F. ; 
2.31  feet  of  water  at  62°  F.;  27.72  inches  of 
water  at  62°  F. 

1  ounce  per  square  inch  equals  1.732  inches 
of  water  at  62°  F. 

1  Ib.  per  square  foot  equals  .1925  inch  of 
water  at  62°  F. ;  .01417  inch  of  mercury  at 
62 J  F. 

STRENGTH  OF  ICE. 
Ice  2  in.  thick  will  bear  infantry. 
Ice  4  in.  thick  will  bear  cavalry  or  light 
guns. 

Ice  6  in.  thick  will  bear  heavy  field  guns. 
Ice  8  in.  thick  will  bear  24-pounder  guns  on 
sledges ;   weight  not  over  1 ,000  Ibs.  to  a  square 
foot. 

WEIGHT  OF  BALLS. 


When  D  =  diameter  of  ball  in  inches  ; 
W  =  weight  of  ball  in  Ibs..  ; 
C  =    aconstant  =  733  for  cast  iron; 
=  464  for  lead; 
=  595  for  copper; 
=  635  for  brass. 

W  =  DSXC; 


When  C  =  a  constant  =  0.  1364  for  cast  iron  ; 
=  0.2155  for  lead; 
=  0.168  for  copper; 
=  0.1574  for  brass. 

Weight  of  cast-iron  balls. 


To  find  nominal  horse-power  of  boiler  required 
for  direct-acting  steam-pumps. 

NHp  =  D2-  the  last  figure 

When   NHP  =  nominal  horse-power; 

D  =  diameter  of  steam  cylinder 
in  inches. 


PIPES. 

Usual  inclination  of  pipes. 
1  in.  in       12ft.  =  minimum     fall     for     house 

drains ; 
1    "  16  "  =  minimum      fall      for     land 

drains ; 
1    "  "        40"  =  minimum  fall  for  sub-drains 

for  houses; 
1    "  100  "  =  minimum      fall     for     main 

drains  for  houses; 
150  ' '  =fall  of  mountain  torrents ; 
1    "          230  "  =    "   "  rivers  and  rapid  cur- 
rents ; 

1    '  280  ' '  =  fall  of  strong  currents ; 

1    "          340  "  =    "   "  ordinary    rivers    with 

good  current; 

1  "  ;  440  "  =fall  of  winding  rivers  subject 
to  inundations  with  slow 
current ; 

1    '  480  "  =fall  of  water  channels,  sup- 

ply pipes  to  reservoirs  and 
small  canals; 

570  "  =fall  of  large  canals; 
1  "  "  1,000  "  =  very  slow  current,  approach- 
ing to  stagnant  water. 
Discharge  through  pipes. 
Discharge  in  24  hours  divided  by  1,440  = 
discharge  per  min.;  discharge  in  cubic  feet 
per  minute  X  9, 000  =  imperial  gallons  per  day 
of  24  hours;  discharge  in  cubic  feet  per  min- 
ute X  1 1  ,000  =  U.  S.  gallons  per  day  of  24  hours ; 
discharge  in  cubic  feet  per  second  X  2. 2  =  cubic 
yards  per  minute ;  discharge  in  cubic  feet  per 
second  X  6.24  =imperial  gallons  per  second; 
discharge  in  cubic  feet  per  second  X  7.48  = 
U.  S.  gallons  per  second;  discharge  in  cubic 
feet  per  second X  1 33  =  cubic  yards  per  hour; 
discharge  in  cubic  feet  per  second  X  375  =  im- 
perial gallons  per  minute;  discharge  in  cubic 
feet  per  second  X  450  =  U.  S.  gallons  per  min- 
ute; discharge  in  cubic  feet  per  second  X  2,400 
=  long  tons  per  day  of  24  hours ;  discharge  in 
cubic  feet  per  second  X  2, 700  =  short  tons  per 
day  of  24  hours ;  velocity  in  feet  per  second  X 
0.68=mile  per  hour;  velocity  in  feet  per  sec- 
ond X  60=  feet  per  minute;  velocity  in  feet 
per  second X 20  =  yards  per  minute;  pressure 
head  of  water  in  feet  =  pressure  of  water  in  Ibs. 
per  square  foot  X  0.016;  pressure  of  water  in 
Ibs.  per  square  foot  =  head  in  feet  X  62.32. 

ANIMAL  POWER— HORSE. 
A  horse  walking  in  a  circle  at  a  speed  of  176 
feet   per  minute  will  raise  with  a   common 
deep -well  pump — 

4  h.  per  day  1,653  gals,  per  min. ;  1  ft.  high. 

5  "     "      "     1,480    "        "       "       "  "       •• 

6  "     "      "     1,350    "        "       "       "  "       " 
8  "     "      "     1,160    "        "       "       "  "       " 

10  "     "      "     1,040    "        "       "       "  "       " 

Tractive  force  of  a  horse  when  working  8 
hours  a  day  on  a  well-made  road  and  walking 
at  a  rate  of  2£  miles  per  hour,  150  Ibs. 

Tractive  force  of  a  horse  when  working  a 
lift  or  horse-run  with  intervals  of  rest  between 
each  movement,  the  day's  work  not  to  exceed 
6  hours,  300  Ibs. 

Tractive  force  of  a  horse  when  working  in 
a  circle  of  30  feet  diameter  in  working  a  mill 
for  8  hours  per  day  at  a  pace  of  2  miles  per 
hour,  100  Ibs. 

A  horse  can  exert  a  force  horizontally  at 
a  dead  pull,  400  Ibs. 

A  horse  can  carry  on  his  back  a  distance 
of  20  miles  per  day  on  a  well-made  road, 
without  overexertion,  from  250  to  300  Ibs. 


488 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


The  horse-power  adopted  as  a  unit  in  esti- 
mating the  force  of  a  steam-engine  =  33,000 
Ibs.  raised  1  foot  high  in  1  minute,  an  amount 
of  force  which  few  horses  could  perform  for 
any  length  of  time. 

MANUAL  POWER. 

Duration  of  work  =  l  day  of  8  to  10  hours. 


Mean 

Veloc- 

Lbs. 
Raised 

Description  of  Work 

Effect 
in 

ity  in 
Feet 

1  Foot 
High 

Lbs. 

per 
Minute. 

per 
Minute. 

Lifting   weights   by 

hand  breast  high  . 

40 

25 

1,000 

Raising  water  from  a 

well  by  a  bucket 

and  rope  

30 

35 

1,050 

Lifting  a  weight  by 

a  rope  and  over- 
head tackle  

40 

30 

1,200 

Working     a     hand 

pump  

30 

60 

1,800 

Drawing     a     canal 

boat  

12 

160 

1,920 

Working     a     ship's 

capstan.  
Turning  the  crank  of 
a  winch  

25 
.  15 

100 
200 

2,500 
3,000 

Rowing  a  boat  

40 

80 

3,200 

The  efforts  in  the  above  table,  although  ex- 
tending over  8  or  10  hours,  exclusive  of  meal- 
times, per  day,  are  not  altogether  continuous, 
but  include  the  usual  intervals  of  rest  or 
diminished  exertion  peculiar  to  each  class 
of  work. 

WINDMILLS. 
To  find  the  horse-power  of  a  wind-engine. 


1,100,000' 
When    HP  =  effective  horse-power; 

A  =area  9f  sails  in  square  feet; 
V  =  velocity  of  the  wind  in  feet 

per  second. 

To  find  the  area  of  sails  required  for  a  given 
horse-power. 
HPX  1.100,000 

V2 

The  best  effect  is  obtained  when  the  total 
surface  of  the  sails  presented  to  the  wind  does 
not  cover  more  than  a  quarter  of  the  surface 
of  the  whole  disk  described  by  the  radial  arms 
or  whips. 

To  find  the  force  of  wind. 
P  =  0.002288  F2; 
P  =  0.00422  V!2; 
P  =  0.0023  F2  x  sinx. 
W'hen  P  =  pressure  in  Ibs.  per  square  foot  ; 
V  =  velocity  in  feet  per  second  ; 
V  i  =  velocity  in  miles  per  hour  ; 
X  =  angle  of  incidence  of  direction  of 
the  wind  with  the  plane  of  the 
surface  when  it  is  oblique. 
To  find  the  angle  of  the  sails. 


When  a  Bangle  of  the  sail  with  the  plane  of 

motion  at  any  part  of  the  sail  ; 

D  =  distance  of  any  part  of  the  sail 

from  the  axis  in  feet  ; 
R  =  total  radius  of  sail  in  feet. 


To  find  angle  of  shaft  with  horizon, 
a  =   8  degrees  on  level  ground ; 
=  15  degrees  on  high  ground. 
To  find  breadth  of  whip. 
B    =MoW; 
D 
Bl  = 


tri-Hlr. 

When  W  =  length  of  whip  in  feet; 
Wi  =  width  of  sail  in  feet ; 
B    =  breadth  of  whip  at  axis  in  feet; 
D    =  depth  of  whip  at  axis  in  feet ; 
B\  =  breadth  of  whip  at  tip  in  feet; 
DI  =  depth  of  whip  at  tip  in  feet ; 
Divided  by  the  whip  in  the  proportion  of 
5  to  3,  the  narrow  portion  being  nearest  to 
the  wind.  -^    =  \W  • 

j)n  =  }W. 
When  Wn  =  width  of  sail  at  axis; 

£>n  =  distance  of  sail  from  axis. 
Cross-bars  from  16  to  18  inches  apart. 
Velocity  of  tip  of  sails  =  2.6  V,  nearly. 
In  examining  the  ratio  between  the  velocity 
of  the  wind  and  the  number  of  revolutions  of 
the   wheel-shaft   Mr.    Smeaton   obtained   the 
result  in  table  below,  for  Dutch  sails,  in  their 
common    position,    when   the   radius    of   the 
wheel  was  30  feet:  Ratio  between 

Number  of  Rev- 
olutions of         Velocity  of 
Wheel-shaft          Wind  in 
an  Hour. 


per  Minute. 


2  miles 

4  " 

5  " 


Velocity  of 
the  Wind 
and  Revolu- 
tions of  Wheel- 
shaft. 
0.666 
0.800 
0.833 


The  most  efficient  angle 
Part  of  Radius 

which  is  Angle  with 

Divided  in  Six         the  Axis. 


Parts. 
1 

2 

a 

4 
B 
6 


72° 

71° 

72° 

74° 

77i° 

83° 


Angle  of 
Weather. 

18° 

19° 

18°  middle 

16° 


Supposing  the  radius  of  the  sail  to  be  30 
feet,  then  the  sail  will  commence  at  ith,  or 
5  feet  from  the  axis,  where  the  angle  of  incli- 
nation will  be  72°,  at  iths  or  10  feet  from  the 
axis  will  be  71°,  and  so  on. 

In  order  to  utilize  the  maximum  effect  of 
wind,  therefore,  it  is  necessary  to  load  the 
wind-engine  so  that  the  number  of  revolutions 
of  the  wheel  is  proportional  to  the  velocity 
of  the  wind. 

To   find   proper   number   of   revolutions   of   a 
wind-mill. 
3.16XF 


if  t/  =  16°, 


N 


LXsin  U' 
11.5  V 


When  N  =  number  of  revolutions  of  wheel  per 

minute  ; 

V  =  velocity  of  the  wind  in  feet  per 
second  ; 


L  =  Vi=  radius    of    center   of 
percussion  in  feet; 
R  =  extreme  radius  of  wheel  in  feet  ; 
#!=  inner  radius  of  wheel  in  feet; 
f/  =  mean  angle  of  sails  to  the  plane  of 
motion. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


489 


FORCE  OF  WIND  WHEN  BLOWING  PERPENDICULARLY  UPON  A  SURFACE 
OF  ONE  SQUARE  FOOT. 


Velocity  of  Wind. 

Perpendicular 
Force  on  One 
Square  Foot 
in  Lbs. 

Description. 

Miles  per 
Hour. 

Feet  per 
Minute. 

Feet  per 
Second. 

1 

88 

1.47 

.005 

Hardly  perceptible 

2 

176 

2.93 

.020 

Just  perceptible 

3 

264 

4.40 

.044 

it             it 

4 

352 

5.87 

.079 

Gentle  breeze 

5 

440 

7.33 

.123 

it          it 

10 

880 

14.67 

.492 

Pleasant 

15 

1,320 

22.00 

1.107 

*  * 

20 

1,760 

29.30 

1.968 

Brisk  gale 

25 

2,200 

36.60 

3.075 

30 

2,640 

44.00 

4.428 

High  wind 

35 

3,080 

51.30 

6.027 

11         1  1 

40 
45 

3,520 
3,960 

58.60 
66.00 

7.872 
9.963 

Very  high  wind 

50 

4,400 

73.30 

12.300 

Storm 

60 

5,280 

88.00 

17.712 

Great  storm 

70 

6,160 

102.7 

24.108 

i>          it 

80 

7,040 

117.3 

31  .  488 

Hurricane 

100 

8,800 

146.6 

49  .  200 

— Whittaker's  Mechanical  Engineer's  Pocket  Book. 


METALS:    WEIGHTS    FOR    VARIOUS    DIMENSIONS. 


Metal. 

Specific 
Weight. 

Weight 
of  One 
Cubic 
Foot. 

Weight  of  One 
Square  Foot. 

Weight 
of  One 
Linear 
Foot  1 
In.  Sq. 

Weight 
of  One 
Cubic 
Inch. 

1  Inch 
Thick. 

ilnch 
Thick. 

1*6  Inch 
Thick. 

Wrought 

Iron  =  1. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Aluminum,  wrought  

.348 

167 

13.92 

1.74 

1.39 

1.160 

.097 

cast.  

.333 

160 

13.33 

1.67 

1.33 

1    111 

.092 

Antimony  

.879 

418 

34.83 

4.35 

3.48 

2.902 

.242 

Bismuth.  

.285 

617 

51.42 

6.42 

5.14 

4.283 

.357 

Brass,  cast  

.052 

505 

42.08 

5.26 

4.21 

3.507 

.292 

sheet  

.098 

527 

43.92 

5.49 

4.39 

3.652 

.304 

yellow  

.079 

518 

43.17 

5.40 

4.32 

3.597 

.298 

Muntz  metal  

.062 

511 

42.58 

5.32 

4.26 

3.549 

,296 

wire  

.110 

533 

44.42 

5.55 

4.44 

3.701 

.308 

Bn  nze,  gun-metal  

.106 

531 

44.25 

5.54 

4.43 

3.688 

.307 

mill  bearings.  .  .  . 

.133 

544 

45.33 

5.66 

4.53 

3.780 

.315 

small  bells  

.004 

482 

40.17 

5.04 

4.02 

3.347 

.279 

speculum  metal.  . 

.969 

465 

38.75 

4.84 

3.88 

3.299 

.269 

Copper,  sheet  

.114 

549 

45.75 

5.72 

4.58 

3.813 

.318 

hammered  

.158 

556 

46.33 

5.79 

4.63 

3.861 

.322 

wire.  .  .  . 

154 

554 

46.17 

5  77 

4  62 

3.778 

.315 

Gold  

.500 

1200 

100.00 

12.50 

10.00 

8.333 

.694 

Iron,  cast  

.937 

450 

37.50 

4.69 

3.75 

3.125 

.260 

wrought.  .  .  . 

000 

480 

40  00 

5  00 

4  00 

3  333 

.278 

Lead,  sheet  

.483 

712 

59.33 

7.41 

5.93 

4.944 

.412 

Manganese  

.040 

499 

41.58 

5.20 

4.16 

3.465 

.289 

Mercury  

.769 

849 

70.75 

8.84 

7.07 

5.896 

.491 

Nickel,  hammered  

.127 

541 

45.08 

5.64 

4.51 

3.757 

.313 

cast. 

1  075 

516 

43  00 

5  37 

4.30 

3.583 

.299 

Platinum.  .  . 

2.796 

1342 

111.83 

13.97 

11.18 

9.320 

.777 

Silver  

1.365 

655 

54.58 

6.82 

5.46 

4.549 

.379 

Steel.  . 

1  020 

490 

40.83 

5  12 

4  10 

3  403 

.284 

Tin  

.962 

462 

38.50 

4.81 

3.85 

3.208 

.268 

Zinc,  sheet  

.935 

449 

37.42 

4.67 

3.74 

3.118 

.260 

cast  

.892 

428 

35.67 

4.46 

3.57 

2.972 

.248 

—Clark's  Mechanical  Engineer's  Pocket  Book. 


490 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


PROPORTIONATE    WEIGHT   OF    CASTING   TO    WEIGHT     OF    WOOD    PATTERN. 


A  Pattern  Weighing  One  Pound, 
Made  of 
(less  weight  of  core  prints) 

Cast 
Iron. 

Brass. 

Copper. 

Bronze. 

Bell 
Metal. 

Zinc. 

Pine  or  fir  will  weigh  in 

Lbs. 
14 

Lbs. 
15  8 

Lbs. 
16  7 

Lbs. 
16  3 

Lbs. 
17  1 

Lbs. 
13  5 

Oak                                      
Beech 

9 

9  7 

10.1 
10  9 

10.4 
11  4 

10.3 
11  3 

10.9 
11  9 

8.6 
9  1 

Linden 
Pear 

13.4 

10  2 

15.1 
11  5 

16.7 
11  9 

15.5 
11  8 

16.3 
12  4 

12.9 
9  8 

Birch                                     
Alder                                     
Mahogany                            
Brass                                     

10  6 
12.8 
11.7 
0.84 

11.9 
14.3 
13.2 
0.95 

12.3 
14.9 
13.7 
0.99 

12.2 
14.7 
13.5 
0.98 

12.9 
15.5 
14.2 
1.0 

10.2 
12.2 
11.2 
0.81 

PULLING   STRENGTH    OF   MEN   AND   ANIMALS. 
Compiled  from  a  test  made  by  Barnum  &  Bailey's  Circus. 


Number. 

Description. 

Weight  of 
Each  in 
Lbs. 

Total  Pull  in 
Lbs. 

Pull  per 
Unit. 

Pull  per 
Pound  of 
Weight. 

2 

Horses. 

1,600 

3,750 

1,875 

1.1721bs. 

50 

Men   .  . 

150 

8,750 

175 

1   166   " 

100 

Men.  .  .             .... 

150 

12,000 

120 

0.8 

6 

Horses. 

1,800 

8,875 

1,479 

0.822   " 

2 

1,800 

2,750 

1,375 

0  764   " 

1 

Elephant  

12,000 

8,750 

8,750 

0.729   " 

Copyright,  1904,  by  Munn  &  Co. 


ELEPHANT,  WEIGHING  12,000  POUNDS,  ABOUT  TO  MAKE  A  PULL 
OF  8,750  POUNDS. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


491 


BOILER    TUBES. 

The  following  table  gives  the  draught  area  and  heating  surface  of  the  various-sized  boiler 
tubes  and  flues: 


External 
Diameter. 

Draught  Area  in 
Square  Inches. 

Draught  Area 
in  Square  Feet. 

Outside  Heating 
Surface  in  Feet 
per  Foot  of  Tube 
in  Length. 

Number  of 
Tubes  in  One 
Square  Foot  of 
Draught  Area. 

f.. 

.1636 

i 

1963 

i  .:::::::::;::: 

H.  . 

.575 

968 

.0040 
0067 

.2618 
3272 

250.0 
149  3 

,:::::::: 

1.389 
1  911 

.  00964 
0133 

.3927 
4581 

103.7 
75  2 

2       

2  573 

0179 

5236 

55  9 

2$.  

3.333 
4  083 

.0231 
0284 

.5891 
6545 

43.3 
35  2 

3  '.'.'.'.'.'/.'.'.'.'/.','. 

3i  
3*  
3! 

5.027 
6.070 
7.116 
8.347 
9  676 

.0349 
.0422 
.0494 
.0580 
0672 

.7200 
.7854 
.8508 
.9163 
9818 

28.7 
23.7 
20.2 
17.2 
14  9 

4     . 

4*.. 

10.93 
14  05 

.0759 
0996 

1  .  0472 
1   1781 

13.2 
10  2 

5*..:::.:.::..:. 

6  

7 

17.35 
25.25 
34  94 

.1205 
.1753 
2426 

1  .  3090 
1.5708 
1  8326 

8.3 
5.7 
4  1 

8  
9  . 

46.20 
58  63 

.3208 
4072 

2.0944 
2  3562 

3.1 
2  5 

10  

72.23 

.5016 

2.6180 

2.0 

TO  OBTAIN  INDEX  OF  A  LATHE. 

How  TO  OBTAIN  THE  INDEX  OF  AN  ENGINE 
LATHE. — If  you  will  note  what  thread  the 
lathe  will  cut  when  two  given  gears  are  in 
place,  you  can  easily  construct  a  table  that 
will  show  you  just  what  thread  any  two  gears 
will  cause  the  lathe  to  cut.  Suppose  that  two 
sixty-threes  cause  12  threads  to  the  inch. 
Then  place  12  in  the  space  A  in  the  diagram 
below. 

Stud. 


!  i 

1 

28 

33 

35 

42 

495663 

70 

77 

S4 

91 

9s 

105 

112 

28 

33 

35 

42 

49 

b 

^ 

56 

a 

(  ' 

a  • 

63 

B 

A 

D 

DH  ' 

70 

E 

c 

M 

77 

d 

84 

91 

98 

105 

I 

112 

>   63  •  70  ••  A  •  E  f  Direct  Proportion. 
Also,    56  •  63  : :  A  :  B  I  T 

70  :  63  ::  A  :  D  (  Inverse  proportion. 

The  spaces  may  all  be  filled  except  a,  b,  c, 
d,  etc.,  which  it  is  useless  to  fill,  as  only  your 
63  gear  is  duplicated.  A  half -day's  time 
will  be  sufficient  for  a  good  mathematician  to 
fill  out  the  table. 


NAILS,  MEMORANDA  CONCERNING. — This 
table  will  show  at  a  glance  the  length  of  the 
various  sizes,  and  the  number  of  nails  in  a 
pound.  They  are  rated  from  "3-penny"  up 
to  "20-penny."  The  first  column  gives  the 
name,  the  second  the  length  in  inches,  and  the 
third  the  number  per  pound: 

3-penny,  1    in.  long,          SSZperlb. 

4-penny,  H  in.  long,          353  per  Ib. 

5-penny,  ij  in.  long,  232  per  Ib. 

6-penny,          2    in.  long,  167  per  Ib. 

7-penny,  24;  in.  long,  141  per  Ib. 

8-penny,  2*  in.  long,  101  per  Ib. 

10-penny,          2$  n.  long,  98  per  Ib. 

12-penny,  3     n.  long,  54  per  Ib. 

20-penny,          3^  n.  long,  34  per  Ib. 

Spikes,  4     n.  long,  16perlb. 

Spikes,  4£  n.  long,  12  per  Ib. 

Spikes,  5     n.  long,  10  per  Ib. 

Spikes,  6     n.  long,  7  per  Ib. 

Spikes,  7    in.  long,  5  per  Ib. 

From  this  table  an  estimate  of  quantity 

and  suitable  sizes  for  any  job  can  be  easily 

made. 

The  relative  adhesion  of  nails  in  the  same 
wood,  driven  transversely  and  longitudinally, 
is  as  100  to  78,  or  about  4  to  3  in  dry  elm, 
and  2  to  3  in  deal. 

HORSE-POWER,  VERY  ROUGH  WAY  OF  ESTI- 
MATING.— The  power  of  a  steam  engine  is 
calculated  by  multiplying  together  the  area 
of  the  piston  in  inches,  the  mean  steam  pres- 
sure in  pounds  per  square  inch,  the  length  of 
stroke  in  feet,  and  the  number  of  strokes  per 
minute,  and  dividing  the  product  by  33,000. 
Or,  multiply  the  square  of  the  diameter  of 
the  cylinder  in  inches  by  0.7854,  and  this 
product  by  the  mean  engine  pressure,  and 
the  last  product  by  the  piston  travel  in  feet 
per  minute.  Divide  the  last  product  by 
33,000  for  the  indicated  horse-power.  In 


492 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


TV  in  12 
i    in  12 


the  absence  of  logarithmic  formulae  or  ex- 
pansion table,  multiply  the  boiler  pressure 
for  i  cut-off  by  0.91;  for  £  cut-off  by  0.85, 
1  cut-off  by  0.75,  &  cut-off  by  0.68.  This 
will  give  the  mean  engine  pressure  per  square 
inch  near  enough  for  ordinary  practice,  for 
steam  pressures  between  60  and  100  Ibs., 
always  remembering  that  the  piston  travel 
is  twice  the  stroke  multiplied  by  the  number 
of  revolutions  per  minute. 

CASTINGS,  CONTRACTION  OF. — By  Messrs. 
Bowen  &  Co.,  brass  founders,  London. 

Inch.   Ins.  of 
length. 

In  thin  brass  castings 

In  thick  "  

In  zinc  castings 

In  lead,  according  to  purity. 

In  copper     ' 

In  tin, 

In  silver, 

In   cast   iron,    according   to 

purity,  small  castings.  .  .   . 
In  cast   steel,   according  to 

purity,  pipes 

The  above  values  fluctuate  with  the  form  of 
pattern,  amount  of  ramming,  and  tempera- 
ture of  metal  when  poured.  Green  sand  cast- 
ings contract  less  than  loam  or  dry  sand  cast- 
ings. 

GEARING,  SIMPLE  RULES  ON. — The  follow- 
ing rules  will  apply  to  both  bevel  and  spur 
gears.  When  the  term  pitch  is  used,  it  always 
signifies  diametrical,  not  circular  pitch.  For 
illustrations  we  will  use  gears  having  64  teeth 
and  8  pitch. 

To  Find  Pilch  Diameter. — Divide  the  num- 
ber of  teeth  by  the  pitch:  64-5-8  =  8  in.  pitch 
diameter. 

To  Find  Number  of  Teeth. — Multiply  the 
pitch  diameter  by  the  pitch:  8  in. X 8  =  64, 
number  of  teeth. 

To  Find  the  Pitch. — Divide  the  number  of 
teeth  by  the  pitch  diameter:  64-5-8  in.  =8, 
pitch. 

To  Find  Outside  Diameter  of  Spur  Wheels. — 
Add  2  to  the  number  of  teeth  and  divide  by 
the  pitch:  64+ 2  =  66n-8  =  8i  in.  O.  D. 

To  Find  Circular  Pitch. — Divide  the  deci- 
mal 3.1416  by  the  diametrical  pitch:  3.1416 
H- 8  =  0.3927  in. 

To  Find  the  Distance  between  the  Centers  of 
Two  Spur  Gears. — Divide  half  the  sum  of  the 
teeth  of  both  gears  by  the  pitch:  64+  64  =  128 
-H  2  =  64  -5-  8  =  8  in.  centers. 

PULLEYS,  RULES  FOR  CALCULATING  THE 
SPEED  OF. — The  diameter  of  the  driven  being 
given,  to  find  its  number  of  revolutions  — 

Rule. — Multiply  the  diameter  of  the  driver 
by  its  number  of  revolutions,  and  divide  the 
product  by  the  diameter  of  the  driven ;  the 
quotient  will  be  the  number  of  revolutions  of 
the  driven. 

Ex. — Twenty-four  in.  diameter  of  driver 
X150,  number  of  revolutions,  =3,600-5-12  in. 
diameter  of  driven  =  300. 

The  diameter  and  revolutions  of  the  driver 
being  given,  to  find  the  diameter  of  the 
driven,  that  shall  make  any  given  number  of 
revolutions  in  the  same  time. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  diameter  of  the  driver 
by  its  number  of  revolutions,  and  divide  the 
product  by  the  number  of  required  revolu- 
tions of  the  driven;  the  quotient  will  be  its 
diameter. 


Ex. — Diameter  of  driver  (as  before)  24  in. 
X  revolutions  150  =  3,600.  Number  of  revo- 
lutions of  driven  required  =  300.  Then  3,600 
-i- 300  =  12  in. 

The  rules  following  are  but  changes  of  the 
same,  and  will  be  readily  understood  from 
the  foregoing  examples. 

To  ascertain  the  size  of  the  driver: 

Rule. — Multiply  the  diameter  of  the  driven 
by  the  number  of  revolutions  you  wish  to 
make,  and  divide  the  product  by  the  required 
revolutions  of  the  driver;  the  quotient  will  be 
the  size  of  the  driver. 

To  ascertain  the  size  of  pulleys  for  given 
speed : 

Rule. — Multiply  all  the  diameters  of  the 
drivers  together  and  all  the  diameters  of  the 
driven  together;  divide  the  drivers  by  the 
driven;  the  answer  multiply  by  the  known 
revolutions  of  main  shaft. 

PAPER,  WALL. — The  following  table  from 
the  New  York  Newsdealer  shows  how  many 
rolls  of  wall-paper  are  required  to  cover  a 
room  of -the  dimensions  indicated  by  the  fig- 
ures in  the  left-hand  column,  also  the  number 
of  yards  of  border  necessary 


Size  of  Room. 
7X9  .  . 

:°i 
fi 

a 

8 

_  1  Number  of 
|  Doors. 

_  Number  of 
Windows. 

**! 

1£ 

6 

^ 
f] 

£« 

11 

7X9  

9 

1 

7 

11 

7X9  
7X9  ,  
8X  10 

10 

12 

g 

1 
1 
1 

8 
10 

7 

11 
11 
12 

8X10  
8X  10  ... 

9 
10 

1 
1 

8 
9 

12 
12 

8X  10 

12 

1 

11 

12 

9X  11.  ... 

8 

1 

3 

14 

9X  11 

g 

1 

10 

14 

9X11  
9X  11 

10 
12 

1 
1 

11 
13 

14 
14 

10X12  
10X12  
10X12  

8 
9 
10 

1 
1 
1 

9 
10 
11 

15 
15 
15 

10X12  
11X12  
11X12  
11X12  
11X12  
12X13  
12  X  13 

12 
8 
9 
10 
12 
8 
g 

2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 

1 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 

13 
8 
9 
10 
13 
8 
10 

15 
16 
16 
16 
16 
17 
17 

12X13  
12X13  
12X15  or  13X14.  .  . 
12  X  15  or  13X14.  .. 
12X15  or  13X14.  .  . 
12X15  or  13X14.  .  . 
13X15  
13X15  
13X15  
13X15   . 

10 
12 
8 
9 
10 
12 
8 
9 
10 
12 

2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 

2 
2 

2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 

n 

14 

10 

11 

12 
15 
10 
11 
13 
16 

17 
17 
18 
18 
18 
18 
19 
19 
19 
19 

14X16  
14X16  
14X16  
14X18  
14X  18   ... 

9 
10 
12 
9 
10 

2 
2 
2 
2 
2 

2 
2 
2 
2 
2 

12 
14 
17 
13 
15 

20 
20 
20 
22 
22 

14X18  
15X16  
15X17  

12 
10 
12 

2 
2 
2 

2 
2 
2 

19 
15 
19 

22 
21 
22 

Deduct  one-half  roll  of  paper  for  each  or- 
dinary door  or  window  extra — size  4X7  feet. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


493 


UNITED    STATES    STANDARD    GAUGE. 
For  Sheet  and  Plate  Iron  and  Steel. 


Number  of 
Gauge. 

Thickness. 

Weight. 

Number  of 
Gauge. 

Approximate 
Thickness  in 
Fractions  of 
an  Inch. 

Approximate 
Thickness  in 
Decimal  Parts 
of  an  Inch. 

Weight  per 
Square  Foot 
in  Ounces 
Avoirdupois. 

Weight  per 
Square  Foot 
in  Pounds 
Avoirdupois. 

0000000 

1-2 

.5 

320 

20. 

0000000 

000000 

15-32 

.  46875 

300 

18.75 

000000 

00000 

7-16 

.4375 

280 

17.5 

00000 

0000 

13-32 

.  40625 

260 

16.25 

0000 

000 

3-8 

.375 

240 

15. 

000 

00 

11-32 

.  34375 

220 

13.75 

00 

0 

5-16 

.3125 

200 

12.5 

0 

1 

9-32 

.28125 

180 

11.25 

1 

2 

17-64 

.  265625 

170 

10.625 

2 

3 

1-4 

.25 

160 

10. 

3 

4 

15-64 

.234375 

150 

9.375 

4 

5 

7-32 

.21875 

140 

8.75 

5 

6 

13-64 

.203125 

130 

8.125 

6 

7 

3-16 

.1875 

120 

7.5 

7 

8 

11-64 

.171875 

110 

6.875 

8 

9 

5-32 

.  15625 

100 

6.25 

9 

10 

9-64 

.  140625 

90 

5.625 

10 

11 

1-8 

.125 

80 

5. 

11 

12 

7-64 

.  109375 

70 

4.375 

12 

13 

3-32 

.09375 

60 

3.75 

13 

14 

5-64 

.078125 

50 

3.125 

14 

15 

9-128 

.0703125 

45 

2.8125 

15 

16 

1-16 

.0625 

40 

2.5 

16 

17 

9-160 

.05625 

36 

2.25 

17 

18 

1-20 

.05 

32 

2.00 

18 

19 

7-160 

.04375 

28 

1.75 

19 

20 

3-80 

.0375 

24 

1.5 

20 

21 

11-320 

.  034375 

22 

1.375 

21 

22 

1-32 

.03125 

20 

1.25 

22 

23 

9-320 

.028125 

18 

1.125 

23 

24 

1-40 

.025 

16 

1. 

24 

25 

7-320 

.021875 

14 

.875 

25 

26 

3-160 

.01875 

12 

.75 

•  26 

27 

11-640 

.0171875 

11 

.6875 

27 

28 

1-64 

.015625 

10 

.625 

28 

29 

9-640 

.0140625 

9 

.5625 

29 

30 

1-80 

.0125 

8 

.5 

30 

31 

7-640 

.0109375 

7 

.4375 

SI 

32 

13-1280 

.01015625 

6£ 

.  40625 

32 

33 

3-320 

.  009375 

6 

.375 

33 

34 

11-1280 

.00859375 

5i 

.  34375 

34 

35 

5-640 

.0078125 

5 

.3125 

35 

36 

9-1280 

.00703125 

H 

.28125 

36 

37 

17-2560 

.  006640625 

H 

.  265625 

37 

38 

1-160 

.  00625 

4 

.25 

38 

ELECTRICAL 

UNITS  OF  MEASUREMENT. — The  three  most 
commonly  used  units  are: 

I.  The  unit  of  current,  called  the  Ampere; 
II.  The  unit  of  potential,  called  the  Volt; 
III.  The  unit  of  resistance,  called  the  Ohm. 

For  some  purposes  these  quantities  are  sub- 
divided, thus  in  telegraphy  the  practical  unit 
of  current  is  the  milli-ampere,  i.e.,  one-thou- 
sandth of  an  ampere.  In  some  cases  it  is  con- 
venient to  use  multiples;  insulation  resist- 
ances are  often  expressed  in  terms  of  meg- 
ohms, i.e.,  a  million  ohms.  The  most  com- 
monly used  multiples  are  the  following: 
1  Megohm  =106ohms  =1  million  ohms, 

1  Microhm          =  10-6  ohm      =  ]    millionth  of 

an  ohm, 

1  Kilowatt          =  10s  watts      =  1 ,000  watts, 
1  Micro-ampere  =  10-6  ampere  =  1  millionth  of 
an  ampere. 


ENGINEERING. 

OHM'S  LAW.  —  For  steady  currents  the 
three  quantities  —  current,  potential,  and  re- 
sistance —  are  connected  together  by  the  rela- 
tion discovered  by  Dr.  Ohm,  and  called  Ohm's 
Law.  This  law  is  stated  thus 


where  C  =  current  (amperes);  ^ 

E  =  difference  of  potential  (volts)  ; 

R  =  resistance    opposing    the    current 

(ohms). 

All  the  units  in  scientific  work  are  defined 

in  terms  of  the  fundamental  units,  which  are 

Unit  of  length  =  1  centimeter. 

'  '  mass    =  1  gram. 

'  '  time     =  1  second. 

These  are  spoken  of  as  the  C.G.S.  units,  and 
in  the  actual  determination  of 


494 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


ohm  attempts  have  been  made  to  obtain  the 
scientific  value  as  closely  as  possible.  The 
first  unit  used  as  a  standard  was  the  British 
Association  or  B.A.  unit  coil.  Messrs.  Sie- 
mens also  introduced  a  standard  ohm,  but 
both  of  these  units  differed  from  the  true  ohm 
as  well  as  from  each  other.  In  order  to 
avoid  the  consequent  confusion,  an  interna- 
tional congress  was  held  at  Paris  in  1893  to 
decide  upon  the  standard  values  to  be 
adopted. 

C.G.S.   ELECTRICAL  STANDARDS. 

THE  OHM  is  represented  by  the  resistance 
offered  by  a  column  of  mercury — at  the  tem- 
perature of  melting  ice — 14.4521  grams  in 
mass,  of  a  constant  cross-sectional  area,  and 
of  a  length  of  106.3  centimeters. 

THE  AMPERE  is  represented  by  the  unvary- 
ing electric  current  which,  when  passed 
through  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  in 
water,  deposits  silver  at  the  rate  of 
0.001118  of  a  gram  per  second. 

THE  VOLT  is  the  electrical  pressure  which, 
if  steadily  applied  to  a  conductor  whose  re- 
sistance is  1  ohm,  will  produce  a  current  of 
1  ampere,  and  which  is  represented  by  0.6974, 
or  T|J§£  of  the  electrical  pressure  between  the 
poles  of  the  voltaic  cell,  known  as  Clark's  cell, 
at  a  temperature  of  15°  C.  (59°  F.). 

As  in  many  of  the  older  books  and  early 
papers  dealing  with  electrical  matters  the 
older  system  of  units  is  used,  the  following 
table  will  be  useful  for  ascertaining  the  rela- 
tive values  of  the  quantities  expressed : 


System. 

True 
Ohm. 

Legal 
Ohm. 

B.A. 

Ohm. 

Sie- 
mens 
Ohm. 

True  Ohm  
Legal  Ohm  .... 
B.A.  Ohm  
Siemens  Ohm.. 

1.0000 
0.9975 
0.9863 
0.9408 

1.0025 
1.0000 
0.9889 
0.9434 

1.0138 
1.0113 
1  .  0000 
0.9540 

1  .  0630 
1.0600 
1  .  0482 
1.0000 

UNIT  OF  QUANTITY. — The  quantity  of  elec- 
tricity that  flows  per  second  past  a  cross-sec- 
tion of  a  conductor  carrying  a  current  of  one 
ampere  is  a  Coulomb. 

The  practical  unit  is  the  quantity  that 
flows  per  hour,  and  is  measured  in  ampere- 
hours. 

UNIT  OP  CAPACITY:  THE  FARAD. — The 
capacity  of  two  conductors  insulated  from 
each  other  is  the  number  of  coulombs  of  elec- 
tricity required  to  be  given  to  one  conductor, 
the  other  being  supposed  at  zero  potential,  to 
produce  a  difference  of  pressure  of  1  volt  be- 
tween the  two.  The  unit  of  capacity  is 
called  a  "farad,"  and  two  conductors  ar- 
ranged in  a  form  known  as  a  condenser  of  1 
farad  capacity  would  be  raised  to  a  difference 
of  pressure  of  1  volt  by  a  charge  of  1  coulomb 
of  electricity.  The  practical  unit  used,  how- 


ever, has  a  capacity  one-millionth  of  a  farad — 
i.e.,  a  microfarad. 

JOULE. — When  a  power  of  one  watt  is  being 
developed,  the  work  done  per  second  is  some- 
times called  a  "Joule."  Hence,  one  joule 
equals  0.7375  foot-lb.,  and 

1  watt-second  =    1  joule. 

1  watt-minute  =60  joules. 

1  horse-power  hour  =  1,980,000  foot-lbs. 

1  horse-power  hour  =  2,685,600  joules. 

(W.  E.  Ayrton.} 

WATT. — A  "watt"  is  the  power  developed 
in  a  circuit  when  one  ampere  flows  through 
it,  and  when  the  potential  difference  at  its  ter- 
minals is  one  volt ;  hence  the  number  of  watts 
developed  in  any  circuit  equals  the  product  of 
the  current  in  amperes  flowing  through  it  into 
the  potential  difference  at  its  terminals  in 
volts.  Therefore 

1  watt  is  the  power  developed  when  44.25 
foot-lbs.  of  work  are  done  per  minute. 

1  watt  is  the  power  developed  when  0.7375 
foot-lb.  of  work  is  done  per  second. 

1  watt  equals  rigth  of  a  horse-power. 

(W.  E.  Ayrton.') 

CALORIE. — The  amount  of  heat  required  to 
raise  1  kilogram  of  water  1°  C.  is  the  unit  of 
heat  employed  on  the  Continent. 

1  calorie  =  4,200  joules  =  42  X  109  ergs. 

1  joule  =  0.000238  calories. 

INDUCTION:  THE  HENRY. — The  induction 
in  a  circuit  when  the  difference  of  electrical 
pressure  induced  in  the  circuit  is  1  volt, 
while  the  inducing  current  varies  at  the  rate 
of  1  ampere  per  second,  is  called  a  "Henry." 

THE  ELECTRO-MAGNETIC  SYSTEM  OF 
ELECTRIC  UNITS. 

UNIT  OP  CURRENT. — That  current  which, 
flowing  in  a  conductor  1  centimeter  long,  and 
of  1  centimeter  radius,  produces  at  the  center 
of  the  arc  a  magnetic  field  of  unit  strength. 

This  unit  is  ten  times  the  ampere. 

UNIT  OF  POTENTIAL. — Unit  difference  of 
potential  exists  between  the  ends  of  a  con- 
ductor, when  the  expenditure  of  1  erg  per 
second  will  cause  unit  current  to  flow. 

This  E.M.F.  is  equal  to  one  hundred- 
millionth  of  a  volt. 

Note. — The  erg  =  work  done  by  a  force  of  1 
dyne  through  a  distance  of  one  centimeter 
=  0.001019  gramme — cent  =  0.00000007386  foot- 
lb.  (London). 

UNIT  OF  RESISTANCE  is  that  resistance 
which  requires  unit  difference  of  potential  to 
cause  unit  current  to  flow. 

This  resistance  is  1,000-millionth  of  an 
ohm. 

For  ready  reference  the  units  most  fre- 
quently used  in  practice  are  tabulated  below, 
together  with  their  value  in  C.G.S.  absolute 
units. 


Electrical  Quantity. 

Name  of  Unit. 

Dimensions  of  Unit. 

Value  in  C.G.S.  Units. 

Resistance.  .  . 

Ohm  

L77-* 
LIMIT"* 
L\MVT~* 

L2MT~2 

L-1T2 

Z>M7;-3 

109  C.C 
10"1 
108 
107 
10~9 
10-« 
107 
10«> 
109X36 
1012X3 

J.S.  un 

5 

its. 

Current  
Electrical  pressure  
Energy  
Capacity  
Capacity  

Ampere  
Volt  
Joule  

Farad 

Microfarad  
Watt  
Kilowatt.  . 

Power  
Work  
Work  

Watt-hour  
Kilowatt-hour.  .  .  . 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


495 


UNITS  OF  FORCE,  PRESSURE,  WORK, 
POWER. 

FORCE. — 1  dyne  =  that  force  which  acting 
on  1  gramme  for  1  second  gives  it  a  velocity  of 
1  centimeter  per  second  (being  absolute  unit 
of  force  in  the  C.G.S.  system,  independent  of 
local  variations  of  gravity). 

1  gram  weight  =  at  Paris,  980  dynes;  at 
London,  981  dynes;  at  Glasgow,  982  dynes. 

1  pound  weight  =  453.6  grams  weight; 
=  at  Paris,  444,528  dynes;  at  London,  444,987 
dynes. 

PRESSURE. — 1  pound  per  square  inch  =  0.0703 
kilogram  per  square  centimeter. 

1  kilogram  per  square  centimeter  =  14.2  Ibs. 
per  square  inch. 

1  atmosphere  =  30  in.  of  mercury  =  nearly 
70  centimeters  of  mercury  =  nearly  15  Ibs.  per 
square  inch  =  nearly  1,000,000  dynes  per 
square  centimeter. 

The  following  will  serve  to  illustrate  the 
magnitude  of  some  of  these  units: 

10  ft.  of  pure  copper  wire  0.01  in.  diameter 
is  almost  exactly  equal  to  1  ohm. 

The  current  usea  in  an  ordinary  incandes- 
cent lamp  of  16  candle-power  is  about  0.6 
ampere. 

The  electrical  pressure  of  the  terminals  of 
the  cell  usually  used  for  electric  bells  (Le- 
clanche)  is  about  1.4  volt. 

1  watt          =  about  44±  f  oot-lbs.  per  minute. 

746  watts     =  1  horse-power. 

1  kilowatt   =  about  1£  horse-power. 

An  easy  way  to  convert  watts  into  the 
equivalent  horse-power  is  to  mark  off  three 
places  and  add  one-third:  Thus, 

What  is  the  equivalent  horse-power  of 
27,000  watts? 


Set  off  three  decimal  places. 
Add  one-third 


27.000 
9.000 


And  the  horse-power  required  =      36 

Find  the  equivalent  number  of  watts  of  48 
electrical  horse-power  ? 


Multiply  the  horse-power  by  1,000,  thus 

48X1,000  =48,000 

Subtract  one-quarter,  *8^  =  12,000 


And  the  required  number  of  watts 


=  36,000 


RESISTANCE. 

CONDUCTORS. — Nearly  all  substances  as 
they  occur  in  nature  conduct  electricity — i.e., 
if  the  substance  is  joined  to  a  source  of  elec- 
trical energy,  a  magnetic  field  is  created 
around  it.  Roughly,  three  groups  of  con- 
ductors may  be  formed,  but  of  very  varying 
degree:  1st,  good  conductors,  pure  metals, 
and  alloys  of  metals;  2d,  at  a  long  interval, 
solutions  of  electrolytes — i.e.,  solutions  ca- 
pable of  being  decomposed  by  the  passage  of 
an  electric  current  through  them;  and  3d, 
very  bad  conductors,  such  as  India  rubber, 
ebonite,  shellac,  sulphur,  glass,  slate,  mar- 
ble, stoneware,  mica,  dry  wood  and  paper, 
animal  fibers  (silk,  wool,  furs),  petroleum  oil, 
paraffin  wax,  ozqkerit,  pitch,  bitumen,  etc. 
Usually,  in  practical  work,  the  first  class  is 
spoken  of  as  conductors,  and  the  third  class 
as  insulators. 

RESISTANCE. — The  resistance  of  a  con- 
ductor is 

(a)  Directly  proportional  to  its  length; 
(6)  Inversely  proportional  to  its  cross-sec- 
tional area;  (c)  Directly  proportional  to  its 
specific  resistance;  (rf)  and  usually  increases 
with  its  temperature. 

SPECIFIC  RESISTANCE. — The  specific  re- 
sistance of  a  substance  is  usually  stated  as 
the  resistance  between  the  faces  of  a  cube  of 
the  substance,  1  centimeter  in  length  and  1 
square  centimeter  in  cross-sectional  area. 

The  law  of  resistance  may  be  stated  thus, 
neglecting  the  effect  of  temperature: 

B-4 

where 

fl  =  the  resistance  in  ohms; 
/  =the  length  of  conductor; 
s  =  the  cross-sectional  area  of  the  conductor ; 
p  =  the  specific  resistance  of  the  material. 


RESISTANCE   OF  METALS   AND   ALLOYS    (CHEMICALLY   PURE)   AT  32°  F. 
IN    STANDARD   OHMS. 


Metal. 

Specific 
Resistance 
Cubic  Cen- 
timeter 
Microhms. 

Resistance  per 

Relative 
Resist- 
ance. 

Foot, 
i^ff  Inch 
Diameter. 

Meter,  1 
Millimeter 
Diameter. 

Silver,  annealed 

1.5006 
1  .  6298 
1.61966 
1  .  73054 
2.0531 
2  .  0896 
2.9055 
5.6127 
9.0352 
9.6933 
19.584 
20.886 

24.329 
75 
96 

Ohms. 
9.0283 
9  .  8028 
10.2063 
10.4117 
12.3522 
12.5692 
17.4825 
33.7614 
54.3517 
58.308 
117.79 
125.62 

146.36 
447  .  50 
570.84 

Ohms. 
0.01911 
0.02074 
0.02160 
0.02204 
0.02614 
0.0266 
0.037 
0.071 
0.115 
0.123 
0.249 
0.266 

0.310 
0.95 
1.208 

.000 
.686 
.130 
.153 
.369 
.393 
1.935 
3.741 
6.022 
6.460 
13.05 
13.92 

16.21 
49.7 
62.73 

hard-drawn  
Copper,  annealed   . 

hard-drawn  

Gold,  annealed  

*  '      hard-drawn 

Aluminum,  annealed 

Zinc,  pressed  
Platinum,  annealed  

Iron,  annealed  

Lead,  pressed  
German  silver,  hard  or  annealed  
Platinum,  silver  alloy  (2  parts  silver  and   1 
part  platinum),  hard  or  annealed  
Manganese  steel  
Mercury.  .  . 

490 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


APPROXIMATE  PERCENTAGE   VARIA- 
TION  IN   RESISTANCE   AT 
ABOUT  20°  C.  (68°  F.) 

HEAT    AND    ELECTRICAL 
CONDUCTIVITY. 

Metal  or  Alloy. 

(a) 
Per 
1°C. 

& 

1°F. 

Substances. 

Heat 
Conductiv- 
ity. 

Electrical 
Conductiv- 
ity. 

Platinum  Silver  (  1  pt.  Plati- 
num to  2  pts.  Silver),  hard 
or  annealed  
German  Silver,  hard  or  an- 
nealed   
Mercury  
Bismuth,  pressed.  . 

0.031 

0.044 
0.072 
0.354 
0.365 
0.365 
0.365 
0.377 
0.387 
0.428 
0.5 

0.017 

0.024 
0.040 
0.197 
0.203 
0.203 
0.203 
0.209 
0.215 
0.238 
0.278 

Silver  
Copper  
Gold      . 

100.0 
73.6 
53.2 
23.6 
19.9 
14.5 
12.0 
11.9 
8.5 
6.4 
6.3 
1.8 

100.0 
73.3 
58.5 
21.5 

22.6 

is.'e 

10.7 
10.3 

'  Y.9 

Brass  
Zinc  
Tin  
Steel  
Iron  
Lead  
Platinum    .  .  . 

Gold  annealed   . 

Zinc,  pressed  
Tin, 

Silver,  annealed.  
Lead,  pressed   .  . 

Palladium  
Bismuth  

Copper,  annealed  
Iron  (about)  

— Practical  Engineer's  Electrical  Pocket-Book 
and  Diary. 


RESISTANCE  AND  WEIGHT  TABLE. 

American  gauge  for  cotton  and  silk-covered  and  bare  copper  wire. — The  resistances  are 
calculated  for  pure  copper  wire. 

The  number  of  feet  to  the  pound  is  only  approximate  for  insulated  wire. 


Feet  per  Pound. 

Resistance,  Naked  Copper. 

No. 

Diameter. 

Cotton 
Covered. 

Silk 
Covered. 

Naked. 

Ohms  per 
1,000  Feet. 

Ohms  per 
Mile. 

Feet  per 
Ohm. 

Ohms  per 
Pound. 

8 

.12849 

20 

.6259 

3.3 

1600 

.0125 

9 

.11443 

25 

.7892 

4.1 

1272 

.0197 

10 

10189 

32 

.8441 

4.4 

1185 

.0270 

11 

.09074 

40 

1.254 

6.4 

798 

.      .0501 

12 

.08081 

'  '  '42  '  ' 

'  '  '46  '  ' 

50 

1.580 

8.3 

633 

.079 

13 

.07196 

55 

60 

64 

1.995 

10.4 

504 

.127 

14 

.  06408 

68 

75 

80 

2.504 

13.2 

400 

.200 

15 

.  05707 

87 

95 

101 

3.172 

16.7 

316 

.320 

16 

.05082 

110 

120 

128 

4.001 

23 

230 

.512 

17 

.  04525 

140 

150 

161 

5.04 

26 

198 

.811 

18 

.0403 

175 

190 

203 

6.36 

33 

157 

1.29 

19 

.  03539 

220 

240 

256 

8.25 

43 

121 

2.11 

20 

.03196 

280 

305 

324 

10.12 

53 

99 

3.27 

21 

.  02846 

360 

390 

408 

12.76 

68 

76.5 

5.20 

22- 

.  02535 

450 

490 

514 

16.25 

85 

61.8 

8.35 

23 

.  02257 

560 

615 

649 

20.30 

108 

48.9 

13.3 

24 

.0201 

715 

775 

818 

25.60 

135 

39.0 

20.9 

25 

.0179 

910 

990 

1,030 

32.2 

170 

31.0 

33.2 

26 

01594 

1,165 

1,265 

1,300 

40.7 

214 

24.6 

52.9 

27 

.01419 

1,445 

1,570 

1,640 

51.3 

270 

19.5 

84.2 

28 

01264 

1,810 

1,970 

2,070 

64.8 

343 

15.4 

134 

29 

.01126 

2,280 

2,480 

2,617 

81.6 

432 

12.2 

213 

30 

.01002 

2,805 

3,050 

3,287 

103 

538 

9.8 

338 

31 

.  00893 

3,605 

3,920 

4,144 

130 

685 

7.7 

539 

32 

.  00795 

4,535 

4,930 

5,227 

164 

865 

6.1 

856 

33 

.  00708 

6,200 

6,590 

206 

1033 

4.9 

1357 

34 

0063 

7,830 

8,330 

260 

1389 

3.8 

2166 

35 

00561 

9,830 

10,460 

328 

1820 

2.9 

3521 

36 

.005 

12,420 

13,210 

414 

2200 

2.4 

5469 

SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


497 


WEIGHT   IN   POUNDS   PER   MILE   OP'   COPPER    WIRE. 


Num- 
ber. 

Roeb- 
ling. 

Bir- 
ming- 
ham. 

Brown 
& 

Sharpe. 

English 
Legal 
Stand- 
ard. 

Num- 
ber. 

Roeb- 
ling. 

Bir- 
ming- 
ham 

Brown 
& 

Sharpe. 

English 
Legal 
Stand- 
ard. 

0000 

2,466 

3,286 

3,375 

2,555 

14 

102 

110 

65 

102 

000 

2,092 

2,884 

2,677 

2,210 

15 

83 

83 

52 

83 

00 

1,750 

2,305 

2,123 

,933 

16 

64 

68 

41 

65 

0 

1,504 

1,846 

1,684 

1,682 

17 

47 

53| 

f 

33 

50 

1 

1,278 

1,437 

1,335 

,437 

18 

35 

38 

26 

37 

2 

1,104 

1,287 

1,058 

'  ,216 

19 

27 

28 

20| 

26 

3 

950 

1,071 

839 

,012 

20 

19 

19^ 

16± 

20i 

4 

808 

904 

665 

860 

21 

16 

16- 

13 

161 

5 

684 

773 

528 

718 

22 

12 

12i 

m 

6 

588 

657 

418 

588 

23 

10 

10- 

xl 

Qi 

7 

500 

517 

332 

495 

24 

8 

1\ 

§» 

n 

8 

419 

435 

263 

409 

25 

6 

61 

5i 

ef 

9 

350 

350 

209 

332 

26 

5 

5 

4 

5 

10 

291 

287 

166 

263 

27 

4J 

• 

4 

3} 

4 

11 

230 

230 

131 

215 

28 

4 

3| 

• 

8 

3* 

12 

176 

190 

104 

173 

29 

3} 

| 

2> 

2 

3 

13 

135 

144 

83 

135 

30 

3^ 

21 

• 

If 

a$ 

WIRE    GAUGES,   IN    DECIMAL    PARTS 

TABLE  INDICATING  SIZE,  WEIGHT, 

OF    AN    INCH. 

AND  LENGTH  OF  IRON  AND  STEEL 

Num- 

Bir- 

Eng- 

Old 

WIRE. 

ber  of 

Brown 

ming- 

lish 

Eng- 

Wire 

Roeb- 

& 

ham 

Legal 

lish, 

Gauge. 

ling. 

Sharpe. 

or 
Stubs. 

Stand- 
ard. 

or  Lon- 
don. 

Gauge 
Num- 

Diam- 
eter, 

Wight 
of  100 

V^Af 

Wight 
of  One 

Milo 

Feet 
in  2000 

Area, 
Square 

000000 

0.46 

0.464 

bers. 

Ins. 

-T  G6t. 

Lbs. 

Mile, 
Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Ins. 

00000 

0.43 

0.432 

0000 

0.393 

'  6.46' 

'6.454' 

0.4 

6.454'  ' 

000 

0.362 

0.40964 

0.425 

0.372 

0.425 

3-0 

.362 

34.73 

1834 

5,759 

.102921 

00 

0.331 

0.3648 

0.380 

0.348 

0.38 

2-0 

.331 

29.04 

1533 

6,886 

.086049 

0 

0.307 

0.32495 

0.340 

0.324 

0.34 

1-0 

.307 

25.00 

1318 

8,000 

.074023 

1 

0.283 

0.2893 

0.3 

0.3 

0.3 

1 

.283 

21.23 

1121 

9,425 

.062901 

2 

0.263 

0.25763 

0.284 

0.276 

0.284 

2 

.263 

18.34 

968 

10,905 

.054325 

3 

0.244 

0.22942 

0.259 

0.252 

0.259 

3 

.244 

15.78 

833 

12,674 

.046759 

4 

0.225 

0.20431 

0.238 

0.232  0.238 

4 

.225 

13.39 

707 

14,936 

.039760 

5 

0.207 

0.18194 

0.22 

0.212 

0.22 

5 

.207 

11.35 

599 

17,621 

.033653 

6 

0.192 

0.16202 

0.203 

0.192 

0.203 

6 

J92 

9.73 

514 

20,555 

.028952 

7 

0.177 

0.14428 

0.18 

0.176 

0.18 

7 

.177 

8.30 

439 

24,906 

024605 

8 

0.162 

0.12849 

0.165 

0.16 

0.165 

8 

.162 

6.96 

367 

28,734 

.020612 

9 

0.148 

0.11443 

0.148 

0.144 

.148 

9 

.148 

5.80 

306 

34,483 

.017203 

10 

0.135 

0.10189 

0.134 

0.128 

0.134 

10 

.135 

4.83 

255 

41  ,408 

.014313 

11 

0.12 

0.09074 

0.12 

0.116 

0.12 

11 

.120 

3.82 

202 

52,356 

.011309 

12 

0.105 

0.08081     0.109 

0.104 

0.109 

12 

.105 

2.92 

154 

68,493 

.008659 

13 

0.092 

0.07196    0.095 

0.092 

0.095 

13 

.092 

2.24 

118 

89,286 

.006647 

14 

0.08 

0.064081    0.083 

0.08 

0.083 

14 

.080 

1.69 

89 

118,343 

.005026 

15 

0.072 

0.05706 

0.072 

0.072 

0.072 

15 

.072 

1.37 

72 

145,985 

.004071 

16 

0.063 

0.05082 

0.065 

0.064  '0.065 

16 

.063 

1.05 

55 

190,476 

.003117 

17 

0.054 

0.04525 

0.058 

0.056  0.058 

17 

.054 

0.77 

41 

259,740 

.002290 

18 

0.047 

0.0403 

0.049 

0.048  0.049 

18 

.047 

0.58 

31 

344,827 

.001734 

19 

0.041 

0.03589 

0.042 

0.04     0.04 

19 

.041 

0.45 

24 

444,444 

.001320 

20     0.035 

0.03196 

0.035 

0.036  0.035 

20 

.035 

0.32 

17 

625,000 

.000962 

21 

0.032 

0.02846 

0.032 

0.032  jO.0315 

21 

.032 

0.27 

14 

740,741 

.000804 

22 

0.028 

0.02534 

0.028 

0.028  0.0295 

22 

.028 

0.21 

11 

952,381 

.000615 

23 

0.025 

0.02257 

0.025 

0.024   0.027 

23 

.025 

0.175 

9.24 

.000491 

24 

0.023 

0.0201 

0.022 

0.022  10.025 

24 

.023 

0.140 

7.39 

.000415 

25 

0.02 

0.0179 

0.02 

0.02     0.023 

25 

.020 

0.116 

6.124 

.000314 

26 

0.018 

0.01594 

0.018 

0.018  0.0205 

26 

.018 

0.093 

4.91 

.000254 

27 

0.017 

0.01419 

0.016 

0.01640.01875 

27 

.017 

0.083 

4.382 

.000227 

28 

0.016 

0.01264 

0.014 

0.0148|0.0165 

28 

.016 

0.074 

3.907 

.000201 

29 

0.015 

0.01125 

0.013 

0.01360.0155 

29 

.015 

0.061 

3.22 

.000176 

30 

0.014 

0.01002 

0.012 

0.0124:0.01375 

30 

.014 

0.054 

2.851 

.000154 

31      0.0135    0.00893 

0.010 

0.01160.01225 

31 

.0135 

0.050 

2.64 

.000143 

32  i  0.013      0.007951   0.009 

0.01080.01125 

32 

.013 

0.046 

2.428 

.C00132 

33 

0.011 

0.007081   0.008 

0.01     0.01025 

33 

.011 

0.037 

1.953 

.000095 

34 

0.01 

0.0063 

0.007 

0.00920.0095 

34 

.010 

0.030 

1.584 

'.'.'.'.'..  .000078 

35 

0.0095 

0.00561 

0.005  !   0.00840.009 

35 

.0095 

0.025 

1.32 

.000071 

36 

0.009 

0.005     i   0.004  1   0.0076J0.0075 

36 

.009 

0.021 

1.161 

.000064 

498 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


ELECTRICAL  HORSE-POWER. 

EXC 


Calculated  from 


746  * 


E.M.F.  in  Volts. 


10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

110 

120 

130 

140 

150 

0.06 

0.13 

0.20 

0.28 

0.33 

0.40 

0.47 

0.53 

0.60 

0.67 

0.73 

0.80 

0.87 

0.93 

1.0 

0.13 

0.28 

0.40 

0.53 

0.67 

0.80 

0.93 

1.07 

1.2 

1.3 

1.4 

1.6 

1.6 

1.9 

2.0 

0.28 

0.53 

0.80 

1.07 

1.3 

1.6 

1.9 

2.1 

2.4 

2.7 

2.9 

3.2 

3.5 

3.7 

4.0 

0.40 

0.80 

1.2 

1.6 

2.0 

2.4 

2.8 

3.2 

3.6 

4.0 

4.4 

4.8 

5.2 

5.6 

6.0 

0.53 

1.07 

1.6 

2.1 

2.6 

3.2 

3.7 

4.2 

4.8 

5.3 

5.9 

6.4 

6.9 

7.5 

8.0 

0.67 

1.30 

2.0 

2.6 

3.3 

4.0 

4.6 

5.4 

6.0 

6.7 

7.4 

8.0 

8.7 

9.4 

10.0 

0.80 

1.6 

2.4 

3.2 

4.0 

4.8 

5.6 

6.4 

7.2 

8.0 

8.8 

9.6 

10.4 

11.2 

12.0 

0.93 

1.9 

2.8 

3.7 

4.6 

5.6 

6.5 

7.5 

8.4 

9.4 

10.3 

11.2 

12.3 

13.1 

14.0 

1.07 

2.1 

3.2 

4.2 

5.4 

6.4 

7.5 

8.5 

9.6 

10.7 

11.8 

12.8 

13.9 

15.0 

16.0 

1.2 

2.4 

3.6 

4.8 

6.0 

7.2 

8.4 

9.6 

10.8 

12.0 

13.2 

14.4 

15.6 

16.9 

18.0 

1.3 

2.7 

4.0 

5.3 

6.7 

8.0 

9.4 

10.7 

12.0 

13.4 

14.7 

16.0 

17.4 

18.7 

20.0 

1.4 

2.9 

4.4 

5.9 

7.4 

8.8 

10.3 

11.8 

13.2 

14.7 

16.2 

17.6 

19.1 

20.6 

22.0 

1.5 

3.2 

4.8 

6.4 

8.0 

9.6 

11.2 

12.8 

14.4 

16.0 

17.6 

19.2 

20.9 

22.5 

24.0 

1.6 

3.5 

5.2 

6.9 

8.7 

10.4 

12.3 

13.9 

15.6 

17.4 

19,1 

20.9 

22.6 

24.4 

26.0 

1.9 

3.7 

5.6 

7.5 

9.4 

11.2 

13.1 

15.0 

16.9 

18.7 

20.6 

22.5 

24.4 

26.2 

28.0 

2.0 

4.0 

6.0 

8.0 

10.0 

12.0 

14.0 

16.0 

18.0 

20.0 

22.0 

24.0 

26.0 

28.0 

30.0 

E.H.P.  on  current  line,  under  E.M.F. 


COMPOSITION    AND     ELECTROMOTIVE     FORCE     OF     BATTERY    CELLS. 


Name. 

Electrodes. 

Solutions. 

E.M.F. 

Clark. 

Pure  mercury  and 

The  mercury  is  covered  with  a 

1.434  at  15°  C.  at  any 

pure  zinc. 

paste   of   mercurous   sulphate 

temp  t°  C.  it  is 

and  a  saturated  solution  of  zinc 

sulphate,  in  which  is  placed  the 

1.434[1-.0008«°-15°)]. 

rod  of  zinc. 

Daniell. 

Copper  and  zinc. 

The  zinc  is  immersed  in  a  solu- 
tion of  zinc  sulphate,  and  the 

Depends  upon  the  den- 
sities of  the  solutions; 

copper  in  a  solution  of  copper 

it  varies  from  1.07  to 

sulphate. 

1.14  volts. 

Groves. 

Platinum  and  zinc. 

The  platinum  is  immersed  in  a 

About  1.93  volts. 

strong  nitric  acid,  and  the  zinc 

in  dilute  sulphuric  acid. 

Bunsen. 

Carbon  and  zinc. 

The  carbon  in  nitric  acid,  and 

About  1.74  volts. 

the    zinc    in    dilute    sulphuric 

acid. 

Leclanche. 

Carbon  and  zinc.. 

The  carbon  is  packed  in  a  porous 

About  1.47  volts;  but  is 

pot  with  peroxide  of  manga- 

quickly    reduced      if 

nese    and  broken  gas  carbon. 

used  to  send  a  strong 

The  zinc  is  immersed  in  solu- 

current. 

tion  of  sal  ammoniac. 

Potash  -  bichro- 
mate. 

Carbon  and  zinc. 

The  best  solution  is  1  Ib.  of  potas- 
sium-bichromate, 2  Ibs.  strong 
sulphuric  acid  sp.  gr.  1.836,  and 
12  Ibs.   water,  in  which  both 

About   2  volts;    but   is 
quickly  reduced  if  em- 
ployed to  send  a  strong 
current. 

electrodes  are  immersed,   the 

zinc    being    withdrawn    when 

the  cell  is  not  in  use. 

— Practical    Engineers'  Electrical    Pocket  Book. 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


499 


STANDARD     TABLE     OF     HEIGHT     AND     WEIGHT. 

Weight. 


Maximum. 

Standard. 

Minimum. 

4  fe 
4 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
G 
6 
0 
6 
6 

et  10  inc 
11 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 

2 
3 
4 

hes  

150 
160 
167 
174 
181 
188 
195 
200 
205 
210 
215 
220 
225 
230 
235 
240 
245 
250 
255 

105 
110 
115 
120 
125 
130 
135 
140 
145 
150 
155 
160 
165 
170 
175 
180 
185 
190 
195 

83 
87 
92 
96 
100 
104 
108 
112 
115 
120 
125 
130 
135 
140  ' 
145 
150 
155 
160 
165 

•  ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 

•  ::::::::::'::::::::::::::::::::: 

• 

-Table  furnished  by  F.  L.  Hoffman,  Insurance  Statistician. 


THE    AMERICAN    EXPERIENCE    TABLE    OF    MORTALITY. 


Age. 

Expectation 
of  Life  in 
Years. 

Number 
Dying  in 
Each  1,000. 

Age. 

Expectation 
of  Life  in 
Years. 

Number 
Dying  in 
Each  1,000. 

20 

42.20 

7.81 

60 

14.10 

26.69 

21 

41.53 

7.86 

61 

13.47 

28.88 

22 

40.85 

7.91 

62 

12.86 

31.29 

23 

40.17 

7.96 

63 

12.26 

33.94 

24 

39.49 

8.01 

64 

11.67 

36.87 

25 

38.81 

8.07 

65 

11.10 

40.13 

26 

38.12  ' 

8.13 

66 

10.54 

43.71 

27 

37.43 

8.20 

67 

10.00 

47.65 

28 

36.73 

8.26 

68 

9.47 

52.00 

29 

36.03 

8.35 

69 

8.97 

56.76 

30 

35.33 

8.43 

70 

8.48 

61.99 

31 

34.63 

8.51 

71 

8.00 

67.67 

32 

33.92 

8.61 

72 

7.55 

73.73 

33 

33.21 

8.72 

73 

7.11 

80.18 

34 

32.50 

8.83 

74 

6.68 

87.03 

35 

31.78 

8.95 

75 

6.27 

94.37 

36 

31.07 

9.09 

76 

5.88 

102.31 

37 

30.35 

9.23 

77 

5.49 

111.06 

38 

29.62 

9.41 

78 

5.11 

120.83 

39 

28.90 

9.59 

79 

4.74 

131.73 

40 

28.18 

9.79 

80 

4.39 

144  47 

41 

27.45 

10.01 

81 

4.05 

158.61 

42 

26.72 

10.25 

82 

3.71 

174.30 

43 

26.00 

10.52 

83 

3.39 

191  .  56 

44 

25.27 

10.83 

84 

3.08 

211.36 

45 

24.54 

11.16 

85 

2.77 

235.55 

46 

23.81 

11.56 

86 

2.47 

265.68 

47 

23.08 

12.00 

87 

2.18 

303.02 

48 

22.36 

12.51 

88 

1.91 

346.69 

49 

21.63 

13.11 

89 

1.66 

395.86 

50 

20.91 

13.78 

90 

1.42 

454.55 

51 

20.20 

14.54 

91 

1.19 

532.47 

52 

19.49 

15.39 

92 

.98 

634.26 

53 

18.79 

16.33 

93 

.80 

734.18 

54 

18.09 

17.40 

94 

.64 

857.14 

55 

17.40 

18.57 

95 

.50 

1000.00 

56 

16.72 

19.89 

57 

16.05 

21.34 

58 

15.39 

22.94 

59 

14.74 

24.72 

500 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


THE    AMOUNT    OF    ONE    DOLLAR    AT    COMPOUND    INTEREST. 


End  of 
Year. 

3 
Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

4 
Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

5 
Per  Cent. 

6 
Per  Cent. 

7 
Per  Cent. 

1 

$1.03 

$1.04 

$1.04 

$1.05 

$1.05 

$1.06 

$1.07 

2 

.06 

.07 

1.08 

1.09 

1.10 

.12 

.14 

3 

.09 

.11 

1.12 

1.14 

1.16 

.19 

.23 

4 

.13 

.15 

1.17 

1.19 

1.22 

.26 

.31 

5 

.16 

.19 

1.22 

1.25 

1.28 

.34 

.40 

6 

.19 

.23 

1.27 

1.30 

1.34 

.42 

.50 

7 

.23 

.27 

1.32 

.36 

1.41 

.50 

.61 

8 

.27 

.32 

1.37 

.42 

1.48 

.59 

1.72 

9 

.30 

.36 

1.42 

.49 

1.55 

.69 

1.84 

10 

.34 

.41 

1.48 

.55 

1.63 

.79 

1.97 

11 

.38 

.46 

1.54 

.62 

1.71 

1.90 

2.10 

12 

.43 

.51 

1.60 

.70 

1.80 

2.01 

2.25 

13 

.47 

.56 

1.67 

.77 

1.89 

2.13 

2.41 

14 

.51 

.62 

1.73 

.85 

1.98 

2.26 

2.58 

15 

.56 

.68 

1.80 

.94 

2.08 

2.40 

2.76 

16 

.60 

.73 

1.87 

2.02 

2.18 

2.54 

2.95 

17 

.65 

.79 

1.95 

2.11 

2.29 

2.69 

3.16 

18 

.70 

.86 

2.03 

2.21 

2.41 

2.85 

3.38 

19 

.75 

.92 

2.11 

2.31 

2.53 

3.03 

3.62 

20 

1.81 

.99 

2.19 

2.41 

2.65 

3.21 

3.87 

21 

1.86 

2.06 

2.28 

2.52 

2.79 

3.40 

4.14 

22 

1.92 

2.13 

2.37 

2.63 

2.93 

3.60 

4.43 

23 

1.97 

2.21 

2.46 

2.75 

3.07 

3.82 

4.74 

24 

2.03 

2.28 

2.56 

2.88 

3.23 

4.05 

5.07 

25 

2.09 

2.36 

2.67 

3.01 

3.39 

4.29 

5.43 

26 

2.16 

2.45 

2.77 

3.14 

3.56 

4.55 

5.81 

27 

2.22 

2.53 

2.88 

3.28 

3.73 

4.82 

6.21 

28 

2  29 

2.62 

3.00 

3.43 

3.92 

5.11 

6.65 

29 

2  36 

2.71 

3.12 

3.58 

4.12 

5.42 

7.11 

30 

2.43 

2.81 

3.24 

3.75 

4.32 

5.74 

7.61 

31 

2.50 

2.91 

3.37 

3.91 

4.54 

6.09 

8.15 

32 

2.58 

3.01 

3.51 

4.09 

4.76 

6.45 

8.72 

33 

2.65 

3.11 

3.65 

4.27 

5.00 

6.84 

9.33 

34 

2.73 

3.22 

3.79 

4.47 

5.25 

7.25 

9.98 

35 

2.81 

3.33 

3.95 

4.67 

5.52 

7.69 

10.68 

36 

2.90 

3.45 

4.10 

4.88 

5.79 

8.15 

11.42 

37 

2.99 

3.57 

4.27 

5.10 

6.08 

8.64 

12.22 

38 

3.07 

3.70 

4.44 

5.33 

6.39 

9.15 

13.08 

39 

3.17 

3  83 

4.62 

5.57 

6.70 

9.70 

13.99 

40 

3  26 

3.96 

4.80 

5.82 

7.04 

10  29 

14.97 

41 

3.36 

4.10 

4.99 

6.08 

7.39 

10.90 

16.02 

42 

3  46 

4.24 

5.19 

6.35 

7.76 

11.56 

17.14 

43 

3.56 

4.39 

5.40 

6.64 

8.15 

12.25 

18.34 

44 

3  67 

4.54 

5.62 

6.94 

8.56 

12.99 

19.63 

45 

3.78 

4.70 

5.84 

7.25 

8.99 

13.76 

21.00 

46 

3.90 

4.87 

6.07 

7.57 

9.43 

14.59 

22.47 

47 

4  01 

5.04 

6.32 

7.92 

9.91 

15.47 

24.05 

48 

4.13 

5.21 

6.57 

8.27 

10.40 

16.39 

25.73 

49 

4  26 

5.40 

6.83 

8.64 

10.92 

17.38 

27.53 

50 

4.38 

5.58 

7.11 

9.03 

11.47 

18.42 

29.46 

1  =  1. 

2  =  11. 

3  =  111. 

4  =  IV. 

5  =  V. 
6=VI. 
7  =  VII. 


9  =  IX. 
10  =  X. 
20  =  XX. 
30  =  XXX. 
40  =  XL. 
50  =  L. 
60  =  LX. 
70  =  LXX. 
80  =  LXXX. 


ROMAN    NOTATION. 

90  =  XC. 
100  =  C 

500  =  D,  orLo. 
1,000  =  M,  or  CO. 
2,000  =  MM,  or  II 
5,000  =  V,  or  LOO. 
6,000  =  VI,  orMMM. 
10,000  =  X,  or  COO- 
50,000  =  L,  or  LOOO. 
60,000  =  LX,  or  MMMO. 
100,000  =  C^  or  COOO- 
1, 000,000  =  M,  or  COOOO- 
2,000,000  =  MM,  or  MMOOO- 
A  line  over  a  number  increases  it   1,000 
times. 


IKDEX. 


PAGE 

Abbreviations,  Astro- 
nomical   456 

Abrasive          Materials, 

Production  of 347 

Academy,  Naval  ;  Regu- 
tions  Governing  Ad- 
mission to 68,  69 

Academy     of     Sciences, 

National     320 

Accidents,   British    165 

Accidents,  Cause  of.  ...395 
Accidents  in  Factories.. 394 

Accidents,    Fatal 395 

Accidents  at  Sea 18 

Acetylene  Gas  Discov- 
ered (1836) 220 

Actors,          Professional 

Showmen,  etc 161 

Aerial    Navigation 392 

Agents    162 

Agricultural      i  m  p  1  e  - 

ments    260 

Agricultural       i  m  p  1  e  - 

ments,  Exports  of... 276 
Agricultural       i  m  p  1  e  - 
ments,    Value   of   Ex- 
ports   299 

Agricultural  Laborers.  .  161 
Agriculture,          Depart- 

partment    of 313 

Air    487 

Air  Brake    (1869) 222 

Air,    Data 452 

Air       Ship       Perfected 

(1901)    224 

Air   to   Test   for    Sewer 

Gas    452 

Alabama,  Population  of.138 

Alaska    170 

Alewives    368 

Alligator   Hides    369 

Alphabet,   Cable 198 

Alphabet,  Greek 458 

Altair     459 

Altitude  and  Azimuth.  .454 
Aluminum,    Production 

of    344 

American        Experience 

Table  of  Mortality.. 499 
American       Locomotive 
(the)          Seventy-one 

Years'  Growth  of 127 

American  Republics,  In- 
ternational Bureau 
of 325 


A 

PAGE 

Ammonia,       Production 

of    346 

Ammunition    260 

Analemma    457 

Angle,  to  Bisect 403 

Angle   Shaft  Coupling.. .422 

Angles    399 

Angular   Lever 413 

Angular  Measure 474 

Angular   Measurement.  .454 
Animal       Industry, 

Bureau  of 314 

Animal  Power,   Horse.  .487 

Animal   Products 357 

Animal      Substances, 
Specific    Gravity    and 

Weight 479 

Animals,    Domestic, 

Number  and  Value.  .357 
Animals,  Exports  of... 276 

Animals,  Farm 304 

Animals,       Farm, 

Slaughtered 357 

Animals,    Farm,    Sold.  .357 
Animals,  Men  and,  Pull- 
ing Strength  of 490 

Animals,  Principal  Sta- 
tistics of 361 

Annapolis,     Regulations 
Governing    Admission 

into    68,   69 

Anthony  Pollok  Prize.. 338 
Antarctic    Explorations.   12 

Antifriction   Curve 406 

Antimony,       Production 

of    345 

Antipyrene    (1884) 223 

Antiseptic      Surgery 

(1865)    222 

Aphelion     and     Perihe- 
lion     455 

Apples — Legal  Weight.. 372 

Apples,  Production 360 

Apothecaries'    Liquid 

Measure   465 

Apothecaries'     Measure, 
U.     S.    and    Imperial 
Measure  Compared..  .465 
Apricots,  Production.  .  .360 

April,   Heavens  in 461 

Arbitration,    Permanent 

Court  of 338 

Arc  Lamps,  Number .  .  .  382 

Arc,  to  Plot  Out 404 

Architects,       Designers, 
Draftsmen,  etc 161 


PAGE 

Arcturus 459 

Area  of  Countries  of  the 

World 143 

Area  and  Population.  .  14 
Area  and  Population  of 

States   (1900) 158 

Area  and  Population  of 

the  U.   S 170 

Areas,    Equal,    Kepler's 

Law  of 455 

Aries,  First  Point  of.  .455 
Arizona,  Population  of.138 
Arkansas,  Population 

of 140 

Armies   of   the   Leading 

Powers 103 

Armies  of  the  Wrorld ; 
Peace  and  War  Foot- 
ing   105 

Armor      Protection      of 

Modern  War  Vessels..  56 
Army     of     the     United 

States,  The 91 

Arsenious  Oxide,  Pro- 
duction of 348 

Artesian  Well  (1840).. 221 
Artificial  Feathers  and 

Flowers    260 

Artificial  Limbs 260 

Artistic  Properties,  In- 
ternational Unions  for 

Protection   of 340 

Artists'    Materials 260 

Artists     and     Teachers 

of  Art    161 

Asbestos,  Production  of.349 
Asphaltum,  Production 

of 349 

Asses,       Number       and 

Value    357 

Assignments 228 

Association       for       Ad- 
vancement of  Science.325 
Astronomical      Symbols 
and  Abbreviations.  .  .456 

Astronomy    453 

Atomic  Weights,  Inter- 
national   444 

Attendance,  School.  ..  .174 
August,  Heavens  in.  .  .  .462 
Austria,  Patents  in.  .  .  .229 

Avoirdupois  Weight 466 

Awnings,      Tents,      and 

Sails 260 

Axle    Grease 260 

Azimuth,  Altitude  and..454 


Babbitt  Metal  Discov- 
covered  (1839) 221 

Babbitt  Metal  and  Sol- 
der   260 

Bags,  Paper 260 

Bags,  other  than  Pa- 
per   260 

Bakers    ,  . .  162 


Baking  and  Yeast  Pow- 
ders    200 

Ball-bearing  Devices.  .  .436 
Ball  and  Socket  Joints.. 422 

Balls,   Weight  of 487 

Balloon.    Gas,    Invented 

(1783)    219 

Balloons 391 

501 


"Baltic."  The 31 

Bananas,   Production. .  .360 
Band  Saw   (1887) .... .224 

Bank   Deposits 300 

Bank  Clearings 300 

Bankers  and   Brokers..  162 

Banks.  National 300 

Barbed  Wire 354 


502 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


PAGE 

Barbed     Wire     Fencing 

(1861)    222 

Barbers  and   Hairdress- 
ers    161 

Barbette    83 

Barbette   of   Battleship, 

Section    Through ....    84 
Barley,  Legal  Weight .  .  372 

Barley,  Statistics 360 

Barometer'  (1643) 218 

Bartenders   161 

Barytes,  Production  of.. 349 
Baskets  and  Rattan  and 

.  Willow   Ware    260 

Bass,    Black 368 

Bass,  Sea 368 

Bass,  Strawberry 368 

Bass,    Striped 368 

Battery    Cells,     Compo- 
sition and  E.  M.  F.  .498 
Battery,  First    (1812).. 219 
Battery,      Storage,      In- 
vented  1812    219 

Battleship    56 

Battleshio,  Details  of ..    57 
Battleship,    Interior 

of    80,  81 

Battleship,    Section    of, 

80,  81 

Bauxite,   Production  of.349 
Beans,    Castor,    Statis- 
tics    358 

Beans,  Dry,  Statistics.  .358 
Beans,  Legal  Weight .  .  .  372 
Beets,  Legal  Weight .  .  .  372 
Beets,      Sugar,      Statis- 
tics     358 

Bell,   Alex.   G 217 

Bell-Crank  Lever 413 

Bells    260 

Bells,  Weight  of 390 

Belting     and     hose, 

Leather 260 

Belting     and     Hose, 

Linen    260 

Belting  and  Hose,  Rub- 
ber   260 

Belting,  Speed  of 439 

Belting,       Transmission 

of  Power  by 439 

Bible,       Weights       and 

Measures  of 474 

Bicycle        Invented 

(1855)    223 

Bicycle,   Safety    (1884). 223 
Bicycle  and  Tricycle  Re- 
pairing   260 

Bicycles  and  Tricycles.. 260 


INDEX — Continued. 

PAGE 

Billiard  Tables  and  Ma- 
terials   260 

Biological  Survey,  U.  S. 

Division  of 315 

Bismuth,  Production  of.345 

Black   Bass 368 

Blackberries,  Produc- 
tion   360 

Blacking   260 

Blacksmithing          and 

Wheelwrighting  260 

Blacksmiths   162 

Blanchard,  T 216 

Bleachery       and       Dye 

Works  Operatives 163 

Bluefish    368 

Bluing    260 

Board  Measure 482 

Board  Measure,  Conver- 
sion of  Cubic  Meas- 
ure into 483 

Boarding  and  Lodging- 
house  Keepers 161 

Boat   Signals 208 

Boatmen   and   Sailors..  162 
Boats,    Cross-Channel..   43 

Boats,     Fast 42 

Boats,    Irish 43 

Boiler  Tubes 491 

Boilers,   Steam 293 

Boiling  Points  of  Chem- 
ical Elements 451 

Bone,  Ivory  and  Lamp- 
black   260 

Bookbinders   163 

Bookbinding  and  Blank- 
book  making 261 

Bookkeepers  and  Ac- 
countants  162 

Boot     and      Shoe     Cut 

Stock    261 

Boot  and  Shoe  Find- 
ings   261 

Boot  and  Shoe  Uppers.. 261 
Boot     and     Shoemakers 

and   Repairers 163 

Boots  and  Shoes,  Cus- 
tom Work  and  Re- 
pairing   261 

Boots  and  Shoes,  Fac- 
tory Product 261 

Boots  and  Shoes,  Rub- 
ber   261 

Borax,  Production  of.  ..348 
Botanical          Investiga- 
tions   315 

Bottlers  and  Soda 
Water  Makers,  etc..  163 

Bottling 261 

Box   Makers    (Paper)..  163 
Boxes,  Cigar.  . 261 


PAGE 

Boxes,    Fancy    and 

Paper  261 

Boxes,       Wooden       and 

Packing    261 

Brake,  Car   (1872) 223 

Bran,  Legal  Weight. .  .  .  372 

Brass    261 

Brass       Castings       and 

Brass  Finishing 261 

Brass        and        Copper, 

Rolled 231 

Brass  Workers 163 

Brassware   261 

Bread  and  other  Bakery 

Products 261 

Breadstuffs.  Exports  of.276 
Brewers  and  Maltsters.. 163 

Brick  and  Tile 261 

Brick    and    Tilemakers, 

etc 162 

Bricks       and        Stones, 

Strength   of 483 

Bridges    261 

Bridges,  Length  of 390 

Bromine,  Production  of.348 

Bronze   Castings 261 

Broom  and  Brush- 
makers  1 63 

Broom  Corn,  Statistics.. 358 
Brooms  and  Brushes.  .  .261 

Brush,   C.   F 217 

Bu  kwheat,          Legal 

Weight   372 

Buckwheat,  Statistics.  .360 
Buhrstones,    Production 

of    348 

Buildings,  Height  of.  .  .389 
Bulls,        Number        and 

Value    357 

Bureau  of  International 

Geodosy    341 

Bureau,  International, 
of  Railroad  Trans- 
portation   341 

Bureau    for    Repression 

of  Slave  Trade 340 

Bureau    of    Telegraphs, 

International    339 

Bureau  of  Weights  and 
Measures.  Interna- 
tional . 339 

Bureaus.    International. 

Institutions  and 337 

Burros,      Number      and 

Value    357 

Butchers    162 

Butter  and  Cheese- 
makers  162 

Butter,   Production   of.  .357 

Butter,     Reworking 261 

Buttons    261 


C.      G.      S.      Electrical 

Standards    494 

Cabinetmakers   163 

Cable,   Alphabet 198 

Cable,     Wire     Required 

for     378 

Cables.  Submarine 193 

Caissons,     Invented 

(1841)    221 

Calcium  Carbide  (1893). 224 


Calcium  Lights 261 

Calculating  Machine 

(1822) 220 

California,      Population 

of    140 

Calorie   494 

Calves.      Number      and 

Value    357 

Cams    and    Cam    Move- 
ments    430 


Canada,  Patents  in.  .  .  .229 
Cane,    Sorghum,    Statis- 
tics    358 

Cane,  Sugar,  Production 

of    304 

Cane,   Sugar.  Btatistlca.358 
Cannon    Ball,    Velocitv 

of    '.383 

Cans.  Size  of  Tin  for.  .378 
Car  Brake  (1872) 223 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


503 


PAGE 

Car  Coupler   (1873).  .  .223 
Carbide,         Calcium 

(1893)    224 

Carbolic    Acid,    Discov- 
ered   (1834)     220 

Carborundum  (1893 ) . .  .  224 
Carborundum,      Produc- 
tion of   347 

Card    Cutting    and    De- 
signing     201 

Cardboard    261 

Carnegie  Hero  Commis- 
sion     341 

Carnegie  Institution.  .  .342 

Carp,    German 368 

Carpentering    261 

Carpenters  and  Joiners.162 
Carpet    Factory    Opera- 
tives    163 

Carpets,   Rag 261 

Carpets  and  Rugs,  other 

than  Rag 261 

Carpets,   Wool 261 

Carriage      and      Wagon 

Materials 261 

Carriages    298 

Carriages,  Exports  of.  .277 
Carriages      and      Sleds, 

Children's    261 

Carriages  and  Wagons. 261 
Carrots,  Legal  Weight.. 372 
Cars  and  General   Shop 
Construction   and  Re- 
pairs by   Steam  Rail- 
road Companies.  ..  .261 
Cars,        Railroad        and 
Sti-eet,    and    Repairs, 
not    including    Estab- 
lishments operated  by 
Steam  Railroad  Com- 
panies      261 

Cash  Carrier  (1875).. .  .223 
Casting.     Proportionate 
Weight  of.  to  Weight 

of  Wood  Pattern 490 

Castings,       Contraction 

of 492 

Castor     Beans,     Statis- 
tics    358 

Catfish    368 

Cathode  Rays   (1879).. 223 
Cattle,       Number      and 

Value    357 

Caveats    227 

Celluloid   (1870) 223 

Celluloid    and    Celluloid 

Goods 261 

Cement.       Portland 

(1825)    220 

Cement,  Production  of.. 347 

Census,  Bureau  of 323 

Center  of  Circle,  to  find. 4^3 

Chain  Gear 420 

Charcoal    231 

Charcoal.       Coke       and 

Lime  Burners 163 

Charcoal,  Legal  Weight. 372 
Cheese.      Butter      and 

Condensed   Milk 262 

Cheese.  Production  of.  .357 
Chemical    Elements, 
Boiling  Points  of . , ,  ,451 


INDEX — Continued. 

PAGE 
Chemical    Elements, 

Melting  Point  of 451 

Chemical  Materials,  Pro- 
duction of 348 

Chemical  Workers 162 

Chemicals   262 

Jhemicals     and     Allied 

Products 269 

Chemicals,     Common 

Names    of 445 

Chemistry    443 

Chemistry.  Bureau  of.. 314 
Cherries,  Production.  .  .360 

Chickens    355 

Chicory,    Statistics 358 

China  Decorating 262 

"  Chinese   Windlass  "..  .413 

Chloroform    (1847) 221 

Chloroform    Discovered 

(1831)    220 

Chocolate      and      Cocoa 

Products    262 

Chord 399 

Chromic  Iron  Ore,   Pro- 
duction of 349 

Chronograph,    The 453 

Cider,    Production 360 

Cider   Vinegar,    Produc- 
tion      360 

Circle,    Area 408 

Circle,   Circumference.  .408 
Circle,        Circumference 

and   Area 473 

Circle,    Diameter 408 

Circle,    Formulas    for.  .408 

Circle,   The 408 

Circle,    to    Find    Center 

of    403 

Circular    Measure 473 

Cities,      Population     of 

Greatest 16 

Citrons,    Production 360 

Civil  Service,  Classified.320 
Civil     Service    Commis- 
sion     320 

Civil    Service   Examina- 
tions      320 

Clams 369 

Clay.    Glass    and    Stone 

Products    269 

Clay  Products 347 

Clay  Products  in  1902.  .353 
Cleansing  and  Polishing 

Preparations   262 

Clergymen    161 

Clerks  and  Copyists 162 

Clock,  Sidereal 453 

Clocks     262 

Clock     and     Watchmak- 
ers and  Repairers.  .  .163 
Cloth.       Sponging      and 

Refinishing    262 

Clothing,    Horse 262 

Clothing,    Men's 262 

Clothing.      Women's 

Dressmaking    262 

Clothing.   Women's,  Fac- 
tory  Product 262 

Clover,  Legal  Weight.. 372 
Clover  Seed,  Statistics.. 358 

Clutches    420 

Coal,  Cost  in.  on  Liners  42 
Coal,  Legal  Weight 372 


PAGE 

Coal,  Production  of.304,  345 
Coast  and  Geodetic  Sur- 
vey     323 

Cobalt,    Oxide,    Produc- 
tion of    349 

Cod    368 

Code,    International ....  205 

Code,  Morse 187 

Coffee,     Imports 306 

Coffee,  Production 360 

Coffee  and  Spice,  Roast- 
ing and  Grinding 262 

Coffins,     Burial     Cases, 
and         Undertakers' 

Goods 262 

Coherer    (1891) 224 

Coinage  of  U.  S 300 

Coins,     Foreign,     Value 

of    386 

Coke   262 

Coke,    Legal   Weight... 372 
Coke,   Production  of... 346 
Collars   and    Cuffs,    Pa- 
per   (1890) 262 

Colleges,      Number      of 

Students   in 172 

Colleges,      Students     in 

Institutions  and.176,  308 
Colorado,  Population  of.140 
Colts.  Number  and 

Value    357 

"  Columbia"    49 

Columns,  Height  of 390 

Combs   262 

Commerce    Commission, 

Interstate    321 

Commerce    and     Labor, 

Department  of 322 

Commerce   of    Principal 

Customs   Districts.  .  .304 
Commerce,    Transporta- 
tion   of 304 

Commercial    Travelers. .  162 
Committee,    I  n  t  e  r  n  a- 
tional,      on      Atomic 
Weights,   Report   of.  .444 
Compass,    Points    of .  .  .      1 
Composition   and  E.   M. 

F.  of  Battery  Cells.  .498 
Compound  Equivalents, 

French  and  English. 471 
Compound  Interest ....  500 
Conductivity,  Electrical, 

and  Heat 496 

Conductors.  Electrical.. 495 
Cone,  Surface  and  Con- 
tents      473 

Confectioners    1 62 

Confectionery    ...262 

Conic   Sections 399 

Connecticut,  Population 

of    140 

Construction     and     Re- 
pair.  Bureau  of 318 

Cooperage 262 

Coopers 163 

Copper,    Production    of, 

306,  344 
Copper,    Smelting    and 

Refining   262 

Copper     Wire,     Weight 

per  Mile  of 497 

Copyrights   250 


504 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


PAGE 

Cord  Measure 482 

Cord  Measure,  Conver- 
sion into  Cubic  Meas- 
ure   482 

Cordage  and  Twine 262 

Cordials  and  Syrups.  .  .262 

Cork,  Cutting 262 

Corliss  Engine  (1849).. 221 
Corn,  Broom,  Statistics.358 
Corn,  Kaffir,  Statistics.. 358 

Corn,  Legal  Weight 372 

Corn       Meal,       Legal 

Weight   372 

Corn,    Production   of... 304 

Corn,    Statistics 360 

Corsets    262 

Corundum,      Production 

of    347 

Cost  of  Living 396 

Cotton,  Compressing.  .  .262 

Cotton,   Exports  of 278 

Cotton      Gin      Invented 

(1794)    219 

Cotton.  Ginning 262 

Cotton  Goods 262 

Cotton.       Manufactures 

of    306 

Cotton,  Middling.  Prices 

of    , 308 

Cotton  Mill  Operatives.  163 

Cotton    Movement 306 

Cotton,  Production  of.  .304 


INDEX — Continued. 

PAGE 
Cotton     Seed,     Legal 

Weight 372 

Cotton  Seed,   Statistics.358 

Cotton,     Statistics 360 

Cotton  Waste 262 

Coulomb,  Unit  of  Quan- 
tity   494 

Coupler,  Car   (1873)  .  .  .223 

Couplings,   Angle 422 

Court     of     Arbitration, 

Permanent     338 

Cows.        Number       and 

Value    361 

Crabs    369 

-Cranberries,         Legal 

Weight   374 

Crappie    368 

Crops,     Census     Statis- 
tics    358 

Crops,      Minerals      Ab- 
sorbed by 356 

Crops.     Principal,     Sta- 
tistics of 360 

Cross-Channel  Boats...    43 

Crucibles    262 

Cruiser,    Armored 56 

Cruiser,  Protected.  ....    56 
Cruiser   to   Racing   Ma- 
chine,   From 46 

Crushed    Steel,    Produc- 
tion  of 347 


PAGE 

Crystalline  Quartz,  Pro- 
duction of 347 

Cube,  Surface  and  Con- 
tents      473 

Cubic   Measure 465 

Cubic      Measure,      Con- 
version     into      Board 

Measure   483 

"  Cunarders."  The  New. 

with  illustration.  .33,  41 
Currants,  Production .  .360 
Currency  in  Circulation. 385 

Currency,    Paper 384 

Current.    Unit  of 493 

Curve,      Shield's.     Anti- 
friction     406 

Customary  Measures  to 

Metric   471 

Customs.  Receipts  from. 336 
Customs   Tariffs.    Inter- 
national    Publication 

of    340 

Cutlery  and  Edge  Tools.262 

Cuts  of  Meat 361 

Cyanide    Process 

(1887)    224 

Cycloid,  to  Construct.  .408 

Cyclones    208 

Cylinder.     Surface    and 

Contents    473 

Cyma,  to  Draw 404 


Daguerreotype      Discov- 
ered   (1839) 221 

Dairy  Farms 356 

Dairymen     and     Dairy- 
women    161 

Date       Line,       Interna- 
tional     199 

Day.      Siderial,      Solar, 

and  Mean  Solar 455 

Death  Rates 160 

Debt,  Public,  of  IT.  S..385 
December,  Heavens  in.  .464 
Decimal  Equivalents  and 

Fractions  of   Inch... 474 
Decimal    System, 
Weights     and     Meas- 
ures   470 

Decisions.   Patent 228 

Declination    456 

De  Forest  System 203 

"  Defender  "    49 

Defending  Harbor  Chan- 
nel, Method  of 85 

Delaware,       Population 

of    140 

Denominations,       Table 

of    398 

Density  of  the  Earth.  .456 
Dentistry,  Mechanical.  .262 

Dentists' 161 

Dentists'    Materials 262 

Department  of  Agricul- 
ture    313 

Department      of      Com- 
merce and  Labor ....  322 


Departments  of  Federal 

Government     311 

Department  of  Interior. 31 9 
Department  of  Justice. 311 
Department  of  Navy.  .  .316 
Department,     Post     Of- 
fice     316 

Department  of  Treas- 
ury   311 

Department  of  War... 312 
Depreciation      of      Ma- 
chinery      352 

Design  Patents 227 

Designs    239 

Destroyer.  Torpedo 
Boat,  Sectional  Dia- 
gram of 77 

"  Deutschland,"     S  u  p  - 

plies  of 38 

Diamond   M.    sure 466 

Dietaries,         Standards 

for    367 

Dietarv    Standards. .. .367 

Differential  Gear 428 

Dimensions  of  Earth.  .  .354 
Directions      for      Using 

Star  Map 459 

Discovery.    Progress   of. 

1     2.    3 

Distance.  Sun  from 
Earth,  not  always 

same 455 

Distilled  Spirits,  Con- 
sumption of .  .  , 308 


Distilled   Spirits,   Quan- 
tity  Consumed 397 

Distillers  and  Rectifiers.163 

Distress   Signals 206 

District     of     Columbia, 

Population  of 142 

Divisions,    Land,    of   U. 

S 355 

Docks  and  Yards, Bureau 

of    317 

Dog   Star,    Sirius 459 

Domes,  Dimensions  of.. 389 
Domestic  Animals,  Num- 
ber and   Value 357 

Drafting  Devices 438 

Drawing,   Signs  for 234 

Draymen,          Hackmen, 

Teamsters,   etc 162 

Dressmakers    163 

Drill.    Rock    (1854)  ...  .222 

Drug  Grinding 262 

Druggists'    P  r  e  p  a  r  a- 
tions.    not    including 

Prescriptions     262 

Dry    Measure 465 

Dry  Plates,  Sizes  of... 45? 
Dye    Stuffs    and    E  x  - 

tracts    262 

Dyeing  and   Cleaning.  .262 
Dyeing    and    Finishing 

Textiles    262 

Dynamite  (1868) 222 

Dynamo     (1866) 222 

Dynamos,   Number  of.. 381 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


505 


PAGE 

Eads,   J.   B 217 

Earth,  Density  of 456 

Earth,  Dimensions  of .  .  354 
Earth,      Fuller's,      Pro- 
duction of        350 

Earth.    Infusorial,    Pro- 
duction of 347 

Earth,  Magnitude  of.  .  .454 
Earth        Moves        with 

Varying    Velocity ....  455 
Earth,  Revolution  of,  in 

its  Orbit    455 

Earth,   Rotundity  of.  .  .454 
Earth  from  Sun  not  al- 
ways same  Distance.  .455 

Earth,  Velocity  of 383 

Earth's  Rotation,   Dem- 
onstration of 454 

Ecliptic,   Inclination   of, 
How  Determined.  ..  .455 

Edison,    T.    A 217 

Education    171 

Education,    C  o  m  m  i  s  - 

sioner  of 319 

Education,  Value  of... 171 

Eels   368 

Eggs 355 

Eggs,   Production  of... 357 
Electric    Light    and 

Power  Stations 379 

Electric  Locomotive 

(1851)    221 

Electric    Motors     in 

Mines  and  Quarries.  .353 
Electric  Power  Output.. 382 
Electric  Units.   Electro- 
Magnetic  System.  ..  .494 
Electric  Welding 

(1886)    224 

Electrical         Apparatus 
and  Supplies 262 


INDEX — Continued. 
E 

PAGE 

Electrical    Construction 

and  Repairs    262 

Electrical  Engineering.. 493 
Electrical  Horse-Power.498 
Electrical  Resistance  of 

Metals  and  Alloys.  .  .495 
Electrical  Standards,  C. 

G.   S 494 

Electrical     Units     of 

Measurement    493 

Electricians 161 

Electricity,  Velocity  of.. 383 
Electro-Magnet   (1825). .220 
Electro-Magnetic       Sys- 
tem of  Units 494 

E  1  e  c  t  r  o-Magnetism 

(1819)    220 

Electro-Motive  Force  of 

Battery   Cells 498 

Electroplating     (1805). .219 

Electroplating 262 

Electrolysis  (1853). ..  .222 
Elements,  Rare,  Value 

of    447 

Elements,   Table  of .  .  .  .443 

Elevator     (1861) 222 

Ellipse    399 

Ellipse,  Area  of 473 

Ellipse,      to     Construct 

406,  408 
Emery,   Production  of.. 347 

Emery    Wheels 262 

Employees,   Number  of.. 273 
Enameling    and    Enam- 
eled   Goods 262 

Engine,  Corliss  (1849). .221 
Engineers  (Civil,  etc.) 

and    Surveyors 161 

Engineers  and   Firemen 
(not    Locomotive) ..  .163 


PAGE 

Engines,  Steam 293 

English    Money,    Value 

of    389 

Engravers    163 

Engravers'   Materials. .  .263 
Engraving  and  Die-sink- 
ing   263 

Engraving,  Steel,  in- 
cluding Plate  Print- 
ing   263 

Engraving,  Wood 263 

Entomology,  U.  S.  Di- 
vision of 315 

Envelopes    263 

Equation   of  Time 456 

Equatorial  Telescope.  .453 
Equipment,  Bureau  of.  .317 
Equivalent,  Mechanical, 

of  Heat   483 

Equivalents,  French 
and  English  Com- 
pound   472 

Ericsson,   Capt.    John.  .217 

Escapements    424 

Establishments         and 

Products    272 

Europe.  Population  of.  .273 
Expansion  of  Liquids.  .485 
Expansion  '  of  Solids, 

Linear 485 

Expansion,  Territorial. .170 
Expenditures  of  U.  S. 

Government     300 

Experimental  Gardens.. .315 
Experiment  Stations, 

U.   S.  Office  of 314 

Explorations,  Antarctic.  12 

Explosives 263 

Exports    276,302 

Exports,  Merchandise ..  275 


Factories,  Accidents  in. .394 
Failures,  Commercial. .  .308 
Fancy  Articles,  not  else- 
where specified .263 

Farad — Unit      of      Ca- 
pacity      494 

Farm  Animals    304 

Farm      Crops,      Census 

Statistics    358 

Farm          Implements, 

Value    of 299 

Farm   Statistics 304 

Farmers,    Planters    and 

Overseers     161 

Farms     355 

Farms,   Dairy .'356 

Farms  and  Food 355 

February,  Heavens  in.  .461 
Feldspar,  Production  of.349 

Felt    Goods 263 

Fertilizers    263 

Fibrous    Talc,    Produc- 
tion of 349 

Figs.    Production 360 

Files    263 

Films.     Photographic 
(1854)     222 


Fire    Alarm    Telegraph 

(1852)    221 

Fire        Extinguishers. 

Chemical    263 

Fire  Losses,   Annual... 395 

Fire,  What  To  Do 396 

Firearms    263 

Fireworks    263 

First  Point  of  Aries.  .  .455 
Fish,  Canning  and  Pre- 
serving     263 

Fish,   Exports  of 278 

Fish    Oil 369 

Fisheries,    Bureau    of.  .324 
Fisheries,   Products  of. 368 
Fishermen    and    Oyster- 
men    162 

Flag  Day 19 

Flags  and  Banners.  ..  .263 
Flavoring  Extracts.  .  .  .263 

Flax,  Dressed 263 

Flaxseed,  Legal  Weight.374 

Flaxseed.  Statistics 360 

Fleece- Wool,  Prices  of.  .308 
Flint.  Production  of...  350 
Florida,  Population  of..  142 
Flounders  368 


Flowering      and      Grist 

Mill  Products    263 

Flowers,   Statistics 358 

Fluorspar,      Production 

of    348 

Flux,     Limestone,     Pro- 
duction of 350 

Food,  Farms  and 355 

Food,  Fuel  Value  of.  .  .362 
Food        and        Kindred 

Products    269 

Food   Preparations 263 

Food     Products,      Com- 
position   of 364 

Foods,     Functions     and 

Uses   361 

Forage    Plant,    Investi- 
gations,  Grass  and.  .315 

Force,   Unit  of 495 

Force  of  Wind 489 

Foreign     Coins,      Value 

of    386 

Foreign  Markets,   U.    S. 

Division   of 314 

Foreign  Patents 229 

Foreign     Weights     and 
Measures   467 


506 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


PAGE 

Foremen      and      Over- 
seers   162 

Forest  Products,  Statis- 
tics    358 

Forestry,   Bureau  of... 315 
Formulas       for       the 

Circle    408 

Foundry    and    Machine 

Shop  Products 263 

Foundry   Supplies 263 

Fractions    of    Inch    and 
Decimal  Equivalents.. 474 

France,  Patents  in 220 

Franklin,   Ben 216 

Freight      Cars,       Total 

Number  of 119 

Freight      Rates     on 
Wheat   .  ..308 


INDEX — Continued. 

PAGE 

French  and  English 
Compound  Equiva- 
lents   472 

Friction    485 

Friction    Clutches 420 

Friction  Gear 418 

Frogs    369 

Fruit  Products 360 

Fruits,  Orchard,  Statis- 
tics   360 

Fruits,  Small,  Statis- 
tics   360 

Fruits.  Subtropical.  Sta- 
tistics   '. 360 

Fruits  and  Vegetables. 
Canning  and  Preserv- 
ing   263 

Frustum  of  Cone  or 
Pyramid,  Contents. .  .473 


PAGE 

Fuel  Value  of  Food 362 

Fuels,  Production  of.  .  .345 
Fuels,       etc.,       Specific 
Gravity,    Weight    and 

Bulk   478 

Fuller's  Earth,  Produc- 
tion of 350 

Fulton,  Robert    216 

Fur   Goods 263 

Fur  Seal  Pelts 369 

Furnishing        Goods. 

Men's    263 

Furniture,  including, 
Cabinetmaking,  Re- 
pairing and  Uphol- 
stering   263 

Furs,  Dressed 2(>:i 


"Galatea"   48 

Galvanizing    263 

Galvanizing        Invented 

(1837)    220 

Galvanometer    ( 1822 )  .  .  220 
Gardeners,          Florists, 

Nurserymen,  etc....  161 
Gardens,  Experimental. .315 
Garnet,  Production  of.  .347 

Gas  Engine   (1877) 223 

Gas  Engines 293 

Gas  First  Used   (1792). 219 
Gas.     Illuminating    and 

Heating    263 

Gas  and  Lamp  Fixtures  263 
Gas       Machines       and 

Meters    263 

Gas     Meter,      How     to 

Read     384 

Gas  and  Oil  Stoves 263 

Gas,       Production      of, 

346,  354 
Gas,  Sewer,  to  Test  Air 

for    452 

Gas.  Water   (1823) 220 

Gases  and  Vapors.  Spe- 
cific Gravity,   Weight 

and  Volume 480 

Gatling   Gun    (1862). ..222 
Gauge.  U.  S..  Standard.493 

Gauges,   Wire 497 

Gear,  Chain 420 

Gear,    Differential 428 

Gear,    Friction 418 

Gear,   Mangle 428 

Gear,    Rope 420 

Gear,    Toothed 417 

Gear.  Variable  Speed.  ..418 
Gearing    426 


G 

Gearing,    Simple    Rules 

on   492 

General    Staff    of    War 

Department 312 

"  Genesta  "    48 

Geodesy,     International 

Bureau  of 341 

Geodetic   Survey,    Coast 

and 323 

Geographic       Names, 

Board  on 319 

Geographical    and   Nau- 
tical Measure 465 

Geological    Survey,    Di- 
rector of .319 

Geometrical      Construc- 
tions     402 

Geometrical    Figures.  .  .399 
Georgia,  Population  of.. 142 

German   Carp 368 

Germany.  Patents  in.  .  .229 
Glass,    Cutting,     Stain- 
ing and  Ornamenting.263 
Glass.      Sand,      Produc- 
tion of 350 

Glass   Workers 162 

Glove    Makers 163 

Gloves   and    Mittens.  .  .263 

Glucose   .  .  263 

Glue    263 

Goat    Hair,    Production 

of    35? 

Goats,      Number      and 

Value    357 

Gold,    Imports  and   Ex- 
ports     302 

Gold,      Production      of, 

304,  344 

Gold    and    Silver,    Leaf 
and    Foil..  ..263 


Gold  and  Silver,  Reduc- 
ing and  Refining,  not 

from  the  Ore 263 

Gold   and   Silver   Work- 
ers      163 

Gold,     World's    Produc- 
tion of 388 

Goodyear,    C 216 

Gooseberries,        Produc- 
tion     360 

Governors 438 

Grapes.    Statistics 358 

Graphite    and    Graphite 

Refining 263 

Graphite.  Production  of.350 
Graphophone  (1886)... 224 
Grass  and  Forage 

Plant  Investigations. 315 
Grass      Seed,      Legal 

Weight 374 

Grass  Seed.  Statistics.  .358 

Gravity,   Specific 445 

Grease  and  Tallow.  ..  .264 
Great  Britain,  Patents 

in    229 

"Great  Eastern."  The.  27 
"  Great  Eastern" 

Launched    ( 1859 ) 222 

Greek    Alphabet 458 

Grinding,    Speeds  of .  .  .352 

Grindstones    264 

Guava,  Production  of.. 360 

Gun  Cotton   (3846) 221 

Gun,     Magazine,     I  n  - 

vented    (1849) 221 

Guns,  in  the  Civil  War 
and      To-day,      Our 

Navy    89,  90 

Gypsum,  Production  of..348 


Haddock    ;..368 

Hairwork    264 

Hake    368 

Halibut    368 

Hammocks 264 

Hand   Knit   Goods..    ..264 


H 

Hand  Stamps 264 

Hand    Trades 269 

Harbor   Channel,   Meth- 
od of  Defending 85 

Hardness  of  Minerals.  .483 
Hardware    264 


Hardware,    Saddlery ..  .264 
Harness      and      Saddle- 
makers    and    Repair- 
ers     163 

Harveyized  Armor  Plate 
U888)    224 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


507 


PACE 

Hat  and  Cap  Makers.. 163 
Hat  and  Cap  Materials.2G4 
Hats  and  Caps,  not  in- 
cluding  Wool    Hats.  .264 
Hawaii,     Civil     Service 

in    321 

Hay,    Statistics 360 

Heat  of  Combustion.  .  .451 
Heat      and       Electrical 

Conductivity    496 

Heat,  Mechanical  Equiv- 
alent of 483 

Heat   of  Metals 483 

Heavens,  Star  Map  of.. 460 
Heifers,      Number     and 

Value    357 

Height       and       Weight, 
Standard  Table  of.  .  .499 

Hemp.  Statistics 358 

Henry,    Jos 217 

Henry,    Unit    of    Induc- 
tion     494 

Heptagon,  to  Construct.404 


INDEX— Continued. 

PAGE 

Hero   Commission,    Car- 
negie     341 

Herring    368 

Hertzian  Waves    (1888). 224 
Hewitt  Lamp    (1900)  .  .224 
Hexagon    to     Construc- 
tion in  Circle 404 

Hides,  Alligator 369 

Hog-s.      Number      and 

Value    361 

Hones  and  Whetstones.. 264 
Honey,   Production  of.. 357 

Honey,    Statistics 358 

Hooks    and    Eyes 264 

Hops,   Statistics 358 

Horse,  Animal  Power.  .487 
Horse,  How  to  Harness.392 

Horse-Power    487 

Horse-Power,  Electrical. 498 
Horse-Power.     Rough 

Way  to  Estimate. .  .  .491 
Horse,  Velocity  of 383 


PAGE 

Horses,      Number      and 

Value     : 361 

Horseshoes,          Factory 

Products 264 

Hosiery  and  Knit  Goods.264 
Hosiery     and     Knitting 

Mill  Operatives 163 

Hostlers    162 

Hotel    Keepers 161 

House     Furnishing 

Goods 264 

Household    Measures. .  .466 
Housekeepers  and  Stew- 
ards     161 

How  the  Population  of 
the   United    States   is 

Sheltered   157 

Howe,  Elias 217 

Hucksters  and  Peddlers.162 
Hydrogen,Lifting  Power 

of    392 

Hyperbola,  to  Construct.406 
Hypothenuse     399 


Idaho,  Population  of...  142 

Ice,  Manufactured 264 

Ice-making    Machine 

(1875)    223 

Ice  and  Snow 487 

Ice,  Strength  of 487 

Illinois,   Population  of.. 144 
Immigrants  Arrived.. .  .308 

Immigration    165 

Immigration,  Bureau  of.324 
Immigration,       Number 
and  Nationality    ....165 

Imports    302 

Imports   and   Exports.. 286 
Imoorts    and    Merchan- 
dise   292 

Incandescent  Gas  Light 

(1887)    224 

Incandescent   Lamps.  .  .382 
Inch,  Fractions  of,   and 

Decimal  Equivalents.. 474 
Inclination    of    Ecliptic, 
How   Determined.  ..  .455 

Inclined    Plane 416 

Increase  of  Population 
in  the  United  States 
and  the  Principal 
Countries  of  Europe 
from  1800  to  1900.  .  .141 
Index  of  Lathe,  To 

Obtain    491 

Indian,    Service    Expen- 
ditures     336 

Indiana,  Population  of.. 144 

Indians     164 

Induction.  The  Henry.  .494 
Industrial       Properties, 
International      Union 

for  Protection  of 340 

Industries,  Division  of.. 275 
Industries,     Localization 

of    257 

Industries,         Manufac- 
turing, of  U.   S 306 

Industries,   Rank  of... 270 


Industry,  Animal 
Bureau  of 314 

Industry,  Plant,  Bureau 
of  315 

Information  Relative  to 
Admission  of  Cadets 
to  West  Point 94 

Infringement 227 

Infusorial  Earth,  Pro- 
duction of 347 

Injector    (1858) 222 

Inu    264 

Institution,   Carnegie. .  .342 

Ins  titutions  and 
Bureaus,  I  n  t  e  r  n  a- 
tional  337 

Instruments,  P  r  o  f  e  s  - 
sional  and  Scientific. 264 

Interest   Compound.  ..  .500 

Interference 227 

Interior,  Department  of.319 

Internal  Revenue,  Re- 
ceipts from 336 

International  Atomic 
Weights  444 

International  Bureau  of 
American  Republics. .  325 

International  Bureau  of 
Geodesy  341 

International  Bureau  of 
Railroad  Transpor- 
tation   341 

International  Bureau  of 
Telegraphs  339 

International  Bureau  of 
Weights  and  Meas- 
ures   339 

International  Code  of 
Signals 205 

International  Institu- 
tions and  Bureaus. . .337 

International  Postal 
Union  338 

International  Racing 
Yacht,  Development 
of  48,  49 


International  Telegraph 

Code   ..    .187 

International  Union  for 
Protecting  Industrial, 
Literary,  and  Artis- 
tic Properties .  .  .340 

International  Union  for 
Publishing  Customs 

Tariffs    340 

Interstate         Commerce 

Commission 321 

Inventors,        D  i  s  t  i  n  - 

guished    American.  .  .216 
Inventions,  Progress  of.218 

Irish  Boats   43 

Iron,    Manufactures  of.. 306 
Iron  Ore,  Chromic  Pro- 
duction of 349 

Iron    Ores,    Production 

of    344 

Iron,    Production   of.  .  .344 

Iron  and  Steel 264 

Iron  and  Steel,  Bolts. 
Nuts,  Washers,  and 

Rivets     264 

Iron    and    Steel,    Doors 

and   Shutters    264 

Iron    and    Steel,    Forg- 

ings   264 

Iron  and  Steel.  Nails 
and  Spikes,  Cut  and 
Wrought.  including 

Wire   Nails    264 

Iron    and     Steel,    Pipe, 

Wrought     264 

Iron  and  Steel  Produc- 
tion   294 

Iron  and  Steel  and  their 

Products 269 

Iron  and  Steel  Workers  162 
Ironwork,  Architectural 

and   Ornamental 264 

Irrigation,  American. .  .273 
Isometric  Perspective.  .406 
Ivory  and  Bone  Work . .  264 


508 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


PAGE 

Janitors  and  Sextons..  .161 
January,    Heavens    in.. 461 

Japanning    264 

Jenny,  Spinning   (1763). 219 
Jewelry    ..264 


INDEX — Continued. 

J  PAGE 

Jewelry  and  Instrument 

Cases 264 

Jewish   Money 475 

Joints,  Universal 422 

Joule    .  ..494 


PAGE 

Journalists    161 

July,  Heavens  in 462 

June,  Heavens  in 462 

Jura  Tunnel 274 

Justice.  Department  of.. 311 
Jute  and  Jute  Goods.  ..264 


Kaffir  Corn,   Statistics.  .358 
Kansas,   Population  of.. 145 
Kaolin  and  other  Earth 
Grinding    264 


Kepler's   Law  of  Equal 

Areas    455 

Kindling    Wood 264 

Kinetoscope    ( 1893 ) 224 


First  (isfe) .220 

Kodak    (1888) 224 

Krag-Jorgensen   Rifle. .  .  100 


Labels   241 

Labels  and  Tags 264 

Labor,   Bureau  of 322 

Laborers    161 

Labor's  Death  Roll....  165 
"Lake,"  Submarine  Boat  75 

Lakes,   Great 11 

Lambs,      Number      and 

Value    357 

Lamp,  Miner's  (1815).. 220 
Lamps  and  Reflectors.  .264 
Land,  Divisions  of  U.  S.355 
Land  Lines  of  the 

World 185 

Land  Measure 465 

Land     Office,      Commi's- 

sioner    319 

Land  Turbines 43 

Land  and  Water 7 

Languages       of       the 

World    2 

Lapidary  Work 264 

Lard,   Refined 264 

Lasts    264 

Lathe,  To  Obtain  Index 

of    491 

Latitude,          Longitude 
Right — Ascension  and 

Declination    456 

Latitude,    Variation    in 

Length  of  Degrees.  .  .456 
Launderers    and    Laun- 
dresses    161 

Law    of    Equal    Areas, 

Kepler's    455 

Laws,   Patent 230 

Lawyers    161 

Lead,     Bar,     Pipe,     and 

Sheet    264 

Lead,  Production  of... 344 
Lead,  Smelting  and 

Refining 265 

Leather   Board 265 

Leather     Curriers     and 

Tanners    163 

Leather     and     its    Fin- 
ished Products 269 


Leather   Goods 265 

Leather,    Tanned,    Cur- 
ried and  Reh'nished.  .265 
Legal      Weights     per 

Bushel    372 

Lemons,   Production. ..  .360 
Letters,   How  to  Direct 

and  Mail    333 

Lever    Angular    or   Bell 

Crank    413 

Lever,    Common 413 

Levers,    Compound 413 

Libraries.  IT.  S 178 

Libraries  of  the  World.  184 
Life     Preserver,      First 

(1805)    219 

Life-Saving   Service,    U. 

S 44 

Life-Saving    Signals 208 

Light  Stations,  Electric.379 
Light,  Velocity  of.. 383.  455 

Lighthouse  Board 323 

Lighthouse       Establish- 
ment, The 45 

Limbs,    Artificial 

(1846)    221 

Lime  and  Cement 265 

Lime,   Legal   Weight .  .  .  374 

Limes.    Production 360 

Limestone      for      Flux, 

Production  of 350 

Line  to  Divide  Propor- 
tionately     403 

Linear      Expansion      of 

Solids 485 

Linear   Measure 465 

Linen  Goods 265 

Liners,  Atlantic 41 

Linotype   (1884) 223 

Liquid  Air  (1895) 224 

Liquid    Measure 465 

Liquids,   Expansion   of.. 485 
Liquids.    Specific    Grav- 
ity and   Weight 479 

Liouors  and  Beverages.. 269 
Liquors,    Distilled 265 


Liquors,    Malt 265 

Liquors,      Malt,     C  o  n  - 

sumption    of 308 

Liquors,  Quantity  Con- 
sumed   397 

Liquors.    Vinous 265 

Literary  Properties,  In- 
ternational Union  for 

Protection    of 340 

Literary    and    Scientific 

Persons    161 

Lithium,   Production  of.345 
Lithographing   and    En- 
graving      265 

Lithography,      Invented 

(1796)    219 

Livery  Stable  Keepers..  162 

Living.  Cost  of 396 

Lobsters 369 

Lock  and  Gunsmithing..265 
Lock,  Time  (1847) ...  .221 
Locomotive,  First 

(1804)    219 

Locomotive.      First      in 

U.  S.  (1814) 220 

Locomotives,      Compari- 
son with   Steamships.   34 
Log  Measure,  Units  of.  .482 

Longitude 456 

Lookingglass  and  Pic- 
ture Frames 265 

Loom.    Positive    Motion 

(1872)    223 

Louisiana,       Population 

of    146 

Lumber,  Planing  Mill 
Products,  including 
Sash,  Doors  and 

Blinds    265 

Lumber  and  its  Reman- 

ufactures   269 

Lumber,  Sawed,  Meas- 
urement of  483 

Lumber  and  Timber- 
Products  265 

Lumbermen  and  Rafts- 
men   161 


McCormick.  C.  H 216 

Machine    Elements 413 

Machinery,  Depreciation 

of 352 

Machinery.  Exports  of.  .280 

Machinists    162 

Mackerel    368 

Mackerel,  Spanish 368 


M 

Magazines    182 

Magnesite,      Production 

of    350 

Magnitude  of  the  Earth. 454 
Magnitudes      and      Dis- 
tances of   Stars 459 

Mail,  Carriage  of 335 


Mail     Transportation, 

Railroad  Mileage  of.  .335 
Maine,   Population  of..  146 

Malt    265 

Malt,  Legal  Weight 374 

Malt  Liquors,  Consump- 
tion of 308 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


509 


PAGE 

Malt  Liquors,  Quantity 

Consumed    397 

Manganese     Ores,     Pro- 
duction of 344 

Mangle  Gears 428 

Mantels,    Slate,    Marble 

and  Marbleized 265 

Manual    Power 488 

Manufacturers    and    of- 
ficials, etc 163 

Manufacturing       Indus- 
tries of  U.   S 306 

Map,  U.  S 168 

Maple  Sirup.   Statistics.358 
Maple  Sugar,  Statistics.358 
Marble   and   Stone  Cut- 
ters     162 

Marble  and  Stone  Work.265 
March,   Heavens  in.... 461 

Marconi    System 201 

Marine  Corps 318 

Markets,  Foreign,  U.  S. 

Division   of 314 

Marls,  Production  of.  .  .348 
Maryland,       Population 

of    146 

Masonry,      Brick      and 

Stone    265 

Masons      (Brick      and 

Stone)     162 

Massachusetts,    Popula- 
tion of 146 

Match  Machinery 

(1848)    221 

Matches   265 

Matches,       Friction 

(1827)    220 

Materials.  Cost  of 274 

Mats  and  Matting 265 

Mattresses    and    Spring 

Beds   265 

May,  Heavens  in 462 

"  Mayflower  "    48 

Mean    Solar   Day 455 

Measurement,    Angular. .454 
Measurement  of  Time.  .454 

Meat.  Cuts  of 361 

Mechanical     Equivalent 

of  Heat 483 

Mechanical  Movements.. 417 

Mechanics    162 

Melting     Points     of 

Chemical  Elements. .  .451 
Men  and  Animals.  Pull- 
ing Strength  of 490 

Menhaden    368 

Mensuration    473 

Mercerized    Cotton 

(1850)    221 

Merchandise.     Imported 

and  Exported 286 

Merchant  Marine 21 

Mergenthaler,   0 218 


INDEX — Continued. 

PAGE 
Messengers,  Errand,  and 

Office   Boys    162 

Metal  and  Metal  Prod- 
ucts, other  than  Iron 

and  Steel 269 

Metal-W  o  r  k  i  n  g  Ma- 
chinery   294 

Metallic      Products      in 

1902    351 

Metals  and  Alloys,  Re- 
sistance of 495 

Metals,  Heat  of 483 

Metals,   Strength  of 486 

Metals,       Weight       and 

Volume     480 

Metals,  Weights  for 
Various  Dimensions.  .489 

Metric  Measures 471 

Metric  Measures,  Ap- 
proximate Equiva- 
lents   470 

Metric       Measures       to 

Customary 471 

Mica,   Production  of.  ..350 
Michigan,  Population  of.146 

Micrometer,    The 453 

Microphone    (1891) 224 

Middlings,      P  u  r  i  fi  e  r 

(1875)    223 

Midshipmen,  Regula- 
tions Governing  Ad- 
mission of 68,  69 

Military  Bureaus 312 

Milk,  Production  of .  .  .  .357 

Milk.  Statistics 358 

Millers    162 

Millet,    Legal    Weight.. 374 

Milliners    163 

Millinery,  Custom  Work, 265 
Millinery       and       Lace 

goods    265 

Millstones    265 

Millstones,      Production 

of    348 

Mine,  Ground 86 

Mine,  The  Submarine.  .    84 
Mineral      Paints,      Pro- 
duction of .  . 349 

Mineral      Products      in 

1902    351 

Mineral    Production    of 

U.  S 343 

Mineral      and     Soda 

Waters 265 

Mineral    Substances, 
Specific     Gravity, 
Weight  and  Volume.. .477 
Mineral     Waters,     Pro- 
duction of 350 

Minerals     Absorbed     by 

Crops    356 

Minerals,  Hardness  of.  .483 
Miners  and  Quarry  men. 162 


PAGE 

Mines   343 

Mines,  Summary 353 

Mining   343 

Minnesota,      Population 

of 148 

Mirrors    265 

Miscellaneous  Indus- 
tries   269 

Miscellaneous  Informa- 
tion   379 

Miscellaneous     Move- 

ments 432 

Mississippi,    Population 

of    .......    148 

Missouri,  Population  of.149 

Model    of    the    16-inch 

Gun,  Exhibited  at  the 

Louisiana      Purchase 

Exposition,  St.  Louis, 

1904    101 

Model  and  Pattern- 
makers   163 

Models  and  Patterns.  .  .265 
Mohair,  Production  of.. .357 
Molybdenum,       Produc- 
tion of 345 

Monazite,  Production  of.350 
Money     Circulation     in 

U.  S 300 

Money.   Jewish 475 

Money  Order  Business.  .334 
Money      Orders,       Fees 

for   329 

Money,  Roman 475 

Monitor    (1862) 222 

Montana,  Population  of.149 

Morse,  S.  F.  B 216 

Morse  Telegraph  Code..  187 
Mortality.  American  Ex- 
perience Table  of .  .  .  .499 
Motive      Power      Appli- 
ances     292 

Motor,      Electric,      I  n  - 

vented  (1834) 220 

Mowers     and     Reapers, 

Value  of  Exports.  .  .  .299 
Mucilage  and  Paste.  .  .265 
Mules,  Number  and 

Value    361 

Mullet   368 

Musical  Instruments 
and  Materials,  not 

specified 265 

Musical  Instruments, 
Organs  and  Materi- 
als   265 

Musical  Instruments, 
Pianos  and  Materials.265 

Musical    Signs 397 

Musicians  and  Teachers 

of   Music 161 

Mussel  Shells ...369 


Nails,  Memorandum 
Concerning  491 

Names,  Common,  of 
Chemicals  445 

Names  of  Principal 
Stars  458 

National    Banks 300 


Natural  Gas,  Produc- 
tion of 346 

Nautical  and  G  e  o  - 
graphical  Measure. .  .465 

Naval  Academy.  Regu- 
lations Governing  Ad- 
mission into 68,  69 


Naval  and  Marine 
Corps,  The  Pay  of. .  .  90 

Naval  Powers,  Sea 
Strength  of  the  Prin- 
cinal  60,  61 

Navies.  Relative  Order 
of  Warship  Strength.  59 


510 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


PAGE 

Navies,        Relative 

Strength  in  Material.  59 
Navies  of  the  World ...    53 
Navies   of    World    Com- 
pared       55 

Navies  of  World,  Dia- 
gram Showing  Rela- 
tive Size  of 55 

Navies  of  World,  Dia- 
gram Showing  Rela- 
tive Strength  of 54 

Navies  of  World,  Rela^ 
tive  Strength  of. ....  54 

Navigation,    Aerial 392 

Navigation,  Commercial 

Bureau  of 324 

Navigation,    Naval 

Bureau  of 310 

Navy,  Department  of.  ..316 

Navy  Projectiles 87 

Navy,  The  United  States  67 
Navy,      United     States, 
List  of  Ships  of...  70,   71 
72,  73.  74,    75 
Navy,      United     States, 
Summary 75 


INDEX— Continued. 

PAGE 

Nebraska,        Population 

of    140 

Nebular  Hypothesis.  .  .  .457 

Needles  and  Pins 2(55 

Nernst   Lamp    (1897)  .  .224 

Nets  and  Seines 265 

Nevada.   Population  of.. 150 
New     Hampshire,     Pop- 
ulation  of 150 

New  Jersey,  Population 

of    150 

New  Mexico,  Population 

of    150 

New  Springfield  Maga- 
zine Rifle  Compared 
with  Krag-Jorgensen, 
Mauser  and  German 

Military  Rifle 100 

New    York,    Population 

of    150 

News,  Gathering  of .  .  .  .184 

Newspapers 182 

Newspapers  and  Peri- 
odicals Published 308 

Nickel,  Production  of.. 345 


PAGE 

Nickel,   Steel    (1889)... 224 

Nobel  Prizes 337 

Nodes 455 

Non-Metallic        Produc- 
tion in  1902 351 

Normal    Schools 175 

North  Carolina,  Popula- 
tion of 150 

North    Dakota,    Popula- 
tion of   152 

North   Star    459 

Notation.   Roman 500 

Notes,   Musical 307 

November,  Heavens  in.. 463 
Number     of     Operating 
and     Lessor     Compa- 
nies   by    States    and 

Territories,    1902 136 

Nursery   Products,    Sta- 
tistics      358 

Nurses  and  Midwives.  .161 
Nutation     and     Preces- 
sion      456 

Nutrients,    Use  of 361 

Nuts,    Statistics 358 


Oakum    265 

Oats,    Statistics 360 

Observation,  Sphere  of.. 454 
Ocean     Steamers,     Sup- 
plies of    38 

"Oceanic,"   The 27 

Octagon,  to  Construct.  .406 
October,  Heavens  in... 463 
Officials  of  Banks  and 

Companies 162 

Otncials,  Government.  .161 
Ohio,  Population  of...  152 

Ohm's    Law 493 

Oil,    Castor 265 

Oil,    Cotton    Seed    and 

Cake 265 

Oil,  Essential 265 


Oil,  Fish 369 

Oil,  Lard 265 

Oil,  Linseed 265 

Oil,  Olive,  Statistics. .  .360 

Oil,  Resin 266 

Oil  Well  and  Oil  Works 

Employees  162 

Oil,  Whale 369 

Oilcloth,  Enameled 266 

Oilcloth,  Exports  of.  .  .281 

Oilcloth,  Floor 266 

Oilstones,  Production 

of  348 

Oklahoma,  Population 

of  152 

Oleomargarine  (1868).. 222 
Oleomargarine  266 


Olive  Oil,  Production ..  360 

Olives,    Production 360 

Onions,  Legal  Weight .  .  374 

Onions,  Statistics 358 

Optical    Goods 266 

Oranges,   Production.  .  .360 
Orchard   Products,    Sta- 
tistics     360 

Ordnance,  Bureau  of.  .  .317 
Ordnance    and    O  r  d  - 

nance   Stores 266 

Oregon,  Population  of.  .153 

Oyster    Shells 369 

Oysters   369 

Oysters,     Canning     and 
Preserving    266 


Packers  and  Shippers.  .162 
Painters,    Glaziers    and 

Varnishers    162 

Painting      and      Paper- 
hanging    266 

Paints   266 

Paints.     Mineral,     Pro- 
duction of 349 

Panama  Canal 24 

Panama  Strip 170 

Paper   184 

Paper  Currency 384 

Paper,  Exports  of 282 

Paper   Goods,    not   else- 
where specified 266 

Paperhangers    162 

Paperhangings    266 

Paper       Mill,       First 

(1690)    218 

Paper    Patterns 266 

Paper  and  Printing 269 

Paper    and     Pulp    Mill 

Operatives 163 

Paper  and  Wood  Pulp.. 266 


Papers,   News 182 

Parabola,   to  Construct, 

406,  408 

Parallax     454 

Parallax,    Solar 457 

Parallelogram 309 

Parallelogram,  Area  of.473 
Parallelogram,    to    Con- 
struct    403 

Parallelepiped    399 

Parts  by  Volume  to  Re- 
duce Parts  by  Weight.473 
Passenger    Cars,    Total 

Number  of 119 

Passengers    Landed....   26 
Passengers,  Transatlan- 
tic         25 

Passports    394 

Pathological  and  Physi- 
o  1  o  g  i  c  al  Investiga- 
tions of  Vegetables.  .315 
Patent     Medicines    and 

Compounds 266 

Patent  Laws 230 


Patent  System,  History 

of    245 

Patents    211 

Patents,     Commissioner 

of    310 

Patents,   Design 227 

Patents,   General   Infor- 
mation on   225 

Patents  Issued 308 

Patents      Issued      Each 

Year   215 

Patents,  Number  of... 215 
Patents,  Number  of 

Live    215 

Pattern,  Weight  of,  and 

Weight  of  Casting.  .  .490 
Paving  and  Paving  Ma- 
terials     266 

Pay  of  Naval   and  Ma- 
rine Corps.  The 90 

Peaches,  Legal  Weight.. 374 
Peaches,  Production .  .  .  360 
Peanuts,  Legal  Weight. 376 
Peanuts,  Statistics 358 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


511 


PAGE 

Pears,  Legal  Weight.    .376 


Pears,  Production .  .  . 
Peas,  Dry,  Statistics. 
Peas.  Legal  Weight .  . 
Pelts  of  Fur  Seal 


.360 
.358 
.376 
.369 


Pencils,   Lead 266 

Pennsylvania,  Popula- 
tion of 153 

Pens,       Fountain      and 

Stylographic    266 

Pens,   Gold 266 

Pens,    Steel 266 

Pensioners 164 

Pensioners,  Number  of, 
and  Amount  of  Dis- 
bursement   164 

Pensions,       C  o  m  m  i  s  - 

sioners  of 319 

Pentagon   402 

Pentagon,     to     Inscribe 

in   Circle 404 

Peppermint,  Statistics.  .358 

Perch,  Pike 368 

Perch,    White 368 

Perch,  Yellow 368 

Perfumery  and  Cos- 
metics   266 

Perihelion  and  Aphe- 
lion   455 

Period     of     Planet,     to 

Find    . 457 

Periodicals,  Newspa- 
pers, and 308 

Permanent      Court      of 

Arbitration    338 

Persimmons,  Produc- 
tion   360 

Perspective,   Isometric. .  406 
Petroleum,    Crude,    Pro- 
duction of 354 

Petroleum,      Production 

of    304 

Petroleum,      Production 

of    346 

Petroleum,   Refining. ..  .266 
Philippine      Civil      Ser- 
vice     321 

Philippine  Islands 170 

Phonograph    ( 1877 ) 223 

Phonographs 298 

Phonographs         and 

Graphophones 266 

Phosphate  Rock,  Pro- 
duction of 348 

Photo  Prints  Discov- 
ered (1871)  221 

Photographers   163 

Photographic  Appara- 
tus   266 

Photographic      Mate- 

rials     266 

Photography   266 

Photography,  Dry  Plate 

(1855) 222 

Photolithographing  and 

photoengraving   266 

Physicians  and  Sur- 
geons   Iftl 

Pickerel    368 

Pickles,    Preserves    and 

Sauces 266 

Pig  Iron,  Prices  of 308 


INDEX — Continued. 

PAGE 

Pig     Iron,      Production 

of    304 

Pigeon,  Carrier,  Ve- 
locity of 383 

Pigments,       Production 

of    349 

Pike,    Perch 368 

Pike  and  Pickerel 368 

Pin  Wheel,  Variable.  .  .418 
Pineapples,  Production. 360 
Pinion,  Cam — Toothed.. 418 

Pipes    487 

Pipes.  Tobacco 266 

Planet,   to   Find   Period 

of 457 

Planetary  System,  Some 

Elements  of 458 

Planets,       Measurement 

of  Size 456 

Plant  Industry,  Bureau 

of    315 

Plant  and  Seed,  Intro- 
duction   316 

Plants,     Statistics 358 

Plasterers     162 

Plated  and  Britannia- 
ware  266 

Plates,  Dry,  Sizes  of...  .452 
Platinum,  Production 

of    344 

Plow,  Electric  (1890).. 224 
Plow,  Invention  of 

(1784)    219 

Plow,  Steam   (1879)... 223 
Plows,     Value     of     Ex- 
ports      299 

Plumbers   and  Gas  and 

Steamfitters     162 

Plumbers'    Supplies 266 

Plumbing  and  Gas  and 

Steamfitting   266 

Plums,    Production 360 

Pocketbooks    266 

Polar  Regions 8,     9 

"Polaris"     459 

Polishing,  Speeds  of... 352 

Polygon    402 

Polygon,  Area  of.. 406,  473 
Polygon,  to  Construct.  .406 
Polyphase  Currents 

(1887)    224 

Pomological  Investiga- 
tions   315 

Population  of  Cities 
having  at  least  25,- 
000  Inhabitants  in 

1900    159 

Population       of      the 

Earth   

Population  of  Europe.  .273 
Population,  Foreign 

Born 161 

Population  Living  in 
Cities  within  specified 
limits  of  size  and  in 
Country  Districts. 

1900    158 

Population     of     United 

States    300 

Population      of      the 

World     155 

Porters  and  Helpers 
(in  stores,  etc.) 162 


PAGE 

Porto    Rico 170 

Porto  Rico,  Civil  Ser- 
vice in  321 

Postal  Expenditures.  .  .334 
Postal  Information.  ..  .327 

Postal    Revenue 333 

Postal  Service,  Compar- 
ison of 332 

Postal  Service  ofWorld.329 

Postal    Statistics 335 

Postal  Subjects 333 

Postal  Subjects,  Sug- 
gestions on 333 

Postal  Telegraph  Co.  .  .188 
Postal  Union,  Universal 

International    338 

Post  Office 327 

Post  Office  Department. 316 
Post      Office,      Expendi- 
tures of 334 

Post  Offices,  Number.  .  .308 
Post  Offices,  Number  of.334 
Post  Office,  Receipts .  .  .  308 
Post  Office,  Statistics.  .308 

Post   Routes 334 

Post  Routes,  Extent  of.. 334 
Potatoes,  Legal  Weight.376 

Potatoes,  Statistics 360 

Potatoes,  Sweet,  Statis- 
tics   358 

Potential,  Unit  of 494 

Potters     162 

Pottery,  Terra  Gotta 
and  Fire-clay  Prod- 
ucts   266 

Poultry  Industry    355 

Poultry,  Production  of.. 357 
Power,  Animal,  Horse.  .487 

Power,   Manual 488 

Power     in     Mines     and 

Quarries    353 

Power,  Summary  of... 293 
Power,  Transmission  of, 

by   Belting 439 

Precession  and  Nuta- 
tion   456 

Precious  Stones,  Pro- 
duction of 350 

Press,       Washington 

(1829)     220 

Pressure,  Unit  of 495 

Prices  of  Staple  Com- 
modities   308 

Printers,   Lithographers 

and   Pressmen 163 

Printing  Materials 266 

Printing  Press   (1620). .218 
Printing    and    Publish- 
ing    180,  266 

Prism,  Surface  and  Con- 
tents   473 

Prize,  Anthony  Pollok...338 

Prizes.    Nobel 337 

Progress    of    Discovery, 

1,  3,  4,  5,     6 

Progress  of  U.  S 300 

Projectiles,  A  Group  of 

Navy   87 

Protection  of  Indus- 
trial. Literary  and 
Artistic  Properties, 
International  340 


512 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


PAGE 

Provisioning  an  Ocean 
Liner  40 

Public  Debt,  Statement 
of  U.  S 300,301 

Public  Debt  of  the  U.  S.385 

Public  Road  Inquiries, 
Office  of 316 

Publications,  U.  S.  Di- 
vision of 316 

Pulleys    413 


Quadrangle    402 

Quadrilateral   402 


INDEX— Continued. 

PAGE 

Pulleys,  Rope 420 

Pulleys,   Rules   for   Cal- 
culating  Speed  of. . .492 
Pulling  Strength  of  Men 

and  Animals 490 

Pulp  Goods 266 

Pulp,  from  Fiber,  other 

than   Wood 266 

Pulp,    Wood    (1858)... 222 

Q 

Quarries      and      Mines, 
Summary    353 


PAGE 

Pumice,  Production  of.  .348 
Pumps,  not  including 

Steam  Pumps 2G6 

Pupils  in  Schools  and 

Colleges  172 

"  Puritan  "  48 

Pyramid,  Surface  and 

Contents  473 

Pyrite,  Production  of.. 349 


Quicksilver,     P  r  o  d  u  c- 
tion    of.  .  .  .344 


Races  of  Mankind 1 

Racing  Machine,  from 
Cruiser  to 46 

Racing  Yacht,  Develop- 
ment of  the  90-foot .  .  47 

Rack  and  Pinion 417 

Radio- Activity     (1896). .224 

Radio-Activity,  Radium 
and 449 

Radium,  Prices  of 450 

Radium  and  Radio-Ac- 
tivity   449 

Railroad  Equipment  in 
U.  S.,  Comparisons 
Showing  Bulk  of 123 

Railroad.  First  in  U. 
S.  (1826) 220 

Railroad.  Mileage  of 
Mail  Transportation.. 335 

Railroad  System  of  the 
United  States..  .122,  123 

Railroad  Systems  of  the 
United  States 121 

Railroad  Track  in  U.  S., 
Comparisons  Show- 
ing Bulk  of 122 

Railroad  Transporta- 
t  i  o  n,  International 
Bureau  of 341 

Railroads,    Swiss 19 

Railroads  in  U.  S.,  Com- 
p  a  r  i  s  o  n  s  .Showing 
Length  of 122 

Railroads  (the  United 
States),  the  Em- 
ployees and  the  Money 
Value  of 125 

Railway,  Electric 
(1879)  223 

Railway,  First    (1825). .220 

Railways  in  U.  S .  .306 

Railways  of  the  World, 
Compared  118 

Range  of  Sixteen-inch 
Gun  102 


R 

Rank  of  Industries 270 

Rare  Elements,  Value  of.447 
Raspberries,  Production.360 

Ratchet   Movements 422 

Ray,  Roentgen    (1895). 224 
Reaper,        Invented 

(1834)    220 

Reapers  and  Mowers.  .  .299 
Receipts    and    Expendi- 
tures of  Federal  Gov- 
ernment    336 

Receipts  of  U.    S.   Gov-   • 

ernment   300 

Reflection     402 

Refractors,     Large,     of 

World    464 

Refrigerators     266 

Regalia  and  Society 
Banners  and  Em- 
blems   266 

Registers,  Carfare 266 

Registers,  Cash 267 

"  Reliance"    49 

Religions  of  World 398 

Repair,    Construction 

and,  Bureau  of 318 

Report  of  Committee  on 

Atomic  Weights 444 

Repression      of      Slave 

Trade,  Bureau  of .  .  .  .340 
Resistance,  A  p  p  r  o  x  i- 
mate     Percentage     of 

Variation   in 496 

Resistance,   Electrical.  .495 
Resistance     of     Metals 

and    Alloys 495 

Resistance  Specific 495 

Resistance    and    Weight 

Table    496 

Resistance.  Unit  of 494 

Restaurant   Keepers. ..  .161 
Revolution  of  Earth  in 

its  Orbit 455 

Revolver,  Invented 
(1836)  .  ..220 


Rhomb.  Rhombus 402 

Rhomboid     402 

Rhombus.  Area  of 473 

Rhodes  Scholarships.  .  .341 
Rhode    Island,     Popula- 
tion of   153 

Rice,     Cleaning     and 

Polishing   267 

Rice,  Legal  Weight 376 

Rice,    Statistics 358 

Rifle  Ball,  Velocity  of.. 383 
R  i  fl  e  ,  Breech-Loading 

(1851)    221 

Rifle.    Details    of    New 
Springfield      M  a  g  a  - 

zine     99 

Rifle.   The  New  Spring- 
field   Magazine 98 

Right  Ascension 456 

Rock  Drill  (1854)  .  .  .  222 
Roentgen  Rays  (1895). 224 
Roller  Mills  (1875).  .  .223 

Roman    Money 475 

Roman   Notation 500 

Roofers  and  Slaters..  .  .162 
Roofing  and  Roofing 

Materials 267 

Rope   Gear 420 

Rotation,        Earth's 

Demonstration  of 454 

Rotundity       of       the 

Earth   454 

Rubber.  Crude.   Imports 

of    306 

Rubber       and       Elastic 

Goods 267 

Rubber,  Exports  of 279 

Rubber   Factory   Opera- 
tives    163 

Rules,  Geometrical 402 

Rules,  Ivory  and  Wood. .267 
Rutile,  Production  of.. 351 
Rye,  Legal  Weight.  ..  .376 
Rye,  Statistics 360 


Saddlery  and  Harness.  .267 
Safe.    First    (1801)  ...  .219 

Safes    and   Vaults 267 

Salt,  Production  of 349 

Salesmen      and      Sales- 
women     162 

Salmon     368 

Saloonkeepers   161 


S 

Salt    267 

Salt,  Legal  Weight 376 

Salt.  Production  of 349 

Sand  and  Emery  Paper 

and   Cloth 267 

Sand,  Glass,  Production 

of    350 

Saw.  Band   (1808) 219 


Saw,  Band  (1887) 224 

Saw.      Circular,      First 

•(1814)    220 

Saw.  Circular,  Invented 

(1777)    219 

Saw    and    Planing   Mill 
Employees   163 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


513 


PAGE 

Sawed    Lumber,    Meas- 
urement  of 483 

Saws     267 

Scales  and  Balances.  .  .267 

Scallops   369 

Scholarships.   Rhodes.  ..341 

Schools,    Normal 175 

Schools,    Number    of 

Students   in 172 

Schools,   Professional. .  .176 

Schools,   Public 308 

Schools,       Public      and 

Private    172 

Science,  Association  for 

Advancement  of 325 

Sciences,      National 

Academv  of 320 

Screws    267 

Sea  Bass 368 

Sea   Water 486 

Seal  Pelts 369 

Seamstresses 163 

Seasons,   The 456 

Seed,      Clover,      Statis- 
tics     358 

Seed   Distribution,   Con- 
gressional     316 

Seed,  Grass.  Statistics.. 358 
Seed    and    Plant    Intro- 
duction      316 

Seeds,    Miscellaneous, 

Statistics    358 

Semaphores   . 208 

September,  Heavens  in.. 463 
Servants  and  Waiters.  .161 
Sewer  Gas,  to  Test  Air 

for   452 

Sewing  Machine  Cases.. .267 
Sewing      Machine      Re- 
pairing    267 

Sewing     Machines    and 

Attachments    267 

Sextant,  The 454 

Shad    368 

Shaft  Couplings,   Angle.422 

"  Shamrock   I." 49 

"  Shamrock  II." 49 

"  Shamrock  III." 49 

Sheep,       Number      and 

Value    361 

Shells,    Mussel 369 

Shells,    Oyster 369 

Ship.   Time   and   Watch 

on    476 

Shipbuilding    267 

Shipping  and  Yachts...  17 
Shirt,  Collar  and  Cuff 

Makers 163 

Shirts     267 

Shoddy    267 

Shooting  Stars 457 

Shotgun.    Breechloading 

(1811)    219 

Show  Cases 267 

Shrimp  and  Prawn        .369 

Sidereal    Clock 453 

Sidereal,      Solar,      and 
Mean   Solar   Day        .455 

Signals,    Boat 208 

Signals,  Distant..  .  .207 
Signals,  Distress..  .206 
Signals.  International.. 205 
Signals,  Time 188 


INDEX— Continued. 

PAGE 

Signals,   Whistle 209 

Silk,  Artificial  (1888).. 224 
Silk,  Manufacturers  of.. 306 
Silk  Mill  Operatives...  163 

Silk  and  Silk  Goods 267 

Silver,       Imports      and 

Exports    302 

Silver,     Production     of, 

304,   344 

Silversmithing    267 

Silverware    267 

Sine 402 

Siphon    Recorder 

(1874)    223 

Sirius,  the  Dog  Star.  .  .459 
Sirup,      Maple,      Statis- 
tics    358 

Sirup    Sorghum,    Statis- 
tics     358 

Sixteen-Iuch   Gun 100 

Sixteen-Inch    Gun,    Ra- 
dius of  Action  of 102 

Size,  Weight   and  Length 
of     Iron     and     Steel 

Wire    497 

Sizes  of  Dry  Plates.  .  .  .452 
Size  of  Sun  and  Planets, 

Measurement    456 

Skins,    Otter 369 

Slaughtering   and   Meat 
Packing,    not    includ- 
ing Retail  Butchering.267 
Slave      Trade,      Bureau 

for  Repression  of .  .  .  .340 
Sleeping   Car,    Invented 

(1856)    222 

Smelt    368 

Smelting    and    Refining, 
not  from  the  ore ....  267 

Snail,   Velocity  of 383 

Snappers    368 

Snow,   Ice  and 487 

Soap  and  Candles 267 

Soapstone,Production  of351 
Soda  Water  Apparatus.267 

Soils,  Bureau  of 316 

Solar  Day 455 

Solids,   Mensuration...  .473 

Solar  Parallax 457 

Solar    System 458 

Soldiers,      Sailors     and 

Marines    161 

Sorghum    Cane,    Statis- 
tics    358 

Sorghum    Sirup,    Statis- 
tics    358 

Solids,     Linear     Expan- 
sion   of 485 

Sound,  Velocity  of 383 

South  Carolina,  Popula- 
tion of 153 

South    Dakota,    Popula- 
tion of 153 

Spanish  Mackerel 369 

Specific  Gravity.  .  .445.  481 
Specific  Gravity  of 

Animal    Substances.  .479 
Specific    Gravity   of 

Fuels,  etc 478 

Specific    Gravity    of 

Gases  and  Vapors.. -480 
Specific   Gravity    of 
Liquids     479 


PAGE 

Specific   Gravity   of 

Mineral  Substances.  .477 
Specific    Gravity    of 

Stones 476 

Specific    Gravity   of 

Wood    478 

Speeds  for  Grinding.  .  .352 
Speeds  for  Polishing..  .352 
Speed,  The  Price  of,  in 

Liners   42 

Speed,   Steam  Turbines, 

and    43 

Sphere,   Area   and  Con- 
tents     473 

Sphere  of  Observation.  .454 
Spheres,  Diameters  and 

Capacities    391 

Spiral,     Arithmetic,     to 

Draw 408 

Spires,  Height  of 390 

Spirits,    Distilled,    Con- 
sumption of 308 

Spirits,  Distilled,  Quan- 
tity   Consumed 397 

Sponges    369 

Sporting  Goods 267 

Spot,  Fish 369 

Springfield         Magazine 
Rifle,    Details   of   the 

New 99 

Springfield        Magazine 

Rifle,  The  New 98 

Springs     439 

Springs,   Steel,  Car  and 

Carriage    267 

Sprocket    Wheels 420 

Square,  to  Construct.  .  .403 
Square,  to  Describe 

about   Circle 404 

Square,  Equal  to  Circle.473 
Square,  to  Inscribe  in 

Circle   404 

Square,      Inscribed      in 

Circle    473 

Squid    369 

Stamped   Ware 267 

Standards.  Bureau  of.. 324 

Standard  Time 190 

Star     Map,     Directions 

for    Using 459 

Starch    267 

Stars,    Magnitudes   and 

Distances 459 

Stars,  Names  of 458 

Stars,    Shooting 457 

State.  Department  of.  .311 
Stationery  Goods,  not 

elsewhere    specified.  .267 
Statistics,     Bureau     of, 

314,  323 

Steam  Boilermakers.  .  .162 
Steam  Engine  (1690)  .  .218 
Steam  Engine,  Invented 

(1782)    219 

Steam       Engineering, 

Bureau  of 318 

Steam       Fittings       and 

Heating   Apparatus.  .267 
Steam    Hammer,     In- 
vented (1842) 221 

Steam  Packet  to  Steam 
Palace    28 


514 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


PAGE 

Steam  Packing 267 

Steam     Pressure     and 

Temperature    484 

Steam      Railroad      Em- 
ployees    162 

Steam      Turbines      and 

Speed    43 

Steam,  Use  of  (1630)  .  .218 
Steamboat,  First 

(1808)    219 

Steamboat       Inspection 

Service 324 

Steamboats,  Fast 26 

Steamboats,    First 

(1802)    219 

Steamers,  Fast 25,  30 

Steamers,  Speed  of.  ...  25 
Steamship  Owners, 

Largest     29 

Steamships,  Comparison 

with   Locomotives. ...    34 
Steamships,    Large    and 

Fast    20 

Steel,      Production      of, 

306,  344 

Steel,  Manufacture  of.  .306 
Steel  Rails,  Prices  of.. 308 
Steers,  Number  and 

Value    357 

Stencils  and  Brands... 267 
Stenographers  and 

Typewriters     162 

Stethoscope  (1819) 220 

Stereotyping    and    elec- 

trotyping 267 

Stereotyping,    Invented 

(1731)    219 


INDEX — Continued. 

PAGE 
Stock  Raisers,   Herders, 

and  Drovers    161 

Stone,     Building,     Pro- 
Submarines.  Number  of.   62 

duction  of    347 

Stones     and     Bricks, 

Strength   of 486 

Stones,    Precious,    Pro- 
duction of 350 

Stones,   Specific  Gravity, 

Weight  and  Volume.  .476 
Storage  Batteries,  Num- 
ber   381 

Storage      Battery,      In- 
vented (1812) 219 

Stove,       Furnace       and 

Grate  Makers 162 

Straw  Goods,    not   else- 
where   specified 267 

Strawberries,       Produc- 
tion     360 

Street      Railway      Em- 
ployees      162 

Strength   of  Ice 487 

Strength  of  Materials.  .486 
Strength,      Pulling,      of 
Men   and   Animals.  .  .490 

Striped   Bass 369 

Structural        Materials, 

Production  of 347 

Students  in  Colleges.  .  .308 
Students  in  Schools  and 

Colleges    172 

Sturgeon    369 

Submarine   Boat,    "  The 

Lake "    75 

Submarine  Boats 76 

Submarine  Mine,  The..   84 


PAGE 

Submarine  Telegraphs. .  193 
Subtropical  Fruits,  Sta- 
tistics   360 

Suckers 369 

Suez       Canal       Started 

(1846)    221 

Suez   Route 24 

Sugar  Cane,  Statistics.  .358 
Sugar  Beets,  Statistics.358 

Sugar,    Imports ::»>»; 

Sugar,    Maple 358 

Sugar      and      Molasses. 

Beet    267 

Sugar      and      Molasses, 

Refining   267 

Sulphur,  Production  of.. 349 

Sunfish 369 

Sun.     Measurement     of 

Size     456 

Sun,  Not  Always   Same 

Distance  from  Earth. 455 
Sun,     Numerical     Facts 

Relating  to 457 

Superficies 402 

Surfaces,  Mensuration.  .473 
Surgical  Appliances. ..  .267 
Sweet  Potatoes,  Legal 

Weight    376 

Sweet   Potatoes,   Statis- 
tics    358 

Swine,       Number       and 

Value    357 

Swiss  Railroads 19 

Switzerland,       Tourists 

in 274 

Swordfish 369 

Symbols,  Astronomical. .456 


Tailors  and  Tailoresses.163 
Talc,    Fibrous,    Produc- 
tion of 349 

Talking    Machines 298 

Talon,  to  Draw 404 

Tangent    402 

Tangent,  to  Draw 403 

Tar,   Production  of.... 346 

Taxidermy     267 

Tea      Culture      Experi- 
ments   316 

Tea.  Imports 306 

Teachers    and    Profess- 
ors in  Colleges,  etc..  161 

Teachers,  U.  S 174 

Technology,    Schools. .  .  176 
Telegram.  First   (1844). 221 

Telegraph  Code 187 

Telegraph    Companies.  .188 
Telegraph  Messages 

Sent    308 

Telegraph,     Quadruplex 

(1873)    223 

Telegraph,   Printing 

(1846)    221 

Telegraph      and      Tele- 
phone  Linemen 162 

Telegraph      and      Tele- 
phone Operators 162 


T 

Telegraphs,  I  n  t  e  r  n  a- 

tional  Bureau  of.... 339 
Telegraphs,  Submarine.. 193 

Telegraphs,  World 185 

Telegraphy,  Wireless. .  .  199 
Telephone  Companies.  .188 
Telephone,  Invented 

(1876)    223 

Telescope,   The 453 

Telescope,  Equatorial.  .453 
Temperature,  Table  of. .  484 
Tennessee,  Population 

of    154 

Terrapin  and  Turtle.  .  .369 

Textiles    269 

Theodolite,    The 454 

Thermometer,  Compara- 
tive Scales  of 447 

Thermometer,    Invented 

(1709)    219 

Thermometer    Scales... 446 

"  Thistle  "    48 

Timber,   Strength   of... 486 

Time     474 

Time,  Bible 475 

Time,  Equation  of 456 

Time,  Measurement  of.  .454 

Time    Signals 188 

Time,  Standard 190 


Time,   Variation  of 192 

Time     and     Watch     on 

Board  Ship 476 

Tin    Plates 306 

Tin,  Size  for  Cans 378 

Tin  and  Terne  Plate.  .  .267 

Tinfoil    268 

Tinplate     and    Tinware 

Makers 163 

Tinsmithing,  Copper- 
smithing  and  Sheet- 
iron  Working  268 

Tire,   Pneumatic  (1845). 221 

Tobacco    269 

Tobacco,      Chewing, 

Smoking,  and  Snuff.  .268 
Tobacco,      Cigars      and 

Cigarettes    268 

Tobacco  and  Cigar  Fac- 
tory Operatives 1 63 

Tobacco,  Exports  of 284 

Tobacco,   Statistics 360 

Tobacco,   Stemming  and 

Rehandling 268 

Tomatoes,    Legal 

Weight 376 

Tonnage  of  Vessels.  ...   20 
Tool      and      Cutlery 
Makers  . ,  . .  162 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


515 


PAGE 

Tools,  not  elsewhere 
Specified  268 

Torpedo  Boat  Destroyer, 
Sectional  Diagram  of.  77 

Torpedo,  The  Modern, 

78,  79 

Torpedo  Boat  in  Mod- 
ern Warfare  78 

Torpedo,  Schwartz- 
kopff.  Longitudinal 
Section  of 77 

Torpedo  Vessels,  List  of 
United  States 73 

Torpedo  Vessels,  Num- 
ber of 62 

Towers,    Height    of 390 

Toys  and  Games 268 

Trade,   United   States.. 287 

Trademarks 241 

Transatlantic  Passen- 
gers    25 

Transit  Instrument.  .  .  .453 

Transmission  of  Power 
by  Belting 439 

Transportation  of  For- 
eign Commerce 304 

Transportation,  Rail- 
road.  International 
Bureau  of 341 

Trapezium    402 


INDEX — Continued. 

PAGE 

Trapezium,  Area  of .  .  .  .473 

Trapezoid  402 

Treasury,  Department 

of  311 

Triangle,  Curvilinear 

and  Spherical 402 

Triangle,  to  Inscribe  in 

Circle  404 

Triangle,  Equilateral. .  .399 

Triangle,  Isosceles 399 

Triangle,  Mensuration.  473 
Triangle,  Mixtilinear.  .402 
Triangle,  Obtusangular.402 
Triangle,  Rectangular.  .399 
Triangle,  Rectilinear.  .  .402 

Triangle,  Scalene 399 

Tripoli,  Production  of.  .347 

Trout,  Lake 370 

Troy,  Weight 466 

Trunk  and  Leather  Case 

Makers,  etc 163 

Trunks  and  Valises 268 

Trust,  Atlantic 41 

Tunesten,  Production 

of  345 

Tunnel,  Jura 274 

Tunnel  Shield  (1869).. 222 
Tunnels  of  the  World.  .389 
Turbine  Commission...  43 


PAGE 

Turbine,  Early  Types  of  43 
Turbine,  Expiration  of 

Parsons'  Patent 44 

Turbine,  Growth  of 

Steam  43 

Turbine,  Parsons' 

(1891)  224 

Turbines,  Advantages 

of  43 

Turbines,  Land 43 

Turbines,  Objections  to.  43 

Turbines,  Steam 43 

Turkestan,  Area  and 

Population  of 88 

Turnips,  Legal  Weight.. 376 
Turpentine  Farmers 

and  Laborers  161 

Turpentine  and  Rosin.  .268 

Turret  83 

Turrets  of  Battleship, 

Section  Through ....  84 

Turtle  368 

Type  Founding 268 

Types  of  Engines 441 

Typewriter,  Invented 

(1843)  221 

Typewriters  and  Sup- 
plies   ..268 

Typewriting  Repairing.. 268 


Umbrellas  and  Canes.  .268 

Undertakers    162 

Uniforms  Worn  in 
United  States  Army, 

92,  93 

United  States,  The 
Army  of  the 91 

United  States  Battle- 
ship,  Longitudinal 
Section  Through....  83 

United  States  Life-Sav- 
ing Service .  44 

United  States  Life-Sav- 
ing Service  Disasters  44 


United  States  Life-Sav- 
ing Service  Disasters, 
Apportionment  of  to 
Atlantic,  Lake  and 
Pacific  Coasts 45 

United  States  Life-Sav- 
ing- Service,  General 
Summary 45 

United  States  Life-Sav- 
ing Service,  Vessels 
Assisted 44 

United  States  Navy,  The  67 

United      States      Navy, 
List  of  Ships  of.  .70,  71. 
72,   73,   74,  75 


United      States      Navy, 

Summary 75 

United     States     Stand- 
ard Gauge 493 

Units   of    Measurement, 

Electrical     493 

Universal    International 

Postal    Union 338 

Universal    Joints 422 

Universities    175 

Upholsterers    163 

Upholstering  Materials.. 268 
Uranium,        Production 

of    345 

Utah,.  Population  of...  156 


"Valkyrie  II." 48 

"  Valkyrie  III." 49 

Value  of  Foreign  Coins.386 
Value  of  RareElements.447 
Values  of  English  and 

U.  S.  Money 389 

Vanadium,      Production 

of    345 

Vapors  and  Gas?s,  Spe- 
cific Gravity,   Weight 

and    Volume 480 

Variable  Speed  Gears..  .418 
Variation  in  Degrees  of 

Latitude    456 

Varnish    268 


Vault  Lights  and  Venti- 
lators   268 

Vega 459 

Vegetable.  Pathological 
and  Physiological  In- 
vestigations   315 

Vegetables,  Miscella- 
neous Statistics 358 

Vehicles     for     Land 

Transportation    209 

Velocities,  Comparative.383 
Velocity    of    Earth    Va- 
ries   455 

Velocity  of  Light 455 

Vermont,  Population 
of  .  .,156 


Verniers 454 

Vessels,   American 308 

Vessels   Built    in    Great 

Britain,  Number  of .  .    42 
Vessels,  Tonnage  of.  ...   20 

"  Vigilant  "    48 

Vinegar  and  Cider 268 

Vinegar,  Cider,  Produc- 
tion     360 

Virginia.  Population  of.156 
Visibility  of  Objects  at 

Sea   383 

Volume.    Parts    by,    to 
Reduce    to    Parts    by 

Weight 473 

"  Volunteer"    48 


516 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    REFERENCE    BOOK. 


PAGE 

Wage     Earners,     Mines 

and    Quarries 353 

Wagons    298 

Wall  Paper    492 

War,  Department  of.  .  .312 
War   Vessels,   Campara- 
tive  Armor  Protection 

of 56 

Warships,  Construction 
and  Classification  of 

Modern     53 

Washing   Machines   and 

Clothes   Wringers 268 

Washington,  Population 

of    157 

Watch  on  Board  Ship.  . 

Watch   Cases 268 

Watch,  Clock  and  Jew- 
elry Repairing 268 

Watch  and  Clock  Ma- 
terials   268 

Watches    268 

Watchmen,      Policemen, 

Firemen,  etc 161 

Water     486 

Waters,  Mineral,  Pro- 
duction of 350 

Waterwheels   293 

Watt     494 

Wax,  Production  of .  .  .  .357 

Wealth  of  U.  S 300 

Weather  Bureau .  .  209,  313 
Weather     Bureau     Sta- 
tions   206 

Wedge    416 

Weight  of  Animal  Sub- 
stances   479 

Weight  of  Balls 487 

Weight     and     Bulk     of 

Fuels,    etc 478 

Weight  of  Casting  and 
Weight  of  Wood  Pat- 
tern   490 

Weight,  Height  and, 
Standard  Table  of.  .  .499 

Weight  of  Liquids 479 

Weight     per     Mile     of 

Copper    Wire 497 

Weight   and   Volume  of 

Gases  and  Vapors.  .  .480 
Weight   and   Volume  of 
Metals    480 


I NDEX — Continued. 
W 

PAGE 

Weight   and    Volume   of 

Mineral  Substances.  .477 
Weight      and      Volume, 

Stones    476 

Weight   of    Woods 478 

Weights,      Atomic,      In- 
ternational     444 

Weights,       Legal,       per 

Bushel    372 

Weights  and  Measures. 465 
Weights    and    Measures 

of  the  Bible 474 

Weights   and   Measures, 

Decimal   System 470 

Weights   and   Measures, 

Foreign    467 

Weights   and   Measures, 
International    Bureau 

of    339 

Weights    of   Metals   for 

Various  Dimensions.  .489 
Welding,        Electric 

(1886) 224 

W  e  1  s  b  a  c  h        Burner 

(1885)    223 

West   Virginia,    Popula- 
tion of 157 

Western     Union     Com- 
pany   186 

Westinghouse,  George.  .218 

Whale  Oil 368 

Whalebone    368 

Whalebone  and  Rattan.. 268 
Wheat,     Freight     Rates 

on 308 

Wheat,  Legal  Weight .  .  376 
Wheat,  Production  of .  .304 

Wheat.  Statistics 360 

Wheel  and  Axle 413 

Wheelbarrows 268 

Wheels,    Chain ..420 

Wheels,    Friction 418 

Wheels,  Sprocket 420 

Wheelwrights    162 

Whetstones,   Production 

of    348 

Whips     268 

Whitefish 369 

Whitney,    Eli 216 

Willows,    Statistics 358 

Winans,   Ross 216 


PAGE 

Wind,    Force   of 489 

Windmills,     268,    488 

Window   Shades 268 

Wine   and   Spirit   Meas- 
ure     466 

Wines,   Consumption  of.308 
Wines,     Quantity     Con- 
sumed      397 

Wire 268 

Wire,    Barbed 354 

Wire,     Copper,     Weight 

per    Mile    of 497 

Wire  Gauges  in  Decimal 

Parts    of    Inch 497 

Wire,    Iron    and    Steel, 
Size,     Weight     and 

Length    497 

Wire      Required      for 

Cable    378 

Wire  Workers 162 

Wireless   Telegraphy ..  .199 
Wireless        Telegraphy, 

Invented  1896..  . 224 

Wirework,          including 

Wire  Rope  and  Cable.268 
Wisconsin,      Population 

of 157 

Wood,   J 216 

Wrood    Choppers 161 

Wood,   Preserving 268 

Wood   Pulp    (1858) 222 

WTood,    Specific   Gravity 

and  Weight 478 

Wood,     Turned     and 

Carved     268 

Wooden  ware,    not    else- 
where specified 268 

Wool,  Exports  of 285 

Wool,  Fleece,  Prices  of.. 308 

Wool    Hats 268 

Wool,   Manufactures  of.306 
Wool,      Production     of, 

304,    357 

Wool  Pulling 268 

Wool    Scouring 268 

Woolen    Goods 268 

WToolen  Mill  Operatives.163 

Worm  Gear 417 

Worsted  Goods 268 

Wyoming,        Population 
of    .  ..157 


X-Rays  (1895) 


.224 


Yacht,    Development    of 
the  90-foot  Racing.  ..   41 


Yachts.   Shipping  and.  .    17  I  Yards     and     Docks, 
Year,   The 456        Bureau  of 317 


Zero  of  Thermometers. .  447  I  Ziju^-Saieliijig  and  Re-        I  Zinc,  White,  Production 
Zinc,  Production  of 344>^:  fining    ?>*.  . 268  |       of    349 


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